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A new European Landscape Classification (LANMAP): A transparent, flexible and user-oriented methodology to distinguish landscapes
Abstract
We have developed a new hierarchical European Landscape Classification that can be used as a framework for, e.g., indicator reporting and environmental sampling. Landscapes are ecological meaningful units where many processes and components interact. And as such, landscapes themselves have resulted from long-term interactions of natural abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic processes. A good understanding of landscapes is essential for its assessment, protection, management and planning. An internationally consistent approach is therefore obligatory and the production of landscape classifications and associated maps is an important tool in this context. Although intuitive maps are available there are no consistent quantitative maps of European landscapes. In this paper, landscapes are regarded as forming recognizable parts of the earth's surface and as showing a characteristic ordering of elements. The complex nature of the underlying scientific concepts, which sometimes overlap and conflict, requires an objective and consistent methodology, as described in the present paper. As there are many regional differences in landscape properties, it is crucial to strike the right balance between reducing the inherent complexity and maintaining an adequate level of detail. Against this background, a European Landscape Map (LANMAP) has been produced, making use of available segmentation and classification techniques on high-resolution spatial data sets. LANMAP is a landscape classification of Pan-Europe with four hierarchical levels; using digital data on climate, altitude, parent material and land use as determinant factors; and has 350 landscape types at the most detailed level. At this level there are 14,000 mapping units with a minimum mapping unit of 11 km2. Thus far, LANMAP is limited to a biophysical approach, since there is a lack of consistent and European-wide data on cultural–historical factors. This paper describes the conceptual background of LANMAP, its methodology and results, and shows its potentials and limitations.
... Moreover, AI technology has introduced innovative concepts and methodologies into landscape architecture research. Using remote sensing images of the Jianghan Plain, this study applied the European landscape map (LANMAP) [1] method to classify landscapes on the basis of their natural characters. It further enhances this classification by implementing deep learning algorithms for refined landscape recognition, thus exploring new approaches and perspectives in landscape character classification research. ...
... Drawing upon the findings of the European LANMAP eco-physical method [1], this study suggests that the perceptible characters of landscape are predominantly influenced by climate, topography, and geology. Moreover, cultural and socioeconomic factors are crucial in shaping land use pa erns. ...
... Drawing upon the findings of the European LANMAP eco-physical method [1], this study suggests that the perceptible characters of landscape are predominantly influenced by climate, topography, and geology. Moreover, cultural and socioeconomic factors are crucial in shaping land use patterns. ...
Grounded in the theoretical and methodological frameworks of landscape character identification from the European Landscape Map (LANMAP) and landscape character assessment (LCA), this study developed an AI-based tool for landscape character analysis to classify the Jianghan Plain’s landscape more effectively. The proposed method leveraged a deep learning model, the artificial intelligence-based landscape character (AI-LC) classifier, along with specific naming and coding rules for the unique landscape character of the Jianghan Plain. Experimental results showed a significant improvement in classification accuracy, reaching 89% and 86% compared to traditional methods. The classifier identified 10 macro-level and 18 meso-level landscape character types within the region, which were further categorized into four primary zones—a lake network river basin, a hillfront terrace, surrounding mountains, and a lake network island hill—based on natural and social features. These advancements contributed to the theoretical framework of landscape character assessment, offering practical insights for landscape planning and conservation while highlighting AI’s transformative potential in environmental research and management.
... Therefore, there is a pressing demand for a systematic study on the landscape characters of polder landscapes, in order to provide a foundation for establishing landscape management zones and strategies that balance the conservation of landscape diversity with the promotion of sustainable development in lowland environments. The landscape character can be revealed through the classification of types and spatial units [7,8], where a pragmatic step involves the selection of appropriate landscape factors or boundaries [9][10][11]. However, the polder landscape, characterized by intricate landscape factors and boundaries, poses a challenge in the identification of polder landscape types and spatial units, particularly when dealing with large-scale polder landscapes requiring cross-scale research. ...
... On the contrary, the Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) method has rarely been applied to polder landscapes. However, the LCA method offers several advantages for polder landscapes: (1) This approach is compatible with both subjective and objective assessment methods [15], such as holistic and parametric methods [9]. (2) The LCA approach possesses the capability to identify a certain amount of landscape character types (LCTs), even in situations with fewer landscape factors. ...
... LCTs represent distinct landscape categories sharing a similar combination o or cultural factors [18]. At a large scale, LCTs are usually identified by natural such as landform, land cover, geology, and hydrography [9,18]. In an area wi relative relief, Land cover and land use are the two most commonly used variabl resent human influence on the landscape [8]. ...
Polder landscapes, as a representative of lowland agriculture landscapes, possess diverse natural and cultural values. However, polder landscapes are facing multiple challenges arising from economic and climate changes, including increasing flood threats and the fragmentation of landscape patterns. These issues have severely threatened the safety and regional characteristics of the polder landscape. Therefore, this study aims to preserve the regional characteristics of polder landscapes while promoting the sustainable development of lowland environments, and the objective is to provide a foundation and baseline for the management and planning of polder landscapes. In this study, the Dongting Lake Area (DLA) was selected as a representative case of polder landscapes. To identify the landscape character and delineate the landscape management zones, this study employed the Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) method in conjunction with a polder typology method at two scales. As a result, the polder landscape types were identified and visualized at two different scales. At the Lake Scale, a comprehensive identification method for polder unit types and polder landscape regions was established, achieving a stepwise transition from polder areas to polder clusters and ultimately to individual polder units. At the Local Scale, an integrative analysis of landscape character diversity (LCD) and land construction suitability (LCS) was employed to establish five landscape management zones for polder landscapes, thereby realizing a balance between the conservation of polder landscape diversity with the sustainable development of wetland environments. This study contributes a set of cross-scale ideas and methods for identifying landscape characters and delineating management zones in polder landscapes, which could be expanded to other lowland agricultural landscapes.
... Thus, a comprehensive landscape character analysis often employs topological and chorological approaches as shown in Fig. 1 (Ahern, 1999). While the topological approach delves into the vertical (generic) factors that characterise landscapes, such as climate and geology, amongst others, the chorological approach examines the horizontal spatial processes (in the form of different metrics) in the landscape (Mücher et al., 2010;Turner and Gardner, 2015). The chorological approach is further divided into the composition (i.e. the preponderance) and configuration (i.e. the arrangement) of any given landscape element in space. ...
... Thus, as shown in Fig. 1, our research questions (RQs) 1 and 2 sought to ascertain the nature of ULST and the generic landscape character of target sites reported in the literature, respectively. In the case of landscape character, the topological and chorological approaches were utilised to establish the unique characteristics of each study site based on the European Landscape Character (ELC) framework (Mücher et al., 2010;Swanwick, 2002). RQ 3 aims to assess different LMs that have been chorologically applied in the literature, as generally described by Lausch et al (2015) and Turner and Gardner (2015). ...
... As hitherto mentioned, the European Landscape Classification (LANMAP) typology (Mücher et al., 2010) was adapted and utilized to describe the landscape character (elements) of each study site in the literature ( Supplementary Fig. 2). To achieve this, however, an unobtrusive qualitative method as suggested by Liamputtong (2020) was adopted to enrich and augment the data retrieved from the literature using related (global) datasets. ...
To effectively develop strategies that address the escalating surface temperatures of cities in diverse landscape characters, various and sometimes contradicting drivers are presented in the literature. A synthesis of findings and observations in this aspect is lacking. Therefore, the main tenet of our study was to identify robust landscape metrics (LMs) that drive the dynamics of urban land surface temperature (ULST) and analyse the extent to which landscape character influences their impact. We adopted a systematic literature review protocol, augmented with different geospatial datasets (at a global scale) and applied mixed approaches for our review and analyses. A total of 101 relevant articles were identified, although skewed towards Asia; various methods were utilised in analysing the LMs – ULST relationship; about 432 unique LMs were revealed with only 11 % of these confirmed to be robust. Landscape character elements are found to exert a slight to moderate significant influence on the LMs - ULST relationship reported in the literature. This further strengthened our proposition of the need to consider landscape character elements in understanding the dynamics of ULST in different environments. To this end, we developed an interactive scheme to synthesize our findings which reveal robust LMs in diverse landscape characters. Our FAIRly-open study serves as a call to the scientific community and urban stakeholders to engage and interact with our findings as this may help rethink (current) ULST mitigation strategies. Also, combining our scheme with expert and local spatial knowledge of stakeholders can offer a practical foundation for addressing ULSTs across diverse landscapes.
... It is a method of refining and classifying a landscape sample by selecting multiple natural elements (biological and cultural) (Warnock & Griffiths, 2015); (2) the "automatic classification" approach. It is a top-down classification method that relies on automatic image classification technology to a priori select three types of landscape elements as RGB layers and then analyse the LCAs (Mücher et al., 2010); Although the landscape character classification stage is value-free oriented, the results from different classification methods still differ significantly in terms of precision, granularity, and accuracy. Which classification method to use? ...
... The map of LSTs is shown in Fig. 6. LSTs were code based on landscape typology, in which 3 parts were combined (Mücher et al., 2010): the first three letters represented altitude, relief amplitude, and slope; the fourth letter (capital) represented the soil type; the last two letters (lowercase) represented land cover type. Table 1 presents the number, name, and area proportion for each LSTs. ...
... When mapping the landscape comprehensive diversity, different studies will set different graded levels. For example, New Zealand Institute of Landscape Architects (NZILA) set seven grades for the Management and Protection Guide of New Zealand; namely, extreme, very high, high, medium, low, very low, and negligible (Foundation, 2010), the other European countries have adopted three to six grades (Council, 2011;Delbaere, 2003;Department, 2001;Mücher et al., 2010;Planning, 2017). However, based on this study, we need to map two evaluation results to the management and conservation strategy. ...
As an important part of maintaining the diversity of territorial landscapes, rural landscape management and conservation faces many difficulties in the strategic background of China's rural revitalization. The existing methods for evaluating landscape diversity in administrative districts cannot meet the demand of "preserving the original appearance of the countryside". This paper is dedicated to exploring a spatial framework within which landscape diversity assessment methods can be applied to rural landscape management and conservation practices. We attempt to introduce landscape character assessment (LCA) as a spatial framework linking landscape diversity evaluation and landscape conservation and then update and improve a set of county-scale LCA classification and evaluation method. At the classification stage, a whole set of " landscape sample generation—landscape sample types classification—landscape description unit classification—landscape character types and areas classification " classification process system is built by combining the clustering method and automatic division method, and the boundary of landscape character areas and key landscape characteristics are obtained. At the evaluation stage, we have combined and improved the landscape diversity evaluation method and intrinsic and structural diversity were used to measure the landscape comprehensive diversity. And a matrix heat map was constructed to grade the landscape diversity vulnerability. Based on the evaluation results, we further proposed five landscape management and conservation strategies, namely “landscape transformation”, “landscape restoration”, “landscape enhancement”, “landscape maintenance” and "active conservation". This article verified this technical framework by taking Lichuan as an example, and its final results have strong correlation with the main functional zoning map of Lichuan. This study demonstrates the practicality and operability of using LCA as a spatial framework to link ecosystem approaches and management strategies. This research alleviates the difficulties in applying the ecosystem approach for the purpose of protecting key landscape characteristics. And it provides new requirements and new ideas for sustainable development of county-scale territorial spatial planning and management.
... The second is the socio-cultural approach of landscape character assessment based on the arts and the humanities (Simensen et al. 2018). Therefore, the definition of the term 'Landscape' may vary according to its context and the type of its application (Mucher et al. 2010). Early in the nineteenth century, Alexander von Humboldt described "landscape" as the 'total character of a region' (Bastin 2008). ...
... In most studies, the landscape is defined as a crucial visual occurrence (Fines 1968) or as a specific arrangement of topography, soil, vegetation cover, land use, and settlement pattern (Blankson and Green 1991;Linton 1968). Landscapes are treated as recognizable (even if often heterogeneous) parts of the land surface, which have some standard set of characteristics of its elements or components (Mucher et al. 2010). In some instances, it is described as the appearance or presentation of the land surface (Brabyn 1996) or land and water from a distance (Brabyn and Mark 2011). ...
... According to the definitions given above, a landscape is the visible manifestation of the land surface and its components (i.e. topography, soil, land cover, land use, settlement pattern); it is recognizable despite being frequently diverse (Mucher et al. 2010;Brabyn 1996;Blankson and Green 1991;Linton 1968;Brabyn and Mark 2011). The various physical characteristics of a landscape, such as its topography, soil, and land cover, as well as its cultural aspects, such as its settlement pattern and land use, are intricately linked. ...
The categorization of landscape characteristics plays a crucial role in monitoring landscape changes and estimating the diversity and distinctiveness of a region. Knowledge regarding classified physical and cultural landscape units can be applied to properly manage agricultural practices, forestry, fishing, coastal zone management, urban planning and management, climate change risk assessment, disaster risk, vulnerability assessment, etc. Among the different approaches, the biophysical approach is one of the most famous for classifying the physical landscape into various smaller units of a region. This study aims to identify the significant landscape units of the Mahananda River basin based on the spatial diversity of the hydrogeomorphic characteristics. The hydrogeomorphic diversity model (HDM) has been used to identify the hydrogeomorphic diversity in the study area and to categorise it into several primary landscape units. The model was framed by applying different techniques like multicollinearity statistics, analytical hierarchy process, kappa statistics, etc. Finally, different minor landscape units of the basin have been identified through land use and land cover analysis. Six major and 39 minor landscape units’ spatial variety is displayed in the outcome. Highly dissected mountains and hills (3.27%), moderately dissected mountains and hills (4.67%), mountain foothills (3.85%), undulating plain (21.24%), plain land (52.27%), low land or flood-prone area (14.71%) are the six probable landscape units that have been categorized. The outcome shows that the HDM is a reliable model that can be used to determine the diversity of landscape characteristics across different regions.
... This is a pragmatic approach, taking into consideration that the available data were integrated from different data sources. Source: Mücher et al. (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2009.03.018 landscape types on these measurable terms, since the subjective views, spatial experiences, expectations and desires of the population also belong to the landscape (Meeus and van den Brink, 2022). ...
... Keeping in mind, that humankind has created a wide range of landscapes, not only by changing land cover and ecosystems, but even altering landforms and hydrological conditions, rural, semi-rural, peri-urban and urban environments, the introduction of a new concept of cultural landscapes is needed: Landscape Map is using the available segmentation and classification methods based on high-resolution spatial data sets / databases ensuring herewith the right balance between the acceptable reduction of the ever-inherent complexity and maintaining an adequate level of indispensable details. Mücher and his co-workers (Mücher et al. 2006;Mücher, 2010) faced a difficult task to integrate many different data sources into one comprehensive system, which resulted in a four-layer approach based on the following four key differentiating data layers ( Fig. 1): ...
... LANMAP, a Pan-European landscape classification, which covers an area of over 11 million square kilometres, expanding from Iceland in the Northwest to and including Azerbaijan in the Southeast and from Gibraltar in the Southwest to the arctic islands of Novaja Zemlja in the Northeast. Source:Mücher, 2010. ...
The twentieth century saw rapid environmental degradation due to changes that contributed to increased net GHG emissions, loss of natural ecosystems, and declining biodiversity. Deterioration of unprotected landscapes during swift industrialization, urbanization, increasing monocultures in agriculture, expansion of commercial production significantly contributed to these negative consequences. However, a cultural shift occurred during the last two decades in favour of landscape conservation. In response to widespread landscape degradation and loss of ecosystem services, the Council of Europe saw the need to protect, manage, and develop the landscapes, and thus signed the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in 2000. This was the world's first international agreement that described all aspects of landscape management in detail. The European Landscape Convention fully meets the challenges through its goal of correcting a lack of understanding of landscapes as a unique system embracing natural, economic, and social features throughout Europe. It goes beyond simply protecting landscapes and addresses landscape management and development, as well as raising public and government awareness of the importance of paying attention to all types of landscapes, whether exceptional or spoiled. Landscape observatories, multifunctional platforms and knowledge centres for researchers, technicians, administrators, and citizens, are one of the Council of Europe's instruments for implementing the European Landscape Convention (ELC). They can be established on a variety of scales and can serve as a vital link between administrations, civil society, researchers, and the economic sector. This article discusses the emergence of landscape observatories and the role they can play as decision support instruments in promoting sustainable landscape development through a regenerative approach. Additionally, the paper discusses the implementation of ELC in Västra Götaland in Sweden through the establishment of Landscape Observatory Västra Götaland, and its impacts and challenges associated with landscape development. Furthermore, we propose a comprehensive and holistic, to any landscape type adaptable landscape observatory concept, based on multifunctionality of these institutions, emphasizing their decision support roles, social and economic importance.
... For France, we tested a spatial structure of haplotypes by grouping our population by two geographical levels, French departments and geographical groups, and an ecological unit, the climate. For climate, we used the LANMAP3 classi cation, which classi es European climates for each locality into 8 different categories (47) and has already been used to classify the environments of H. marginatum (48). We also looked at the Mediterranean scale, to see whether groupings by country was relevant. ...
... Finally, we note that some populations present numerous minor haplotypes (n<5 sequences): Morocco, Israel, Turkey and Corsica. The haplotype network (Fig 1), based on the two concatenated genes, has a star-like structure centered around two major haplotypes: haplotype 47 Genetic clustering using hierBAPS gave us an optimal number of three clusters (Fig 2). The specimens from Turkey, Israel, and Romania all belong to cluster 3. ...
Hyalomma marginatum is a hard tick vector of various pathogens, including Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic fever virus, recently detected in French specimens. This species has a wide distribution from North Africa to Eastern Europe and has only recently been considered established in Southern France. These changes in species distribution led us to explore the genetic structure of tick populations in the Mediterranean basin and attempt to infer the origin of French populations. We used two mitochondrial markers (12S rRNA and Cytochrome Oxidase 1) and genotyped ticks from nine Mediterranean countries. We compared genetic indices and haplotypic composition between these countries and the various French geographical populations. Across all countries, we showed signi cant genetic differentiation, with a certain proximity between neighboring countries. We found very different genetic compositions among the French geographic populations: some exhibited signs of recent expansion, while others suggested the presence of ancient populations. It is possible that small populations of H. marginatum were already present in France and are now more abundant. This recent change in population structure could be due to increased human activity and climate change. These factors, combined with a potentially high level of phenotypic plasticity, could facilitate H. marginatum conquest of more northerly latitudes in France and other European countries.
... Landscape definitions differ according to the context or type of application (Mücher et al. 2009) and the approaches used to map the landscapes differ in different countries and even within a country. In Germany, the national-level landscape mapping was based on data on national boundaries and current land use while each landscape was assigned to different landscape types and geographical regions (Gharadjedaghi et al. 2004). ...
... In the UK, the mapping is based on the concept of a landscape character area (LCA) which is defined as "a distinct recognizable and consistent pattern of elements in the landscape different from another, rather than better or worse" (Somper 2002). The national landscape typology based on LCA for England has 79 generic landscape types (Mücher et al. 2009). In Bulgaria, landscape works are predominantly based on the geosystem concept which defines the landscape as "a specific geographical area forming a system of natural components (rock, soil, air, water, vegetation, and animals), which is changing in time under both natural factors and human activities" (Nedkov and Gikov 2014). ...
The ecosystem services (ES) approach has been widely accepted in environmental policies and management as an adequate platform that can serve as a link between nature and society. Many ES are influenced by the landscape structure. Thus, national-scale landscape mapping can potentially contribute to nature conservation management. However, there are no attempts to directly link the ES assessment with the landscape units at a national level. In this paper, we propose an approach for the transformation of paper copy information from old landscape maps to enable the assessment of ES conservation potential at the national landscape scale. The conceptual scheme of the approach contains three main elements: (i) data acquisition; (ii) landscape and ES assessment data processing; and (iii) mapping of ES potential at a landscape level. The results reveal the landscape heterogeneity based on landscape classification and mapping at a national level and the ES conservation potential based on the analyses of the Natural Heritage (NH) in the country to provide ES. The assessment of ES conservation potential using the national scale landscape mapping allows us to analyze the spatial relationships between the landscapes with high conservation value and the existing nature protection network. The conceptual scheme of the study demonstrates how the results of the ES potential provided by the NH at a national level can be combined with the landscape units from the traditional landscape classification schemes to produce various spatial and statistical metrics that reveal how the national system of protected areas coincides with the areas of high ES conservation value.
... La clasificación de las unidades de paisaje se lleva a cabo tomando en cuenta los rasgos comunes o individuales que las caracterizan, sean contiguas o no, en correspondencia con diversos factores o criterios, denominados también índices diagnósticos, los que reflejan la relación entre los factores diferenciadores de las mismas (relieve y clima) y los factores o elementos indicadores (suelos, agua y el uso y cobertura de la tierra) estructurados de modo jerárquico y de forma anidada, mediante tres enfoques que son: tipológico (según los principios de analogía, homogeneidad relativa, pertenencia a un mismo tipo y repetitividad); regional (según los principios de integridad territorial, unidad genética relativa e irrepetibilidad espacial y temporal) y topológico o local, que combina los anteriores a escalas grandes (Areces y Mateo, 2011;Mücher et al., 2010;Salinas et al., 2019c). ...
... Para la clasificación y cartografía de las unidades de paisaje se han desarrollado diversas propuestas metodológicas a diferentes escalas y en diversos territorios (Brabyn, 2009;Cavalcanti, 2014;Gómez et al., 2018;Mateo y Silva, 2002;Salinas et al., 2019 a y b;Salinas y Ramón, 2013;Serrano et al., 2019), con dos enfoques diferentes para la clasificación y cartografía de las unidades que son: top-down (cuando se clasifican y cartografían las unidades partiendo de las superiores a las inferiores siguiendo los criterios de tipología o regionalización ya explicados y tomando en cuenta los índices diagnóstico propuestos para cada nivel taxonómico) o bottom-up (cuando se clasifican y cartografían las unidades partiendo de las inferiores a las superiores utilizando para esto algún método de agrupamiento como cluster analysis), ambos han sido utilizados en los estudios del paisaje indistintamente aunque mucho mas el primero de ellos (Areces y Braz et al., 2020;Cavalcanti y Corrêa, 2013;Mata y Sanz, 2003, Mücher et al., 2010Salinas y Quíntela, 2000;Salinas y Ribeiro, 2017). ...
Este artículo pretende contribuir al marco teórico y metodológico del análisis, diagnóstico y pronóstico para la gestión del paisaje sobre la base de la aplicación de los principios, métodos y técnicas que sustentan la Geoecología y utilizando como caso de estudio, la cuenca del río Formoso, localizada en Bonito, Mato Grosso do Sul/Brasil. La metodología consiste en la utilización de datos primarios y secundarios procesados en el ambiente SIG ArcGis 10 y validados en el campo. Se trata esta cuenca de un área de notable diversidad, singularidad y complejidad, que se relaciona principalmente con el sistema cárstico existente en la región. Sin embargo, su naturalidad es baja cuando se correlaciona con el uso antrópico intensivo de las ultimas décadas, lo que plantea preocupación sobre este sistema y valida la posibilidad de aplicar esta propuesta metodológica que permitió determinar la existencia de importantes conflictos en el uso del suelo y la reducción de las áreas naturales, estableciendo el diagnostico geoecológico de los paisajes de la cuenca y una serie de recomendaciones para alcanzar el escenario de desarrollo deseado de sus paisajes. Sustentando así la importancia practica de esta metodología que va encaminada a promover la gestión racional e integrada de los sistemas ambientales, sociales y económicos en un espacio determinado.
... The landscape character assessment (LCA) method is currently the mainstream method for assessing the value of regional landscapes, which is currently mostly applied in areas where the natural environment dominates, such as natural heritage areas and nature reserves, and the variables in the identification process are dominated by natural factors, with a few cultural factors also used [12], because the cultural landscape is complex and difficult to quantify and there are rarely spatial data of sufficient detail and quality at the regional scale [13]. Therefore, currently, LCA lacks comprehensive research and practice on large-scale LCH sites such as the Great Wall, especially the use of heritage as an indicator to discuss how heritage and the environment organize different landscape character patterns, which is not conducive to the holistic perception of the heritage value of cultural heritage areas. ...
... Secondly, the Great Wall heritage area needs to break traditional administrative boundaries and establish a boundary management method applicable to large-scale linear heritage. The European landscape typology (LANMAP) is a new methodology for characterizing landscapes across the European region [12], which can be used to integrate regulatory boundaries between countries and regions and is an effective tool for providing a real-time basis and a raw dataset for landscape-related policies. From the results of the landscape character zoning of the Great Wall heritage area (Figures 5 and 6) in our study, the character zoning based on the identification of natural and cultural elements did not have any correspondence with the administrative boundaries and heritage protection boundaries drawn by the government. ...
The Great Wall, as a globally important large-scale linear cultural heritage asset, is an example of the integration of architecture and landscape, demonstrating the interaction and feedback between heritage and the environment. In the context of advocating the holistic protection of cultural heritage and surroundings, this study utilizes landscape character assessment (LCA) to identify the landscape character of the Great Wall heritage area. Taking the heritage area of the Great Wall in Beijing, China, as an example, principal component analysis (PCA), two-step clustering, and the eCognition software were used to identify and describe the landscape character types, and the interaction mechanism between heritage and the environment was further explored through the reclassification process. A total of 20 landscape character types and 201 landscape character areas were identified in the study area, and a deep coupling relationship between heritage and the environment and cultural landscape spatial patterns were found in the core heritage area. The heritage and environmental character of linear heritage areas should be integrated so as to protect, manage, and plan cultural heritage areas at the landscape level. This study identifies and describes the character of the coupling of heritage and the environment in the Great Wall area for the first time, expands the types and methods of landscape character assessment, and carries out the exploration to combine natural and cultural elements of large-scale linear cultural heritage areas.
... This basic principle states that climate acts as a primary environmental factor in determining the broad-scale ecosystem variation. On the contrary, factors such as geomorphology and soil features assume an equal or greater importance than climate only at lower levels [3,33]. Posterior estimates of the Gaussian Process parameters (see equations (1) and (2)) and their variances are reported in table 3, while in figure 3 the proportion of the variance of the seasonal, space-time and residual term over their sum is reported, this in order to descripe the relevance of each term in explaining the totalvariation of each variable. ...
We present a multivariate hierarchical space-time model to describe the joint series of monthly extreme temperatures and amounts of rainfall. Data are available for 360 monitoring stations over 60 years, with missing data affecting almost all series. Model components account for spatio-temporal dependence with annual cycles, dependence on covariates and between responses. The very large amount of data is tackled modeling the spatio-temporal dependence by the nearest neighbor Gaussian process. Response multivariate dependencies are described using the linear model of coregionalization, while annual cycles are assessed by a circular representation of time. The proposed approach allows imputation of missing values and easy interpolation of climate surfaces at the national level. The motivation behind is the characterization of the so called ecoregions over the Italian territory. Ecoregions delineate broad and discrete ecologically homogeneous areas of similar potential as regards the climate, physiography, hydrography, vegetation and wildlife, and provide a geographic framework for interpreting ecological processes, disturbance regimes, vegetation patterns and dynamics. To now, the two main Italian macro-ecoregions are hierarchically arranged into 35 zones. The current climatic characterization of Italian ecoregions is based on data and bioclimatic indices for the period 1955-1985 and requires an appropriate update.
... The causes of the current spatial and temporal heterogeneity of vegetation cover are the subject of long-standing discussions due to the uncertainty of the factors determining its diversity. In international practice, there is no contradiction regarding the role of the natural factors of vegetation differentiation (climate variables, topography, geology, hydrology) [3,4], while the significance of anthropogenic factors continues to be debated and refined [5][6][7][8][9]. An improved knowledge of the links between key environmental factors and vegetation cover status is vital in managing ecosystems in the future [10][11][12]. ...
The identification of the main factors influencing forest diversity, including both direct and indirect effects, as well as the compatibility of different-level approaches, is a key topic in community ecology and biogeography. The aim of the current study is to assess the contributions of natural and anthropogenic factors to forest diversity in the Moscow region (Russia). This study is based on a quantitative analysis of the linkage between forest diversity and biotopic local factors (LFs) at a lower spatial level, using geobotanical relevés, and external factors (EFs) at an upper spatial level, based on global environmental databases. The classification of 1040 field relevés (including forest-forming tree species, moisture conditions, and soil nutrients) resulted in the identification of eight forest types. A nonmetric multidimensional scaling algorithm, ANOVA post hoc test, hierarchical clustering, and multiple regression analysis were used in data processing. LFs are calculated based on complete species lists using Ellenberg ecological scales. According to a Duncan’s test, LFs provided significant differences between the eight forest types (p < 0.05). At the upper spatial level, the linkage between forest diversity and EFs was most pronounced for climatic factors, soil properties, and topography, including annual mean temperature, soil carbon, clay particle content, and DEM (elevation and slope). The contribution of anthropogenic factors was significantly smaller compared to the natural EFs in the study region.
... Para a delimitação, classificação e cartografia de unidades de paisagem em diferentes escalas e áreas, inúmeras investigações e publicações foram realizadas (ISACHENKO, 1973; Revista Formação (ONLINE), v. 28, n. 53, 2021, p. 697-717 ISSN: 2178-7298. E-ISSN: 1517-543X 701 MARTINELLI,PEDROTTI, 2001;SALINAS, QUINTELA, 2000; RAMON, SALINAS;REMOND, 2009;SALINAS, RAMÓN, 2013;SALINAS et al., 2013;GÓMEZ, et al., 2018).Muitos esquemas de trabalho foram elaborados e experiências foram realizadas em diferentes escalas e em diferentes regiões e países(ABALAKOV, SEDYKH, 2010;CAVALCANTI et al., 2010;KONOVALOVA et al., 2005;MÜCHER et al., 2010;LANG;BLASCHKE, 2009;SALINAS, RIBEIRO, 2017;BRABYN, 2009;SALINAS, TROMBETA, LEAL, 2020). ...
A cartografia das paisagens como uma abordagem de integração geográfica permite, utilizando as ferramentas presentes nos Sistemas de Informação Geográfica e Sensoriamento Remoto, delimitar unidades espaciais homogêneas em diferentes escalas, que podem ser usadas como base para avaliar o potencial de um território para as várias atividades humanas que se desenvolvem ou poderiam se desenvolver nele. Neste trabalho, o objetivo é apresentar a concepção teórico-metodológica a ser utilizada para avaliar o potencial das paisagens para o desenvolvimento do turismo no município de Paranaíba, localizado no extremo Nordeste do estado de Mato Grosso do Sul, no Centro-Oeste do Brasil, baseado no estudo de atrativos turísticos, sua qualidade e acessibilidade, combinado com o uso de uma série de indicadores integrados, obtidos a partir do mapa de unidades de paisagem, entre os quais temos: naturalidade, diversidade, singularidade, complexidade e qualidade visual das paisagens. O que permitirá finalmente estabelecer o potencial das paisagens para uso turístico, suas limitações e uma proposta de atividades recreativas para desenvolver e sua intensidade, visando o desenvolvimento do turismo de forma sustentável neste município.
... 2. Годовые стандартизированные значения величин, 10 классов -интервалы -«естественные границы»: А -амплитуда температур; Б -сумма среднесуточных температур выше 0°C; В -сезонность осадков; Г -сезонность потенциальной эвапотранспирации. [Mucher et al., 2010]. ...
Природная зона – одно из базовых понятий физической географии, отражающее горизонтальную
дифференциацию ландшафтной оболочки от экватора к полюсам. Разнообразие глобальных геопространственных данных и совершенствование методов автоматической компьютерной классификации
открывают новые возможности для применения алгоритмов геоинформационного анализа для дифференциации суши по зонально-климатическим условиям. Цель статьи – выделить природно-зональные
границы средствами геоинформационного моделирования с использованием глобальных климатических данных, а также выявить ограничения и сложности, возникающие при неконтролируемой классификации. В работе использовались нормализованные показатели из глобальной базы климатических
данных Эдинбургского университета, составленной на основе WorldClim. На первом этапе методом
анализа главных компонент обоснован набор значимых климатических параметров, необходимых для
моделирования зонально-климатических группировок природных комплексов (годовая амплитуда температур, сезонность ежемесячных средних температур, годовая сумма среднесуточных температур
выше 0°
С, годовая сезонность осадков, индекс аридности Торнтвейта и сезонность потенциальной эвапотранспирации ‒ всего 6 показателей). Далее проведена неконтролируемая классификация указанных
параметров по разному количеству классов (15, 22, 72). Для получения картины, сходной с глобальной
природно-зональной дифференциацией, в модели использовано 22 класса. Сравнение новых зонально-климатических рубежей, полученных в результате моделирования, с границами природных зон на
картах, составленных на основе иных методических подходов, проведено на примере Европы. Новые
границы в целом отражают основные закономерности поясно-зональной дифференциации территории
и могут служить основой для дальнейшей типологии ландшафтов средствами геоинформационного
моделирования. В ходе исследования определены основные методологические ограничения геоинформационного моделирования природных зон на глобальном и материковом уровнях. Ограничения
кластерного анализа для мелкомасштабного картографирования зонально-климатических группировок природных комплексов связаны также со сложностью выбора оптимального числа классов для
получения адекватной визуализации пространственной структуры природных зон, а также с фактором «равного вклада» всех используемых климатических переменных в моделировании. Показано, что
при реализации автоматических алгоритмов моделирования помимо климатических параметров (даже
в разнообразных комбинациях) необходимо привлечение других геопространственных данных. Несомненным преимуществом подхода является воспроизводимость алгоритма классификации и возможность получения на выходе данных требуемой степени детальности в зависимости от конкретных задач
геоэкологических исследований.
... In previous landscape classification studies, the European Landscape Map (LANMAP2), among others, focused primarily on natural landscape elements (Wascher 2005). Subsequent efforts, such as the European Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), began to incorporate cultural landscape elements but relied mainly on land-use data for representation (Mücher et al. 2010). The UK's approach to LCA (Tudor 2014) marked a significant advancement by directly integrating cultural landscape elements into its national-scale classification. ...
Due to the increased demand for agricultural products, the agricultural industry has become intensified, resulting in a homogenization of the rural landscape. Our study defines rural landscape types at three scales (national, regional, and local) using a multi-scale method. We generated three landscape element datasets using literature and gray statistical analysis. Subsequently, we used the overlay approach and two-step cluster analysis to identify landscape regions, types, and subtypes. The findings indicate the presence of 47 landscape regions at the national scale, 448 landscape types at the regional scale, and 44 landscape subtypes at the local scale with Dahongshan Mountain Region serving as the empirical study site. Furthermore, we have developed a novel method to evaluate landscape diversity index (LDI) which utilizes the proportion of land area occupied by landscape elements in various landscape types. This method incorporates diverse elements, such as topography, landform, land cover/use, vegetation, and agroforestry industries. To examine the role of LDI in landscape planning, we analyzed the relationship between LDI and recreation services using the geographically weighted regression model. The result facilitates landscape planning and management at different administrative levels.
... Gracias a los análisis espaciales basados en las métricas del paisaje, desarrolladas a través de la Ecología del Paisaje (Dramstad et al., 1996;Jongman, 2004), los responsables de la planificación territorial podían acceder a una base de conocimiento muy útil para diseñar de forma coherente a la configuración ecológica de un espacio (Botequilha y Ahern, 2002). Sin embargo, a diferencia de los factores de índole medioambiental, el debate científico en torno a la interpretación y la clasificación de información cultural no había alcanzado aún consenso y las bases de datos digitales al respecto eran muy poco comunes (Mücher et al., 2010). Pero caracterizar el paisaje, de acuerdo con el marco conceptual y metodológico que defiende el Convenio, obliga a reconocer no solo los rasgos ecofísicos del territorio, sino también sus aspectos sociales y culturales, entendiendo que todos forman parte de la estructura socio-ecológica del paisaje, por lo que se fue avanzando al respecto en los años siguientes, en buena medida gracias a la cada vez mayor posibilidad de acceso a las tecnologías de información geográfica (Coomans et al., 2019). ...
The rapid and discontinuous urban growth that has shaped the metropolitan areas of our major cities has created significant problems related to the distortion of territorial order, the destruction or degradation of heritage, and the unsustainability of socio-ecological systems. Today, these peripheral spaces require the implementation of renewed strategies that, in contrast to the urban operations that shaped them, are in line with the environmental and cultural character that has defined and continues to define them. This challenge, recognised through the contemporary notion of landscape and its integration into territorial planning and management frameworks, involves, among other things, developing techniques to visualize and interpret the material culture of the territory beyond the recognition of specific heritage elements but also the broader legacy of space and morphology. Thereupon, a strategic framework that advocates for the need to incorporate cultural heritage from a comprehensive and extensive perspective into territorial planning is presented. This framework has been applied in the Villa de Vallecas district, southeast of Madrid, where the analysis of 20th-century maps has allowed for the identification of traces of the territory with a deeper historical significance, shaping an interesting, although currently fragmented, heritage system. Considering that there are now significant initiatives aimed at the landscape restoration of this area, it is necessary to include territorial heritage in these projects, thus ensuring the preservation of collective memory, the historical continuity of the landscape, and respect for its distinguishing features.
... Tenerelli, Püffel, and Luque 2017;Tveit, Ode, and Fry 2006;Yazici 2018); 2. A holistic-biophysical methodology, based on an upscaling/bottom-up approach of a priori selection (based on expertise) of geoecological and land-use-related characteristics of the landscape (e.g. Koç and Yılmaz 2020;Mücher et al. 2010;Silva et al. 2020); 3. Biophysical methods, in which the landscapes are characterized using multivariate statistical analyses or hierarchical clustering techniques of a large number of physical landscape attributes (e.g. Cabral et al. 2018;García-Llamas et al. 2016). ...
Landscape mapping has the potential to address some of the most pressing research issues of our time, including climate change, sustainable development, and human well-being. In this paper, we propose an original method that lays the foundations for landscape mapping and overcomes some of the major limitations of existing biophysical methods. Based on the assumption that the primary components of the landscape can be extracted directly from the radiometric information of satellite image time series, this paper presents a new approach to landscape characterization and mapping based solely on remote sensing data. The approach relies on a conceptual model, which links the description, characteristics, structure and functions of the landscape to a set of Remote Sensing-based Essential Landscape Variables (RS-ELVs). The RS-ELVs are then processed according to geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) approach to produce a radiometric landscape map. The model and the remote sensing data processing chain are tested on a case study in central Madagascar (about 13 000 km 2) composed of contrasting landscapes resulting from different climatic conditions and agricultural practices. The RS-ELVs are extracted from MODIS image time series for the temporal and spectral variables, and from MODIS and Sentinel-2 images for the texture variables. The parameterization of the segmentation and clustering algorithms is determined by statistical optimization. The final result is a radiometric landscape map in six classes. The landscape classes are then characterized using an independent set of remote sensing variables, a global land cover map and ground observations. The approach successfully identifies and delineates the gradient and major landscape types of the complex region of central Madagascar, confirming our initial hypothesis. The production of such radiometric landscape maps opens the way for integrated territorial development, including the planning and protection of the living environment and human well-being, and the implementation of sectoral policies.
... Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), as a perceptual tool integrating natural and cultural landscape characteristics [35], stands as a crucial method in planning and managing landscape areas [36][37][38]. The identification process of LCA can be categorized into holistic and parameter methods [39]. ...
Rural landscape heritage faces issues of landscape character homogenization and unclear protection boundaries. We propose combining landscape character assessment (LCA) methods to identify the characteristics and areas of heritage, aiming to preserve the diversity and integrity of the landscape. This paper focuses on the Li River Basin as the study area, presenting a method for identifying characteristics and areas of rural landscape heritage. It is divided into four steps: selection and spatial scope identification of rural landscape heritage, identification of natural character areas, identification of cultural character areas, and identification and analysis of character areas of rural landscape heritage. Firstly, cultural relic units, traditional villages, and intangible cultural heritage as sources of rural landscape heritage were selected by utilizing the Minimum Cumulative Resistance model (MCR) to calculate the spatial scope of rural landscape heritage. Secondly, clustering and automatic partition methods were employed to classify the Li River Basin into four types of natural character areas. Thirdly, cultural core areas and buffer areas were determined based on the heritage source hierarchy and cultural features. Fourthly, by overlaying heritage spatial ranges, natural character areas, and cultural character areas, 2 levels of heritage areas, 7 types of heritage cultural areas, and 43 heritage character units were obtained. This method not only provides a comprehensive framework for the identification of characteristics and areas for rural landscape heritage but also enhances the integrity of data selection in landscape character assessment methods at the cultural level.
... Despite their different approaches, the different landscape schools all shared the need to differentiate and map spatial units, according to their own taxonomy and using one of two possible approaches to differentiation, namely typification and regionalization. In this way, in a very high percentage of cases, landscape study took concrete, practical form in the drawing up of a synthetic, thematic map in which complex units produced by the interaction of natural and anthropic components and processes were represented (Salichetv, 2005;Vinogradov et al., 1962;Mücher et al., 2010;Brabyn, 2009;Mateo, 2011). ...
Soil serves as the reservoir of numerous elements, of which about twenty elements are essential for the sustenance of plants in one way or the other. Soil is one of the most vital parts of the ecosystem and has a high buffering capacity than air and water (Daghan and Ozturk, 2015). Soil properties are critical in evaluating soil health, sustaining human life, supplying plant nutrients for their growth, storing Carbon, and controlling greenhouse gas emissions. Soil properties like cation exchange capacity, soil organic matter (SOM), exchangeable base cations, Fe/Al oxides and sesquioxides, and soil pH control soil's buffering capacity (Brady and Weil, 2002). Soil is a nonrenewable component, and the formation of one cm of topsoil generally takes 200-1000 years as per the prevailing climate and parent material (Van Lynden, 2000), which is being destroyed day by day due to several anthropogenic activities. Soil functions are severely threatened by the pressure of urbanization and industrial growth. Global food demand is spiraling rapidly and is expected to increase in the coming decades because of the worldwide population increase. Therefore, only sustainable soil management can cancel out this hazardous anthropogenic consequence to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (Assembly, 2015).
Undoubtedly, proper soil management is necessary to preserve this natural resource for future generations. Regional-specific integrated plant nutrient management is the key to soil health sustainability and improved crop productivity. But farmers are forced to apply the ever-increasing chemical fertilizer to cope with higher yield and profitable return cultivation costs. But indiscriminate fertilizer use to equilibrate with the production hitherto is outing the inherent soil quality, severely hampering quality and quantity of overall crop production. On the contrary, crops do not have excess fertilizer nutrients due to loss and transformation, which results in extreme nutrient scenarios in soil rhizosphere and environmental pollution issues. It is also well proven that there is a strong interaction between available water and fertilizer, and if one is altered, the other is likely to be changed. (Saha et al., 2022 ) .
On the contrary, organics alone cannot supply plant nutrients for optimum yield (Dasgupta et al., 2017). Studies have indicated enhanced efficiency of applied inorganic fertilizers in organic manure. Thus the
fertilizer combinations need to be readdressed in terms of soil availability appropriately for an adequate supply of bioavailable nutrients and plant tissue uptake.
Ever-increasing inorganic fertilizer costs and overuse are reflected in high cultivation costs and soil health degradation, which also declines crop productivity in the long run (Sengupta et al., 2022). The advancement of research in fertilizer responsive high yielding hybrid crop and proper site-specific management strategies can increase yield, which drains out reserve carbon, major plant nutrients, and micronutrients. Even a brilliant reimbursement strategy only focuses on Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sometimes secondary nutrients remain, other micronutrients untouched. Therefore The widespread incidence of micronutrient deficiency reported for different crops is an example of the low availability of micronutrients in Indian soils leading to low productivity (Ojha et al., 2018). Thus, continual soil health stagnation and downturn due to imbalanced fertilization are significant concerns that can only check with judicious soil fertility evaluation and strategic fertilizer-manure scheduling (Santhi et al., 2011; Dasgupta et al., 2021a). Soil and mineralogical research need to be more intensive and more highly densed, and to relate climate change and the COVID-19 post-period soil research should co-link all related natural and environmental disciplines to strive for the coveted sustainable goal of a hunger-free world where food and nutrition security persists for disease resilience (Sengupta et al., 2022). Importantly, acquiring high-density large volume soil data is indispensable for sustaining and managing natural resources. Optimizing soil management via high-resolution soil surveys is obligatory for meeting the global food requirement. The situation above necessitated a thorough evaluation of the soil's deficiency and sufficiency criteria of different nutrients.
... Ландшафт выступает в качестве узловой пространственной единицы, которая синтезирует данные с различных тематических геопространственных данных природных компонентов по критериям выделения классификационных единиц ландшафтов [Николаев, 1978]. С использованием методик применения алгоритмов искусственного интеллекта, статистического, оверлейного и кластерного анализа были созданы ряд картографических моделей ландшафтной структуры зарубежными [Mücher et al., 2010;Nowosad, Stepinski, 2021;Simensen et al., 2021] и отечественными [Владимиров, 2018; авторами. ...
In the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), there are 63 territories of traditional land use of the Indigenous Minorities of the North within the boundaries of municipal districts and nasleg (lowest municipal division), as well as nomadic tribal communities. Almost 58 % of the republic’s territory is under the traditional land use status. The traditional use of natural resources and traditional lifestyles of indigenous peoples are inextricably linked to the resource potential and ecological state of natural landscapes. The paper is aimed to develop a standardized methodology for the design of a small-scale landscape map of traditional land use in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Based on the review of atlas approaches to landscape structure mapping of protected natural areas, we propose to use a multi-thematic dataset of geospatial layers according to the criteria of the classification of typological, regional and basin categories of landscapes. The dataset includes layers from previously published landscape maps and permafrost-landscape regionalization maps, soil-vegetation maps, and global geospatial data for Hammond relief regions, GMTED2010 digital elevation model and HydroBASINS river basins. Methods for delineation of mapped units include overlay geoprocessing, zonal statistics, and relief analysis. For the basemap, the description of typological landscape units includes landscape subclass-genus-type(subtype) and terrain type. The methodology was tested for the Ust-Maiskij district with predominance of mountain taiga and midtaiga landscapes and Eveno-Bytantaiskij national district with predominance of mountain-tundra, mountain-woodland and north taiga landscapes. The obtained landscape maps contain 36 typological units that synthesize 6 subclasses, 7 landscape types (subtypes) and 12 terrain types by 5 landscape provinces and large river basins (Lena, Yana, Omoloi and Aldan). Thus, the proposed landscape mapping methodology covers the holistic spatial structure of the leading components, allowing for a multidimensional approach to territorial planning and functional zoning of traditional land use.
... Overview of the study sites a According to LANMAP(Mücher et al. 2010) b These sites experienced a socialist system, which strongly influenced the development of agriculture through planned economy, socialist ideologies and the collapse of socialism in the late 1980s/early 1990s ...
Farming in Europe has been the scene of several important socio-economic and environmental developments and crises throughout the last century. Therefore, an understanding of the historical driving forces of farm change helps identifying potentials for navigating future pathways of agricultural development. However, long-term driving forces have so far been studied, e.g. in anecdotal local case studies or in systematic literature reviews, which often lack context dependency. In this study, we bridged local and continental scales by conducting 123 oral history interviews (OHIs) with elderly farmers across 13 study sites in 10 European countries. We applied a driving forces framework to systematically analyse the OHIs. We find that the most prevalent driving forces were the introduction of new technologies, developments in agricultural markets that pushed farmers for farm size enlargement and technological optimisation, agricultural policies, but also cultural aspects such as cooperation and intergenerational arrangements. However, we find considerable heterogeneity in the specific influence of individual driving forces across the study sites, implying that generic assumptions about the dynamics and impacts of European agricultural change drivers hold limited explanatory power on the local scale. Our results suggest that site-specific factors and their historical development will need to be considered when addressing the future of agriculture in Europe in a scientific or policy context.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10113-023-02150-y.
... Climatic record data come from specific locations in an information field. Problems in data-driven landslide susceptibility(Lima et al., 2023) also come into this purview.The European Soil Data Centre (ESDA, 2023) presents several ways to classify landforms(Mücher et al., 2010) where, 'Landscapes are ecological meaningful units where many processes and components interact… landscapes themselves have resulted from long-term interactions of natural abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic processes'. ...
There is a need for geomorphology to integrate better with related disciplines, especially in Critical Zone science. To help satisfy this integration, geomorphology's knowledge-base should extend into biotic as well as geological processes via 'open data'. To aid information exchange between disciplines, the use of decimal latitude-longitude (dLL) topographic geo-referencing is advocated to identify locations of investigations, images and data in accord with the FAIR principles for data: findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability. While local place names (toponyms) have their uses, they do not provide good location information. Identification of detailed locations using dLL referencing should be used in written, especially published , reports of investigations. Author-date citations are traditionally used to identify geomorphic knowledge, which can be enhanced when linked to dLL-specified locations and data such as sample sites and laboratory data. Ways in which dLL specifications might be used in geomorphology and associated disciplines are explored and some geomorphological problems associated with 'steepland' landscape domains are presented. Examples show how dLL data can be incorporated into the literature, whereby authors can help provide and develop geomorphic 'information surfaces' by using geo-referencing to enhance 'open' science via the FAIR principles.
... Together with the actual landscape mosaic, biophysical variables were considered in order to characterise the NUTS3 in terms of the potential natural heterogeneity of the environment, which could, in turn, affect the consistency and condition of the N2K network. Combined parent material and morphological information were derived from LANMAP3 [41], with 33 litho-morphological classes occurring in the study area. Phytoclimatic information was derived from the phytoclimatic map of Europe (PME) [46], grouped into 50 types, 39 of which fall into the study area. ...
Reconnecting natural habitats and improving agroecosystem conditions are strategic targets set by several European policies. In order to combine both of these needs, the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 has triggered new investments in Green Infrastructure (GI), which actually represents a valuable tool to increase ecological connectivity across natural and semi-natural habitats. In particular, GI may benefit the Natura2000 (N2K) network (i.e., the network of protected sites under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives) by reinforcing the node/site number, extent, and distribution and by improving connections between often small and isolated habitat patches. However, there is a lack of knowledge on what the actual needs of GI deployment are for improving the current N2K network, on the distribution of these needs across Europe and on the potential role of agricultural areas in the improvement of the network functionality. Concurrently, especially in SW Europe, there is an ongoing trend toward the homogenisation and intensification of agricultural systems and the combined loss of associated landscape elements, such as natural and semi-natural Small Woody Features (SWF). Although a well-planned network of such elements could support biodiversity and landscape connectivity, thus effectively complementing the N2K network, little evidence is available on their abundance and residual distribution, especially in agricultural areas and at continental/bioregional scales. Therefore, the present work is aimed at (i) identifying different types of territorial units (NUTS3) in W Mediterranean Europe according to current N2K network features, the overall composition of the actual landscape mosaic and the potential natural heterogeneity of the environment and (ii) identifying and spatialising N2K-related GI deployment needs according to a more specific network analysis in terms of nodes (extent of the total protected area) and links (density of residual woody elements in arable land) within the different types of NUTS3. By means of this wide-scale investigation, four different types of GI deployment needs were generalised across the W Mediterranean Europe NUTS3. Overall, the need for connection restoration prevails, followed by the need for the consolidation of node and link conservation, for the creation of new protected sites and for the enlargement of existing N2K sites. Although useful for a preliminary setting, the shortcomings related to summary data at the European level were also highlighted when compared to local-scale information, with the latter being more suitable for identifying and prioritising truly effective GI conservation and restoration actions.
... This approach would make it possible to verify whether human management is coherent with the vocation of the ecosystems, as well as the effects of different management practices. Furthermore, it could be interesting to map ES bundles on other scales-both larger, for example, a single municipality or a specific area, and smaller, for example, a group of Landscape Areas of the PIT-PPR, or a Landscape System [69]-to identify different configurations of the relationships between services. An important object of study could also be the effect of spatial resolution on ES assessment and bundling, with the aim to identify the best compromise between effectiveness and costs of the analysis. ...
Agricultural and forest ecosystems provide multiple ecosystem services (ESs) fundamental to the well-being and quality of life of citizens. However, in the European context, these ecosystems are often threatened by processes of urban development, around cities, or abandonment, in mountainous or remote areas. Faced with the need for solutions oriented towards greater sustainability and resilience of socio-ecological systems, planning should contribute to rebuilding more integrated and mutually beneficial relationships between urban and rural areas, ensuring the effective production of multiple ESs. The regulation and management of ESs are complex and require scientifically sound and widely understandable policies and governance models, based on detailed assessment methods. This paper proposes a method for mapping and bundling the supply of five ESs produced in agricultural and forest areas, based on the processing of open source territorial data through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and tailored for the Tuscany region (Italy). The method integrates the land use and land cover map with other data to obtain a comprehensive ESs assessment, and then uses cluster analysis to identify bundles of ESs. Based on a first trial, the method seems to show high potentialities as a Decision Support System to promote innovative governance models for ES management.
... A lo largo de la última década del pasado siglo y a inicios del presente se han desarrollado diversas metodologías de análisis del paisaje en Europa que han culminado en distintas propuestas globalizadoras (cf. Blankson & Green 1991, Pinto Correia 1993aNaveh 1982;Meeus 1995;Bastian 2000;Mücher et al. 2003, Wascher 2005Naveh 2001;Mücher et al. 2010, Pedroli et al. 2016Simensen et al, 2018;, así como formulaciones elaboradas para territorios más concretos, que en el caso gallego se sintetizan en los trabajos desarrollados por Mata Olmo & Sanz Herraiz 2003;Ramil-Rego et al. 2005;CMATI 2014;Pérez-Alberti et al. 2014, etc. Paralelamente a este proceso de sistematización y clasificación se han desarrollado numerosos trabajos centrados en la valoración y dinámica de los países, que de nuevo responden a distintos enfoques, sean estos provenientes del ámbito del Patrimonio Cultural, del Patrimonio Geológico, los agrosistemas (Meeus et al. 1998;Plieninger et al. 2006;Carre et al. 2019;Andersen, 2017;Tieskens et al. 2017), o la biodiversidad y la sostenibilidad del medio ambiente (Jongman 2002;Wascher 2005;De Montis et al. 2010;Green & Vos 2011;Plieninger et al. 20016;Mann et al. 2018;Schulp et al. 2019). Ramil- Rego et al. (2005) han desarrollado una propuesta de clasificación del paisaje para Galicia que establece una correlación entre las unidades de mayor rango (ecorregiones y biomas) y de las de menor entidad (hábitats) que ha sido aplicada a otros territorios del Norte peninsular. ...
Las Áreas Naturales Protegidas constituyen una de las herramientas básicas para asegurar la conservación y el uso sostenible de la Biodiversidad. Las tipologías y categorías de las Áreas Protegidas han sufrido desde la segunda mitad del siglo XIX importantes cambios que afectan tanto a sus objetivos como a los modelos de gobernanza. El presente libro recopila y analiza una amplia información derivada de los principales sistemas de áreas protegidas que son integrados con la finalidad de proveer al lector de datos, criterios y valoraciones que inciden en la compleja historia de estos espacios y de las interacciones que se producen en el territorio donde se declaran.
... The European ELCAI (European Landscape Character Assessment Initiative) project analyzed 20 landscape factors, which can be generally categorized into three types: natural, socio-cultural, and culturally related factors [30]; the first two categories are most commonly used [31,32]. Uzun et al. [20] stated that data on climate, geomorphology, geology, and CORINE land cover can be used in studies at the national level; data on climate, geomorphology, geology, and major soil groups can be used in studies at the regional level; and data on land cover, geology, land capability classes, and ecological thresholds, can be used in studies at the local level. ...
National parks provide a considerable number of co-benefits to society, including the balance of ecosystems, conservation of heritage values, and tourism. However, studies on zoning approaches for the management of national parks are lacking. The landscape characterization approach is a holistic method for identifying regional landscapes and helps improve zoning management, thus promoting sustainable planning. Here, we propose a landscape character classification (LCC) approach for national parks by integrating a k-means clustering algorithm and geographic information system (GIS). We used Laoshan National Park (LNP) as a case study and aimed to (1) quantify the major landscape factors (altitude, topography relief, soil type, and heritage impact intensity) that influence the landscape classification of mountainous protected areas; (2) create a map of landscape character types and areas to guide a zoning boundary; and (3) further examine how decision makers assign different conservation strategies to each landscape character area. Our results indicate that different landscape character areas reflect distinct ecological environments and heritage values and that differentiated zoning management can effectively mitigate the impact of natural disasters and human activities. Our study suggests that national parks require scientific landscape character zoning, rational descriptions of landscape character types, and targeted management measures to achieve the dual objectives of zoning and landscape conservation.
... The landscape is a product of interactions between humans and nature that bring multiple characteristics to discrete geographic settings [52]. Landscapes are complex, spatially heterogeneous systems with many properties and values [12]. Thus, each landscape type should have different attributes. ...
Landscape Ecological Classification (LEC) is the premise and foundation of landscape ecology research. The current research on LEC of Mining Cities in the Semi-arid Steppe (MCSS) is relatively low. Moreover, the question of how to classify the mining landscape into ecologically significant landscape units at a scale suitable for ecological management has not been clear. The research results are as follows: (1) Google Earth, Gaode map, Baidu map, various high-resolution images, unmanned aerial vehicle, and field investigation were used to investigate the landscape types. Based on the land classification of the occurrence model, integrating theories of landscape ecology, mining, ecology, geography, and land resources, this study constructed the LEC system for MCSS using the top-down decomposition classification method, including 4 types of landscape kingdom, 16 types of landscape class, 62 types of landscape family, and more than 200 types of landscape species. (2) Based on LEC, we found the landscape type evolution characteristics of MCSS. Both the open-pit landscape and the dumping landscape were constantly expanding, and ecological restoration of the mining area was carried out simultaneously with coal mining. The trend of Change Intensity (CI) of mining industrial square landscape and industrial storage landscape was very similar. The development of coal has driven the development of the regional industry. The expansion intensity of the town commercial and residential service landscape was gradually decreasing, and the motivation for town expansion was insufficient. The research area was a typical landscape evolution mode of “human advance and grassland retreat”. However, the intensity of humans occupying grassland was decreasing. This study provides a reference for the research of LEC in the semi-arid steppe and provides a theoretical basis for the landscape ecological assessment, planning, and management of mining cities.
... The differences between ecoregions reflect climate conditions. Rivers in arid zones, for example in the Mediterranean, are frequently impaired by water abstraction pressures [53] and by particularly intense land use close to the rivers [55] leading to multiplying stressed biota [69]. Subpolar regions, on the other hand, are known for lower crop production and livestock populations [26,27]. ...
Agriculture, the world’s most dominant land use type, burdens freshwater biodiversity with a multitude of stressors such as diffuse pollution and hydromorphological alteration. However, it is difficult to directly link agricultural land use with biota response as agricultural stressors can also originate from other causes. Also, there is evidence for positive and negative effects of agriculture on organisms, agricultural impact differs strongly with the biological metric and study region considered and agricultural impact differs among practice and type, which in turn affects different organism groups with varying severity. Against this background, our study aimed at assessing, if agricultural land use has a consistent effect on river biota. We conducted a systematic review of the literature, which yielded 43 studies and 76 relationships between agriculture and aquatic organism groups. The relationships were subjected to a meta-analysis using Hedge’s g to calculate the standardized mean difference of effects. Overall, we detected a medium to strong effect g = − 0.74 of agricultural land use on freshwater biota, only marginally influenced by study design, river type and region. Strong differences in biota response could be observed depending on the biological metric assessed, with ecological quality indices of agricultural impairment performing best. Sensitive taxa declined with agricultural impact, while tolerant taxa tended to benefit. In addition, the biota response differed among agricultural types and practices and organism group, with macroinvertebrates showing the strongest effect. Our results quantify the effects of agriculture on riverine biota and suggest biological metric types for assessing agricultural impact. Further research is needed to discriminate between agricultural types and account for intensity.
Keywords: Benthic invertebrates, Diatoms, Farming, Fish, Macrophytes, Metrics, Review, Streams
... kvantitativní typologie a kromě metod matematicko-statistických analýz využívají i nástrojů pro geoinformační analýzy (Romportl et al. 2008;Romportl, Chuman 2012). Tvorba stanovištních klasifikací pomocí tohoto přístupu byla aplikována jak v zahraničí (Bastian 2000;Mücher et al. 2010), tak v tuzemském prostředí. V České republice byla experimentálně aplikována na modelaci lesních vegetačních stupňů (Vahalík, Mikita 2011) a především při klasifikaci přírodních biotopů na území České republiky (Divíšek 2015). ...
The concept of zonality (zonal concept) or azonality of vegetation has been well known for a long time all over the world. In the Czech Republic (CZ), this topic is usually presented in a context of (forest or forest site) ecological classification systems, called informally "forest typology" or officially "the Czech Forest Ecosystem Classification". Expert-based vegetation zonality has not been tested so far. There is even no relevant ecologically-based review of the concept and linked ecological principles behind classification systems. The latest modest note dealing with the zonal concept has been published along with the Notice 298/2018 of Forest Law (Typology table). This review summarizes (i) brief history on the zonal concept, (ii) definition of zonal and azonal vegetation, and description of parameters of a zonal site, (iii) approaches of (forest) classification systems around the world, and (iv) main principles of the Czech Forest Ecosystem Classification. Results of this review should be used as a theoretical basis for a next rigorous analysis of the concept and system units, based on data, sampled during the second cycle of the National Forest Inventory 2011-2015.
... census data on individual crops or data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network). In contrast, more general characterizations of agricultural landscapes, that rely mostly on biophysical factors such as topography, climate, or land cover, have proved to be highly useful for upscaling of regional findings across the continent, for the selection of representative case studies, or as frameworks for modeling land use and policy impacts (Hazeu et al 2010, Mücher et al 2010, Metzger et al 2013, Václavík et al 2016. We here aim to bridge these approaches by providing a novel and freely accessible base map of agri-environmental potential in Europe, which can be adapted and scaled to fit the requirements of other study contexts (e.g. ...
Developing spatially-targeted policies for farmland in the European Union (EU) requires synthesized, spatially-explicit knowledge of agricultural systems and their environmental conditions. Such synthesis needs to be flexible and scalable in a way that allows the generalization of European landscapes and their agricultural potential into spatial units that are informative at any given resolution and extent. In recent years, typologies of agricultural lands have been substantially improved, however, agriculturally relevant aspects have yet to be included. We here provide a spatial classification approach for identifying archetypal patterns of agri-environmental potential in Europe based on machine-learning clustering of 17 variables on bioclimatic conditions, soil characteristics and topographical parameters. We improve existing typologies by (1) including more recent biophysical data (e.g. agriculturally-important soil parameters), (2) employing a fully data-driven approach that reduces subjectivity in identifying archetypal patterns, and (3) providing a scalable approach suitable both for the entire European continent as well as smaller geographical extents. We demonstrate the utility and scalability of our typology by comparing the archetypes with independent data on cropland cover and field size at the European scale and in three regional case studies in Germany, Czechia and Spain. The resulting archetypes can be used to support spatial stratification, upscaling and designation of more spatially-targeted agricultural policies, such as those in the context of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy post-2020.
The preservation of natural heritage is a global concern nowadays, which is equally important for climate resilience and for sustainable resource use. The present research is focused on assessing the trends of natural landscape changes, such as forests, meadows, and pastures, and the preservation of locally kept traditional livestock, and plant varieties as indicators of biodiversity, in the countries of the European Union between 2012 and 2021, using secondary data. The research methodology was a panel analysis according to the Linear Mixed Model method. The results show that while larger areas allocated to agriculture generally enhance plant biodiversity, they have the opposite effect on the number of local livestock breeds. The spreading of organic farming enhances the preservation of local livestock breeds, while the spreading of forest areas is beneficial for plant biodiversity. The share of permanent meadows and pastures increases with increasing agricultural areas, and this also affects plant biodiversity positively. All biodiversity indicators increased during the analyzed period, as did well as the size of forest areas and, permanent meadows and pastures, which reflects the improvement in natural heritage and the enhancement of environmental protection awareness with time. The differences among countries show, that highly developed agriculture does not mean better preservation of natural heritage, nor the opposite, as ecological conditions and agricultural history may influence the natural vegetation and biodiversity. The protection of natural heritage in Europe differs from the rest of the world, as recent agricultural policy of the EU emphasizes the importance of environmental sustainability. The promotion of low-input use in agriculture, however, may be in conflict with the globally increasing demand for food.
Urbanization impacts and homogenization pressures are threatening rural landscapes worldwide, leading to the loss of their regionality and uniqueness. Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) measures and identifies the uniqueness and distinctiveness of landscapes, making the unique value of rural resources easier to understand, protect, and perpetuate. Originating in the UK in the 1970s, LCA has become the mainstream approach for identifying landscape characteristics and is now a tool for managing landscape changes globally. Landscape Personality Assessment (LPA) offers another perspective for effectively measuring and analyzing landscape characteristics but has not been widely applied since its proposal. To distinguish between these two perspectives on landscape uniqueness identification, this paper conducted a literature review and comparison study, summarizing and comparing the characteristics of LCA and LPA in terms of evaluation scale, dimensions, indicators, and supported types of practices, further clarifying their respective strengths and weaknesses. To complement each other's perspectives on landscape characteristic identification, a framework nesting LCA and LPA was proposed to address the issue of the loss of rural landscape regionality in territorial spatial planning. This framework aims to couple evaluations of multi-level spatial characteristics and combine the identification of multi-temporal landscape characteristics. The goal is to enrich the theoretical and methodological system of rural landscape characteristic evaluation and provide more tools for the planning and conservation of the regionality of rural landscapes globally.
This study aims to evaluate the natural and cultural landscape values of village settlements in terms of visual landscape quality
within the scope of rural tourism and to associate and reflect them with rural tourism strategic actions. Selected 18 photographs
representing 6 landscape types of Hisarardı Village of Yalvaç (Isparta) district, which was determined as the study area, were
analysed by 30 experts according to 12 evaluation criteria. Evaluations mean weight values and standard deviation values were
determined by 5-point Likert scale analysis. As a result, the general silhouette of Hisarardı Village (1.00), agricultural landscape
(0.84), rural road landscape (0.78), water landscape (0.70), semi-cultural landscape (0.44) and cultural landscape (0.13) points.
It was determined that the general visual landscape quality of the village was low with an average of 0.64 points. Thus, the
strengths and weaknesses of the existing visual landscape of the village were determined and strategic actions and suggestions
were envisaged for the protection and development within the scope of rural tourism.
Keywords: Visual landscape quality, natural and cultural values, rural tourism, Hisarardı
Despite sociopolitical changes, urban landscape heritage has traditionally been valued in Chinese society. However, in the past two to three decades, intensifying pressures for urban redevelopment have created major challenges to urban landscape management. While the management of urban landscape change has focused on landscape-based conservation techniques, urban landscape characterization and assessment, and urban landscape planning, its theoretical and practical foundations remain to be clarified. In connection with the epistemological orientations of landscape in both China and the outside world, this article proposes a new conceptual framework comprising a triad of structural-correlative, morphogenetic-generative, and integrated perspectives for the study and management of urban landscape heritage in China.
Los ríos han tenido un rol crucial para las ciudades. Han influenciado y confinado su morfología, tamaño y funcionalidad. Tal es el caso del río Choluteca, el cual ha moldeado el valle fluvial sobre el que se asienta la ciudad de Tegucigalpa, capital de Honduras. El río jugó un papel central en la organización del paisaje y de la ciudad desde su fundación. Sin embargo, ha sido descuidado al punto de convertirse en un páramo urbano deshabitado, perdiendo su valor de activo y corredor ecológico. Por ello, su regeneración es catalítica para la transición hacia la sostenibilidad. Este artículo buscaabordar la regeneración del río través de un marco integral con funciones performativas para la futura implementación de estrategias de restauración, manejo o conservación ecológica. Con este objetivo, se define al río Choluteca como un proceso interactivo entre medio ambiente, actividades antropogénicas y usos de tierra. A través de un método combinado de sistemas de paisaje, superposición de capas y, el diseño como herramienta de investigación, se identifican elementos para iniciar una regeneración que pivota sobre sistemas de paisaje, patrones locales y vegetación potencial. Asimismo, se proponen estrategias de paisaje a escala macro (cuenca) y meso (urbano) que buscan responder a la localidad y posibilitar acciones que potencialmente conviertan al río en un eje de infraestructura verde y azul.
The article presents the author’s view on classification criteria and approaches to the unified classification of landscape complexes (geocomplexes): undisturbed natural, partially modified, completely transformed. Five criteria are substantiated: (1) features of the organization in connection with the location in geospheres; (2) the degree of transformation or natural–artificiality; (3) geographical position; (4) the period of development (dynamic state); (5) main features of the composition, structure and functioning of geocomplexes and their components. These criteria cover the existing diversity, take into account their essential properties and create the basis for a unified classification of the entire diversity of virgin and anthropogenic, natural and artificial geocomplexes. They form a completely diverse (multi-aspect and multi-level) system–a multidimensional classification space of the structural-functional approach for the classification of geocomplexes at local and regional levels. 6 classes of the 1st rank were revealed: natural atmospheric, artificial atmospheric, natural hydrospheric, artificial hydrospheric, natural lithospheric, artificial lithospheric. 28 classes of the 2nd rank are justified. A fragment of the classification of techno-natural, natural-technical and technical meso-landscapes (classes 3ed and 4th rank) is given. It is noted that the criteria considered are necessary, but not sufficient, for example, for the classification of artificial geocomplexes, the study and classification of which is an area of interaction with other technical, social and natural sciences with the leading role of geography.
Food production is at the heart of global sustainability challenges, with unsustainable practices being a major driver of biodiversity loss, emissions and land degradation. The concept of foodscapes, defined as the characteristics of food production along biophysical and socio-economic gradients, could be a way addressing those challenges. By identifying homologues foodscapes classes possible interventions and leverage points for more sustainable agriculture could be identified. Here we provide a globally consistent approximation of the world’s foodscape classes. We integrate global data on biophysical and socio-economic factors to identify a minimum set of emergent clusters and evaluate their characteristics, vulnerabilities and risks with regards to global change factors. Overall, we find food production globally to be highly concentrated in a few areas. Worryingly, we find particularly intensively cultivated or irrigated foodscape classes to be under considerable climatic and degradation risks. Our work can serve as baseline for global-scale zoning and gap analyses, while also revealing homologous areas for possible agricultural interventions.
Modeling the perception and evaluation of landscapes from the human perspective is a desirable goal for several scientific domains and applications. Human vision is the dominant sense, and human eyes are the sensors for apperceiving the environmental stimuli of our surroundings. Therefore, exploring the experimental recording and measurement of the visual landscape can reveal crucial aspects about human visual perception responses while viewing the natural or man-made landscapes. Landscape evaluation (or assessment) is another dimension that refers mainly to preferences of the visual landscape, involving human cognition as well, in ways that are often unpredictable. Yet, landscape can be approached by both egocentric (i.e., human view) and exocentric (i.e., bird’s eye view) perspectives. The overarching approach of this review article lies in systematically presenting the different ways for modeling and quantifying the two ‘modalities’ of human perception and evaluation, under the two geometric perspectives, suggesting integrative approaches on these two ‘diverging’ dualities. To this end, several pertinent traditions/approaches, sensor-based experimental methods and techniques (e.g., eye tracking, fMRI, and EEG), and metrics are adduced and described. Essentially, this review article acts as a ‘guide-map’ for the delineation of the different activities related to landscape experience and/or management and to the valid or potentially suitable types of stimuli, sensors techniques, and metrics for each activity. Throughout our work, two main research directions are identified: (1) one that attempts to transfer the visual landscape experience/management from the one perspective to the other (and vice versa); (2) another one that aims to anticipate the visual perception of different landscapes and establish connections between perceptual processes and landscape preferences. As it appears, the research in the field is rapidly growing. In our opinion, it can be greatly advanced and enriched using integrative, interdisciplinary approaches in order to better understand the concepts and the mechanisms by which the visual landscape, as a complex set of stimuli, influences visual perception, potentially leading to more elaborate outcomes such as the anticipation of landscape preferences. As an effect, such approaches can support a rigorous, evidence-based, and socially just framework towards landscape management, protection, and decision making, based on a wide spectrum of well-suited and advanced sensor-based technologies.
Bu çalışmada; köy yerleşimlerin kırsal turizm kapsamında doğal ve kültürel peyzaj değerlerin görsel peyzaj kalitesi açısından değerlendirilmesi ve kırsal turizm stratejik eylemlerle ilişkilendirilmesi ve yansıtılmasını amaçlamaktadır. Çalışma alanı olarak belirlenen Yalvaç (Isparta) ilçesine bağlı Hisarardı Köyüne ait 6 peyzaj tipi (genel silüet, kültürel peyzaj, kırsal yol peyzajı, tarım peyzajı, su peyzajı, yarı kültürel peyzaj) seçilmiş 18 adet fotoğraf 30 uzman tarafından 12 değerlendirme ölçütüne göre görsel peyzaj kalite analizi yapılmıştır. Değerlendirmeler 5 li Likert ölçek analizinde, +2 en yüksek, 0 nötr, -2 en düşük olmak üzere puanlandırılmak suretiyle analiz edilerek ortalama ağırlık değerleri ile standart sapma değerleri belirlenmiş ve yorumlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak, Hisarardı Köyünün genel siluet (1,00)’ tarım peyzajı (0,84), kırsal yol peyzajı (0,78), su peyzajı (0,70), yarı kültürel peyzaj (0,44) ve kültürel peyzaj (0,13) puan almıştır. Köyün genel görsel peyzaj kalitesinin ortalaması 0,64 puanla düşük olduğu belirlenmiştir. Böylece köyün mevcut görsel peyzajın güçlü ve zayıf yönleri belirlenerek kırsal turizm kapsamında korunması ve geliştirilmesine yönelik stratejik eylemler ve öneriler öngörülmüştür.
The aim of the study was to determine the relationships between identification of specific elements
of disturbed natural and cultural landscape and basic biochemical reactions in study participants, namely the
presence of stress hormones in saliva. The authors also intended to verify a new research method in the field
of tourism and landscape assessment, involving concentration measurement of steroid hormones: cortisol
(C), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and testosterone (T). The results indicate that all respondents were in
agreement as to which factors disturbed the landscapes presented. However, their subjective feelings were not
reflected in the biochemical reactions. Therefore, the authenticity of landscape, so crucial for tourism, seems
less important than expected. The lack of a strong reaction to disturbed landscape is surprising, especially in
the context of tourism, in which natural and cultural assets are some of the major factors affecting purchasing
decisions and principal travel motives. This situation may be a strong prognostic in the context of sustainable
tourism and environment protection. This knowledge may be used by planners and spatial development ex-
perts in designing landscapes as well as in assessing the visitors’/tourists’ perception of landscape.
Nowadays, LC/LU and climate change are causing changes in landscapes, resulting in loss and fragmentation of ecosystems. Therefore, it is necessary to define landscapes and determine their interactions with natural and anthropogenic processes over time. In this context, defining and characterizing landscapes, examining the ongoing processes on the landscape, determining the effects of LC/LU and climate change affecting these processes, determining landscape sensitivities within the scope of landscape processes and creation of landscape protection and development strategies has been determined as the aim of the study. Within the scope of the determined purpose, the method of the study was examined in three stages. In the first stage; the boundaries of the study area were determined and a landscape database was created by preparing the natural and cultural landscape inventory. The second stage, landscape character analysis, landscape function analysis and landscape sensitivity analysis were conducted. Landscape character analysis helped to identify landscape character types and areas. Landscape function analysis evaluated the water, erosion, habitat, biodiversity function and historical/cultural status of the basin. Soil and Water Assessment (SWAT) model was used to evaluate the water (surface runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration) and erosion functions of the study area. In determining habitat function, spot analysis was used to show changes in habitat and landscape metrics were evaluated. In predicting future LC/LU change, the CA-Markov Chain method was used to estimate future LC/LU maps (2050, 2070) by evaluating the transition probabilities of past (2000, 2010) and current (2020) land cover classes. RCP8.5 scenario outputs of the HADGEM2-ES model, one of the global climate models, were evaluated to determine the impact of climate change on basin processes. Future water and erosion functions were predicted by evaluating the data obtained within the scope of future LC/LU and climate change with the SWAT model. Landscape sensitivity analysis, assessment of present and future function processes and landscape sensitivity status for 2020, 2050 and 2070 were determined at the level of micro-basins. In the third stage, landscape guidelines for agriculture, forestry and settlement sectors were developed by considering landscape sensitivities. As a result, it has been revealed that landscape character analysis and landscape management based studies at the basin scale are an effective tool for assessing the landscape sensitivity of each micro-basin and developing landscape protection, restoration and management strategies and sectoral guidelines for agriculture, forestry and settlement.
Pacific Russia is the eastern part of Russia, washed by the Pacific Ocean, occupying a third of its space. Region`s specificity includes allocating several historical and demographic waves of resettlement from the middle of the nineteenth to the beginning of the twenty-first centuries, the periodic implementation of the state resettlement policy for the colonization of the country's outskirts. The remoteness of the territory contributed to the predominance in the Russian Far East’s development, the need to solve primarily geopolitical problems (border protection) and using natural resources (soil, agro-climatic, mineral, forest, fish, etc.). The Amur Region joined Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century was not a territory with unchanged landscapes by human economic activity. With the new population, the human pressure on natural landscapes intensified. Ecological problems such as wildfires, reduction of native forest vegetation with loss of biodiversity, long-term transformation of local geosystems in the areas of loose gold mining are inherited and are manifested in the region at all stages of its development. At all stages of the Pacific Russia development, the development of resource-extracting industries was based on maximum using of natural resources with lower prices, simple production technologies, and ignoring environmental requirements. Abandoning it in favor of the “green growth” model is complicated by the predominance of regional exports of raw materials and the resource interest of the Asia-Pacific region countries. Nowadays, the region is characterized by a “raw resource” model of development. Modern development strategies of Pacific Russia do not transform radically strategic goals towards reducing environmental pressures and threats. Hence, the practical implementation of spatial planning, based on the territory’s adaptive-landscape organization, is relevant.KeywordsPacific RussiaThe Russian Far EastSettlementRegionPopulation dynamicsRegional developmentLand useNature managementLandscapeAdaptive-landscape organizationLandscape planningGreen economy
Natural and man-induced changes modelled and remodelled European landscapes continuously. As historical and ongoing changes differ in character and intensity from time to time and from region to region whereas landscapes themselves differ in their responses, temporal and regional specification is required. From a policy point of view the questions are: i) what are the direction and rate of changes? ii) how to value these; iii) whether or not to intervene; and iv) if so, how? Options vary from compensation measures and mitigation of effects to targeting at direct influences or so-called driving forces (DFs). A co-ordinated and proactive and effective policy is mostly preferred to of a reactive policy aimed at end-of-pipe measures. To sustain conscious choices one should identify underlying causes and processes (i.e. DFs), cause¿effect tracks and possibilities to intervene. The concept of driving forces is explained and elaborated, specifically for landscapes. We use two related conceptual models; the first based on the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) concept and ¿ more targeted¿ a `mental map¿ for landscape change. A third concept helps to distinguish decision-making philosophies or stages according to their scope and time horizon. Current and foreseeable trends in Europe herald major changes affecting biodiversity, cultural heritage, scenery, environmental quality and economic values. Important DFs are: i) the (largely man-induced) global change in climate and sea level rise; ii) land-use change in rural areas, related to a change in demography, technological development, geopolitical change, macroeconomic change and sociocultural changes; and iii) urbanization processes. All processes affect vast areas in Europe. We give examples for climate change and change in agriculture in Europe. Policymaking could be more effective when targeted on driving forces, though second-best strategies can be inevitable.
The origin and specific nature of hierarchical concepts in landscape ecology and their applicability in both underlying disciplines and integrated studies are analysed. Most perspectives are found in process-functional hierarchies, ruled by flows of energy, matter and organisms, in spatio-temporal hierarchies and in organizational hierarchies in ecosystems. At landscape level, a universal ordering and ranking of components and processes is feasible. Applications are shown in case-studies. Critical remarks are made on the meaning and scientific use of hierarchical concepts. If a concept is strictly defined, its potential scientific contribution as an ordering principle is definitely useful. Its status as a real theory is doubted.
Adopted in Florence (Italy) on 20 October 2000, the European Landscape Convention is aimed at promoting the protection, management and planning of European landscapes and organising European cooperation on landscape issues. It is the first international treaty to be exclusively concerned with all dimensions of European landscape. It applies to the entire territory of the Parties and relates to natural, urban and peri-urban areas, whether on land, water or sea. It therefore concerns not just remarkable landscapes but also ordinary everyday landscapes and blighted areas. The Convention represents an important contribution to the implementation of the objectives of the Council of Europe: these seek to protect Europeans' quality of life and well-being, taking into account landscape, cultural and natural values. The member states of the Council of Europe signatory to the European Landscape Convention declared their concern to achieve sustainable development based on a balanced and harmonious relationship between social needs, economic activity and the environment. The cultural dimension is also of fundamental importance.
The understanding of cultural landscapes in Europe is a scientific process that is developing from a qualitative approach towards a quantitative one. Traditional landscape classifications are qualitative and intuitive. Quantitative classification methods from ecology can be used to improve our understanding of landscape character. The ITE land classification that has been developed in the 1960s and 1970s appears to be a sound basis for European approaches. Variables differ on different scale levels from climate at the highest to land cover at the lowest level. The hierarchy of a European classification can be used to stratify diversity patterns in Europe. Biodiversity, land use products and land use impacts is at the species level linked with biogeographical divisions of Europe. At the ecosystem level it is linked with land classes and its landscape diversity is found at the level of land use and management.
As a supplement to the western European typology from Landscape and Urban Planning, 18 (3–4): 289–352 (Meeus et al., 1990), a survey is made of the landscapes of northern and eastern Europe. Thirty landscapes are identified on a continental scale. This pan-European landscape typology is based on the integration of landscape formation factors. The basis for a regionally differentiated geography, morphology and scenery of the man-made landscape is provided by land form, soil and climate on the one hand and regional culture, habits and history on the other. This typology can be used as a reference for a discussion about the actual appearance of the landscape. The map of European landscapes is only a reconnaissance and is therefore not intended as a blueprint for action, but rather as a way of looking at landscape heterogeneity, a set of principles to stimulate the discussion of landscape development throughout the continent.
Pollen and plant macrofossil analysis of an 11-m sediment core from Dallund So, a lake situated in the plains of north Funen, Denmark, provide a record of the last 7000 years of vegetation history in response to changing land-use practices. Around 3900 BC, a distinct Ulmus decline is registered. The first agricultural activity is evidenced c. 400 years after the elm decline by the occurrence of cereal pollen (AvenalTriticum-type). Shortly after this, the Neolithic ‘landnam’ sensu Iversen was detected. Around the transition Late Bronze Age/Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC), extensive forest clearances followed by a major expansion of grazing areas, cultivated fields and meadows was inferred. The immigration time of Fagus is hard to identify but a threshold percentage > 2 was reached c. 700 BC, suggesting a local presence of Fagus woodland by then. In the Late Iron Age (AD 400-AD 1050), rising abundances of cereal and Cannabis-type pollen indicate increased arable farming. A contemporary Fagus/Quercus woodland expansion may be due to a change in the agricultural system. Linum-retting in the lake in this period is suggested by the macrofossil record. At the beginning of the Mediaeval period, new major deforestation was inferred, accompanied by a massive expansion of arable farming (cereals, Fagopyrum, Linum, Cannabis). Extensive Linum-retting in the Mediaeval period is documented by the macrofossil record and high values of Cannabis-type pollen in the sediments also suggest intensive retting of hemp plants. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the catchment probably witnessed the strongest agricultural impact of the last 7000 years.
Traditionally, ecological survey relies upon the intuitive interpretation of habitat patterns in the field. The statistical stratification developed for regional survey by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) is designed to minimise personal judgement in sample site location. The environmental strata within the classification are recognisable and give confidence to users from a variety of backgrounds. The methodology originated in the 1960s when multivariate statistics were developed and applied to ecological data. Initially, Great Britain (GB) was classified from environmental data recorded from 1200 out of the 240 000 km2of the National Grid. Logistic discrimination and discriminant functions were used to assign the remaining squares to original classes and to reassign the original squares. The final classes differed slightly from the initial divisions because the allocations use different data sets and different techniques. Field surveys of ecological parameters have been used to provide independent data for testing the classification, to characterise the classes and to provide national estimates of land coverage. The statistical rationale behind the methodology is described and the relevance of the experience gained during the development is discussed in relation to future work. Finally, applications of the classification are described demonstrating its use as a framework in a variety of ecological studies.
A new global land cover database for the year 2000 (GLC2000) has been
produced by an international partnership of 30 research groups coordinated by
the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre. The database contains two
levels of land cover information—detailed, regionally optimized land cover
legends for each continent and a less thematically detailed global legend that
harmonizes regional legends into one consistent product. The land cover maps
are all based on daily data from the VEGETATION sensor on-board SPOT 4,
though mapping of some regions involved use of data from other Earth
observing sensors to resolve specific issues. Detailed legend definition, image
classification and map quality assurance were carried out region by region. The
global product was made through aggregation of these. The database is designed
to serve users from science programmes, policy makers, environmental
convention secretariats, non-governmental organizations and development-aid
projects. The regional and global data are available free of charge for all noncommercial
applications from http://www.gvm.jrc.it/glc2000.
Aim To produce a statistical stratification of the European environment, suitable for stratified random sampling of ecological resources, the selection of sites for representative studies across the continent, and to provide strata for modelling exercises and reporting.
Location A ‘Greater European Window’ with the following boundaries: 11° W, 32° E, 34° N, 72° N.
Methods Twenty of the most relevant available environmental variables were selected, based on experience from previous studies. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to explain 88% of the variation into three dimensions, which were subsequently clustered using an ISODATA clustering routine. The mean first principal component values of the classification variables were used to aggregate the strata into Environmental Zones and to provide a basis for consistent nomenclature.
Results The Environmental Stratification of Europe (EnS) consists of 84 strata, which have been aggregated into 13 Environmental Zones. The stratification has a 1 km2 resolution. Aggregations of the strata have been compared to other European classifications using the Kappa statistic, and show ‘good’ comparisons. The individual strata have been described using data from available environmental databases. The EnS is available for noncommercial use by applying to the corresponding author.
Main conclusions The Environmental Stratification of Europe has been constructed using tried and tested statistical procedures. It forms an appropriate stratification for stratified random sampling of ecological resources, the selection of sites for representative studies across the continent and for the provision of strata for modelling exercises and reporting at the European scale.
Stratifications are made to divide environmental gradients into convenient units and then to use these as areas in which objects
and variables might have relatively consistent characteristics. Statistical classification is a useful approach for obtaining
this insight into complex environmental patterns and help to simplify heterogeneity. Traditional classifications of the environment
are mostly subjective and based on expert knowledge. They are largely intended for descriptive purposes. Present day techniques
now allow for continent wide statistically based environmental stratifications that can be applied consistently throughout
Europe. Such environmental stratifications can provide the basis for assessment and monitoring biodiversity, land cover and
land use and be a starting point for reporting on the European environment. The stratification presented here allows upscaling
and downscaling, if needed to reach specified objectives. It can be applied in environmental reporting. Its application as
a framework for land cover estimation is elaborated using Portuguese Land cover data.
This study has been set up to analyse the interaction between agriculture and landscape in Europe. Landscapes are in a process of transformation owing to current changes in farming practice in the European Community. This will bring about a considerable amount of instability to the countryside.In most of Europe farming is still related to soil conditions, topography and climate. In view of the existing lack of a common terminology required for a description of—and the distinction between—European landscapes the authors set up their own topology. Thirteen types of European (agricultural) landscapes are distinguished. Each one of these is named and also illustrated by means of a pictorial representation. An analysis of trends in agriculture and of possible government policies is the basis for the presentation of four scenarios describing alternative developments of the European landscape. These scenarios emphasize in turn four divergent policies in the Common Market. The impact on the landscape in each case is illustrated on four maps of Europe. The first scenario is based on an emphasis on a liberal price and market policy resulting in a tremendous change in mobility, in concentration of production, with a markedly negative impact on environmental quality and landscape amenity. The second scenario emphasizes the promotion of existing qualities in regions with a strong identity, both in terms of special products and in environmental characteristics. The third scenario stresses the need for a protection and preservation of natural and cultural values in the landscape. This means restrictions in production and the large-scale subvention of farmers. The fourth scenario is based on giving priority to an improvement of environmental quality by means of an active intervention. The sustainability of natural resources comes first here.The measures and instruments needed to implement these four scenarios are described, and so is the impact of each of them on the landscapes of Europe.The discussion leads to the conclusion that the four scenarios may be applicable simultaneously in various areas of Europe, also depending on regional conditions.
The new landscape typology of Belgium fits into the European Landscape Convention to characterise contemporary landscapes in a trans-regional and trans-border perspective. The method uses a combination of holistic and parametric approaches at two scale levels, resulting in two different landscape typologies. Four datasets covering Belgium were used: a DTM, CORINE Land Cover, a soil map, and a satellite image. Eighteen variables were defined, describing the landscape characteristics of square kilometre cells at the first scale level. These variables are used to assign a landscape type to each cell. At the second scale level, the spatial patterns formed by the grid landscape types are delineated into landscape units and described using landscape metrics. The types and patterns composition properties of the units are used in a cluster analysis to define landscape types at the second scale level. The method creates an open landscape GISdatabase enhancing the landscapes characterisation at both scale levels. The variables used to differentiate landscape types and character areas can be extended by additional descriptive variables of very different sources relating for example to regional classifications, cultural, historical, scenic properties and even iconographic documents. Thus the landscape character map is the entry to various queries.
Landscapes change because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment. Cultural landscapes are the result of consecutive reorganization of the land in order to adapt its use and spatial structure better to the changing societal demands. Particularly in Europe, history has recorded many successive and even devastating landscape changes, which have left barely any relics today. Today, the changes are seen as a menace, as a negative evolution because they cause a loss of diversity, coherence and identity, which were characteristic for the traditional cultural landscapes that are rapidly vanishing. This growing concern is also expressed in the European Landscape Convention, which will be used as a start for the analysis in this article. Three periods of landscape dynamics are considered: the traditional landscapes before the important changes that started in the 18th century, the landscapes of the revolutions age of the 19th to 20th century, and the post-modern new landscapes. The combined effect of the driving forces such as accessibility, urbanization, globalization and the impact of calamities have been different in each of the periods and affected the nature and pace of the changes as well as the perception people have had about the landscape. Values change accordingly and so does the way of using and shaping the landscape. It is argued that this changing perception also influences what kind and aspects of landscapes are studied, protected and managed. Diversity and identity of cultural landscapes are central in the discussion. It is shown that coherence between small composing elements in a broader spatial context is important for the legibility of the landscape and that the ability to tell the (his)story of a place strongly enhances the identity and the overall value. This offers criteria for inventorying and assessing landscapes, which is needed to define future management and development. Although the general trends of future development of the European landscapes are rather well known, planning and managing future landscape remains difficult and extremely uncertain. The processes and management in past traditional landscapes and the manifold relations people have towards the perceivable environment and the symbolic meaning it generates, offer valuable knowledge for more sustainable planning and management for future landscapes.
AimTo evaluate the use of time-series of Landsat sensor data acquired over an annual cycle for mapping semi-natural habitats and agricultural land cover.LocationBerwyn Mountains, North Wales, United Kingdom.MethodsUsing eCognition Expert, segmentation of the Landsat sensor data was undertaken for actively managed agricultural land based on Integrated Administration and Control System (IACS) land parcel boundaries, whilst a per-pixel level segmentation was undertaken for all remaining areas. Numerical decision rules based on fuzzy logic that coupled knowledge of ecology and the information content of single and multi-date remotely sensed data and derived products (e.g., vegetation indices) were developed to discriminate vegetation types based primarily on inferred differences in phenology, structure, wetness and productivity.ResultsThe rule-based classification gave a good representation of the distribution of habitats and agricultural land. The more extensive, contiguous and homogeneous habitats could be mapped with accuracies exceeding 80%, although accuracies were lower for more complex environments (e.g., upland mosaics) or those with broad definition (e.g., semi-improved grasslands).Main conclusionsThe application of a rule-based classification to temporal imagery acquired over selected periods within an annual cycle provides a viable approach for mapping and monitoring of habitats and agricultural land in the United Kingdom that could be employed operationally.
Changes in the length of the growing season as a result of climate change, have raised many questions about the effects on plant and animal populations. Using Remote Sensing, analysis of Vegetation Index (VI) time-series can help to understand the behavior of plant phenology through the years. Large datasets of satellite images are available to study phenology changes but the interpretation of data to get information can be difficult and different approaches give different answers about changes in the phenological cycle over Europe. In this study 21 years of GIMMS NDVI data was analyzed using two approaches to derive indicators for start, end and length of growing season. Quality control procedures showed clear limitations in the applicability of the two approaches. While there was significant correlation between indicators derived from them, trends detected in start, end or length of growing season for the two approaches often do not agree. This leaves room for questions whether trends are real or due to algorithmic effects.
At the European level, both environmental policy and research require increasingly reliable and methodologically unbiased spatial reference systems in support of environmental reports and monitoring using indicators, impact analysis or scenarios. Due to recent advances in the availability and accuracy of internationally harmonised geographic data, this project applies state-of-the-art data management techniques and data with the objective to produce two new stratifications of the terrestrial environment of Europe: (1) a Environmental Classification of Europe based on a top-down bioclimatic approach, and (2) a European Landscape Classification linking top-down and bottom-up methods of landscape character assessment. This report discusses the underlying concepts, methodologies and database constructions. The two classifications are meant to be tested and further developed through practical applications by researchers and policy experts at both the European as well as the national level.
Environmental studies need up-to-date and reliable information on land use and land cover. Such databases, which can be characterized by a high spatial accuracy and that can be updated easily, are currently not available for Europe as a whole. We investigated the applicability of satellite data for Pan-European Land Cover Monitoring (PELCOM). The main objective was to develop a method by which to obtain a 1 km spatial resolution pan-European land cover database that can be updated easily using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA AVHRR) satellite data. The database will be used as input for environmental impact studies and climate research. The study takes full advantage of both multi-spectral and multi-temporal 1 km AVHRR data. The proposed methodology for land cover mapping has its limitations in monitoring changes due to the spatial resolution and the limited accuracy of AVHRR-derived land cover data. Therefore, a change detection technique based on the use of thematic fraction images highlights those areas where the proportions of the various land cover types have changed.
In the current policy frameworks the need for up-to-date and reliable information for entire Europe is well known. A step in this direction has been taken by the Pan-European Land Cover Monitoring (PELCOM) project. A concise classification methodologywas established for mapping major land cover types by using regional expertise in an integrated approach of NOAA-AVHRR satellite data and ancillary information. An important result was the 1-km pan-European land cover database. An extensive accuracy assessment has been implemented on basis of 40 interpreted Landsat-TM satellite images distributed over pan-Europe. The total average accuracy was 69.2%. The PELCOM land cover database was applied successfully in various environmental and climate studies. The use of AVHRR satellite data has, however, its limitations for monitoring purposes due to the fine scale on which thematic land cover occur. Medium resolution satellite imagery (e.g. MODIS and MERIS) will play a crucial role in the near future in monitoring the European landscape.
Aim To produce a statistical stratification of the European environment, suitable for stratified random sampling of ecological resources, the selection of sites for representative studies across the continent, and to provide strata for modelling exercises and reporting.
A Spatial Regional Reference Framework (SRRF) has been produced which will allow an efficient assessment of sustainability impact indicators across Europe. In order to achieve this goal, it was necessary to define relatively homogeneous regions, in terms of both biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics. The major objective was the integration of these dimensions into European regions that were as uniform as possible. Therefore, in order to retain comparability, it was necessary to use consistent European databases. The spatial framework consisted of three levels, which were necessary to incorporate data on different tiers of spatial aggregation: (1) the INSPIRE Reference Grid, (2) a newly established NUTSx classification, which is a trade-off between administrative European NUTS2 and NUTS3 regions, and (3) the construction of SRRF cluster regions. The last were produced by using a statistical cluster analysis based on a restricted set of important biophysical and socio-economic parameters. 27 cluster regions resulted, which provided a flexible tool for further impact assessment at regional level.
The Habitat Directive is a an important policy instrument for nature conservation in order to avoid the further loss of important European habitats and to reduce the amount of pressures on these habitats. The set-up of a effective network of Natura 2000 sites is the most important goal of the the Habitat and Bird Directive. In order to test the potential efficiency of this network in protecting landscapes from land use changes that have a significant impact on biodiversity, a historical analysis of land use changes over the last fifty years was undertaken for 71 Natura 2000 sites and their direct surroundings across the EU. The analysis of historical land use changes in and round Natura 2000 sites shows that conservation sites have a positive effect on reducing not only the speed of land cover changes but also on the types of land cover changes. Unfortunately, the speed of land cover changes outside protected sites does hardly slow down and causes increased isolation of protected sites and fragmentation of remaining habitats within the landscapes. There-fore, the landscapes in which the remaining habitats are embedded should receive more attention for conservation strategies. This paper has a primary focus on historical land cover changes not only directly inside and outside Natura 2000 sites across Europe but also at the scale of land cover changes within the associated landscapes and what does it implies for the future.
Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) is designed to describe landscape character. It can be applied at a range of scales, from the national, though to the regional and local. It may also integrate landscape character analysis with biodiversity assessments, the analysis of historical character, air, water and soil quality, and socio-economic functions such as recreation and agriculture
Gezamenlijk proefschrift Univ. van Amsterdam van W. Vos en A.H.F. Stortelder. Met lit. opg. Met samenv. i.h. Nederlands.
Tmr (192,522), Tms (54,819), Tnr (98,174), Tns (54,955), Tar (10,215
- Thr
Thr (7549), Ths (1060), Tmr (192,522), Tms (54,819), Tnr (98,174), Tns (54,955), Tar (10,215), Tas (846) Anatolian mountains (Tm) 247,341 58.9 Anatolian high mountains (Tn) 153,129 36.4 Anatolian alpine (Ta) 11,061 2.6
Threatened Landscapes: Conserving Cultural Environments Methodological review of existing classifications
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