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Brief and rare mental “breaks” keep you focused: Deactivation and reactivation of task goals preempt vigilance decrements
Abstract
We newly propose that the vigilance decrement occurs because the cognitive control system fails to maintain active the goal of the vigilance task over prolonged periods of time (goal habituation). Further, we hypothesized that momentarily deactivating this goal (via a switch in tasks) would prevent the activation level of the vigilance goal from ever habituating. We asked observers to perform a visual vigilance task while maintaining digits in-memory. When observers retrieved the digits at the end of the vigilance task, their vigilance performance steeply declined over time. However, when observers were asked to sporadically recollect the digits during the vigilance task, the vigilance decrement was averted. Our results present a direct challenge to the pervasive view that vigilance decrements are due to a depletion of attentional resources and provide a tractable mechanism to prevent this insidious phenomenon in everyday life.
... This is attributed to the fact that countermeasures, such as exercising outside vehicles, walking, or taking naps, do not require additional fatigue monitoring equipment within vehicles or modifications to the road surface. These endogenous countermeasures allow the self-regulation of an individual to alleviate muscular fatigue or habituation effects, contributing to the recovery of mental and cognitive resources (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). Additionally, absorption of caffeine reaches its maximal blood levels about 30-45 min after consumption, therefore, consuming coffee in advance can serve as a preventive measure against driving fatigue (Gershon et al., 2009). ...
... In contrast, manual dexterity gymnastics involve different movements. According to the arousal theory, manual dexterity gymnastics may be more effective in relieving passive driver fatigue (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). ...
... These findings are consistent with a previous study that suggested a visual stimulus is more likely to induce driver fatigue (Deng et al., 2018). Furthermore, the results can be explained by the arousal theory that monotonous stimulus presentation causes habituation effects, thereby decreasing arousal and reducing alertness and attention (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). Watching videos may cause habituation effects in terms of visual stimuli in monotonous driving tasks, resulting in decreased alertness and attention. ...
... Among the studies cited in the previous paragraph, there is considerable variability in how performance was measured, with some focusing primarily on reaction time (RT) measures, such as mean RTs (e.g., Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012, fraction of the slowest or fastest RTs (e.g., Unsworth & Robison, 2016;van den Brink et al., 2016) or RT variability (e.g., Murphy et al., 2011); and others focusing more on perceptual sensitivity (i.e., d 0 : Beatty, 1982;Hopstaken et al., 2015aHopstaken et al., , 2015b or self-reported measures of task engagement (e.g., Franklin et al., 2013;Grandchamp et al., 2014;Mittner et al., 2014). Task demands also vary considerably across experiments, with some requiring only simple target detection (e.g., Massar et al., 2016) and others requiring simultaneous (Beatty, 1982;Gilzenrat et al., 2010;Murphy et al., 2011;van den Brink et al., 2016) or successive (Hopstaken et al., 2015a(Hopstaken et al., , 2015b(Hopstaken et al., , 2016Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012 discrimination. 1 Further, some tasks called for prolonged continuous monitoring (Beatty, 1982;Murphy et al., 2011), whereas others entailed intermittent breaks from the primary task (e.g., Hopstaken et al., 2015b;Smallwood et al., 2004;Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which even when very short have the potential to improve performance by temporarily boosting motivation (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014). Finally, the stimuli varied substantially, and some may have had undesirable behavioural or pupillometric consequences. ...
... Key indicators would be whether participants experienced the task as being effortful and the extent to which they engaged in task-unrelated thought, but we did not obtain these data as it would have required the use of intermittent thought probes (e.g., Hopstaken et al., 2015a;Smallwood et al., 2004;Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which involve temporary disengagement and therefore undermine a key aspect of classical vigilance task design-the requirement for continuous monitoring (Parasuraman & Davies, 1976). Thought probes may also serve as 'mini breaks', which can disrupt task monotony and alleviate the vigilance decrement (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014). In the absence of subjective reports, only the pupil data and the nature of the task can serve as a basis for inferring the cause of the vigilance decrement. ...
... Previous studies have also reported larger pupils at baseline during periods of mindwandering and poor task performance (e.g., Franklin et al., 2013;Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which is the pattern that was observed in Block 3 of the current experiment. Research also suggests that very short breaks can reduce mind-wandering and lead to performance improvements by temporarily boosting motivation (e.g., Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014), which fits with the pattern of data in the current experiment, where participants' performance was restored to more optimal levels after taking a 1-min break in between each block. ...
Baseline and task-evoked pupil measures are known to reflect the activity of the nervous system's central arousal mechanisms. With the increasing availability, affordability and flexibility of video-based eye tracking hardware, these measures may one day find practical application in real-time biobehavioural monitoring systems to assess performance or fitness for duty in tasks requiring vigilant attention. But real-world vigilance tasks are predominantly visual in their nature and most research in this area has taken place in the auditory domain. Here, we explore the relationship between pupil size—both baseline and task-evoked—and behavioural performance measures in two novel vigilance tasks requiring visual target detection: (1) a traditional vigilance task involving prolonged, continuous and uninterrupted performance (n = 28) and (2) a psychomotor vigilance task (n = 25). In both tasks, behavioural performance and task-evoked pupil responses declined as time spent on task increased, corroborating previous reports in the literature of a vigilance decrement with a corresponding reduction in task-evoked pupil measures. Also in line with previous findings, baseline pupil size did not show a consistent relationship with performance measures. Our data offer novel insights into the complex interplay of brain systems involved in vigilant attention and question the validity of the assumption that baseline (prestimulus) pupil size and task-evoked (poststimulus) pupil measures reflect the tonic and phasic firing modes of the locus coeruleus.
... For one thing, student attention tends to wax and wane over a typical lecture period, rather than steadily decline as would be predicted by a classic vigilance decrement account (Bunce et al., 2010;Wammes, Boucher et al., 2016;Wammes, Seli et al., 2016). The reality of students' attention spans aligns more closely with a model proposed by Ariga and Lleras (2011), which attributes the vigilance decline to a failure to actively maintain task goals in working memory, rather than depletion of attention per se. This perspective asserts that task-related goals become less activated over time, thereby increasing the relative strength of distractions in working memory (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). ...
... The reality of students' attention spans aligns more closely with a model proposed by Ariga and Lleras (2011), which attributes the vigilance decline to a failure to actively maintain task goals in working memory, rather than depletion of attention per se. This perspective asserts that task-related goals become less activated over time, thereby increasing the relative strength of distractions in working memory (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). If executive control is not adequate to limit the interference from competing information, then task goals and vigilance will be disrupted (Kane & Engle, 2002). ...
... If executive control is not adequate to limit the interference from competing information, then task goals and vigilance will be disrupted (Kane & Engle, 2002). However, the decline of attention during a vigilance task can be averted by a brief deactivation and reactivation of task goals (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). Likewise, introducing novelty or change in an otherwise static lecture may offset the vigilance decline for students (Faber et al., 2018;Young et al., 2009). ...
Background
Attentiveness during class is critical for learning. Teachers have strategies to promote active engagement and active learning, yet little control over students’ baseline level of alertness and focus upon arriving to class.
Objective
To evaluate the effect of pre-lecture cognitive exercise on attention and learning in lectures.
Method
In Experiment 1, college students ( n = 28) in Introductory Psychology participated in a brief battery of complex cancellation tasks prior to a subset of lectures. Effectiveness measures included course exams and post-study student surveys. Experiment 2 replicated the first in a subsequent class ( n = 35) with the same instructor and the addition of post-lecture quizzes.
Results
In both experiments, students performed higher on exam content from post-exercise lectures relative to control lectures. No effect was observed on post-lecture quizzes. On post-study surveys, students reported improved attentiveness to lecture after cognitive calisthenics.
Conclusion
Pre-lecture cognitive activity appears to benefit student attention and learning in lectures.
Teaching Implications
With so many students arriving to class either distracted or sleepy, the inclusion of a brief pre-lecture cognitive exercise program may be an engaging and effective method for optimizing student attentiveness and learning in lecture-based courses.
... The last category concerns micro-breaks (<3 min), which are extremely brief pauses that mainly serve to reduce short-term overload of the cognitive system. While the study of long breaks is restricted to field approaches, the latter types are typically examined via experimental-design (Adams, 1954;Rickard et al., 2008;Ariga and Lieras, 2011;Helton and Russell, 2015;Ralph et al., 2016;. As already indicated, the long break is the most relevant break in the regular working life. ...
... : A baseline condition is used to propagate mental fatigue (e.g., a test of 20-40 min), which is compared to one or more experimental conditions where rest-breaks (of 1-5 min) are intercalated. Typically, not merely the group differences (Ariga and Lieras, 2011;Helton and Russell, 2015) but a differential time course in the rest condition as compared to the baseline condition is taken as indication that rest prevented fatigue from accumulating (see Table 3). It is important to note that the term "mental fatigue" is most often not used in a specific sense but rather referred to as an umbrella term (cf. ...
... Humphreys and Revelle, 1984;Kaplan, 1995;Greenwald and Gillmore, 1997;Mojzisch and Schulz-Hardt, 2007;Salvucci and Taatgen, 2008;Colzato et al., 2012;Kurzban et al., 2013; for theoretical viewpoints). As mentioned earlier, Russell (2012, 2015) pointed toward the difficulty to control for (micro-) rest periods between subsequent tasks, typically not registered as such, arguing that maximally "pure" rest is, in most cases, likely the best option as compared to a change in the task whatever the task is (e.g., Ariga and Lieras, 2011;Lim and Kwok, 2016;. ...
In this work, we evaluate the status of both theory and empirical evidence in the field of experimental rest-break research based on a framework that combines mental-chronometry and psychometric-measurement theory. To this end, we (1) provide a taxonomy of rest breaks according to which empirical studies can be classified (e.g., by differentiating between long, short, and micro-rest breaks based on context and temporal properties). Then, we (2) evaluate the theorizing in both the basic and applied fields of research and explain how popular concepts (e.g., ego depletion model, opportunity cost theory, attention restoration theory, action readiness, etc.) relate to each other in contemporary theoretical debates. Here, we highlight differences between all these models in the light of two symbolic categories, termed the resource-based and satiation-based model, including aspects related to the dynamics and the control (strategic or non-strategic) mechanisms at work. Based on a critical assessment of existing methodological and theoretical approaches, we finally (3) provide a set of guidelines for both theory building and future empirical approaches to the experimental study of rest breaks. We conclude that a psychometrically advanced and theoretically focused research of rest and recovery has the potential to finally provide a sound scientific basis to eventually mitigate the adverse effects of ever increasing task demands on performance and well-being in a multitasking world at work and leisure.
... Among the studies cited in the previous paragraph, there is considerable variability in how performance was measured, with some focusing primarily on reaction time (RT) measures, such as mean RTs (e.g., Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012, fraction of the slowest or fastest RTs (e.g., Unsworth & Robison, 2016;van den Brink et al., 2016) or RT variability (e.g., Murphy et al., 2011); and others focusing more on perceptual sensitivity (i.e., d 0 : Beatty, 1982;Hopstaken et al., 2015aHopstaken et al., , 2015b or self-reported measures of task engagement (e.g., Franklin et al., 2013;Grandchamp et al., 2014;Mittner et al., 2014). Task demands also vary considerably across experiments, with some requiring only simple target detection (e.g., Massar et al., 2016) and others requiring simultaneous (Beatty, 1982;Gilzenrat et al., 2010;Murphy et al., 2011;van den Brink et al., 2016) or successive (Hopstaken et al., 2015a(Hopstaken et al., , 2015b(Hopstaken et al., , 2016Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012 discrimination. 1 Further, some tasks called for prolonged continuous monitoring (Beatty, 1982;Murphy et al., 2011), whereas others entailed intermittent breaks from the primary task (e.g., Hopstaken et al., 2015b;Smallwood et al., 2004;Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which even when very short have the potential to improve performance by temporarily boosting motivation (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014). Finally, the stimuli varied substantially, and some may have had undesirable behavioural or pupillometric consequences. ...
... Key indicators would be whether participants experienced the task as being effortful and the extent to which they engaged in task-unrelated thought, but we did not obtain these data as it would have required the use of intermittent thought probes (e.g., Hopstaken et al., 2015a;Smallwood et al., 2004;Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which involve temporary disengagement and therefore undermine a key aspect of classical vigilance task design-the requirement for continuous monitoring (Parasuraman & Davies, 1976). Thought probes may also serve as 'mini breaks', which can disrupt task monotony and alleviate the vigilance decrement (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014). In the absence of subjective reports, only the pupil data and the nature of the task can serve as a basis for inferring the cause of the vigilance decrement. ...
... Previous studies have also reported larger pupils at baseline during periods of mindwandering and poor task performance (e.g., Franklin et al., 2013;Smallwood et al., 2011Smallwood et al., , 2012Unsworth & Robison, 2016), which is the pattern that was observed in Block 3 of the current experiment. Research also suggests that very short breaks can reduce mind-wandering and lead to performance improvements by temporarily boosting motivation (e.g., Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Ralph et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014), which fits with the pattern of data in the current experiment, where participants' performance was restored to more optimal levels after taking a 1-min break in between each block. ...
Baseline and task-evoked pupil measures are known to reflect the activity of the nervous system’s central arousal mechanisms. With the increasing availability, affordability and flexibility of video-based eye tracking hardware, these measures may one day find practical application in real-time biobehavioral monitoring systems to assess performance or fitness for duty in tasks requiring vigilant attention. But real-world vigilance tasks are predominantly visual in their nature and most research in this area has taken place in the auditory domain. Here we explore the relationship between pupil size—both baseline and task-evoked—and behavioral performance measures in two novel vigilance tasks requiring visual target detection: 1) a traditional vigilance task involving prolonged, continuous, and uninterrupted performance (n = 28), and 2) a psychomotor vigilance task (n = 25). In both tasks, behavioral performance and task-evoked pupil responses declined as time spent on task increased, corroborating previous reports in the literature of a vigilance decrement with a corresponding reduction in task-evoked pupil measures. Also in line with previous findings, baseline pupil size did not show a consistent relationship with performance measures. Our data offer novel insights into the complex interplay of brain systems involved in vigilant attention and question the validity of the assumption that baseline (prestimulus) pupil size and task-evoked (poststimulus) pupil measures reflect the tonic and phasic firing modes of the locus coeruleus.
... A break is less effective when it is stressful, or if it involves overlapping informationprocessing systems demands with the external task (Helton & Russell, 2017). Some evidence suggests that even brief deactivation of vigilance demands, through spontaneous task-switching, can benefit performance on an attention-demanding task (Ariga & Lleras, 2011), though follow-up studies have not been able to replicate this result (Helton & Russell, 2017). ...
... This effect is contingent upon the overlap in resources between the secondary and primary task (Helton & Russell, 2015). In contrast, Ariga and Lleras (2011) found that spontaneous task-switching improved performance on a vigilance task. The authors argued that brief deactivation of the vigilance task goals benefits performance. ...
Attention fluctuates over time and is prone to fatigue. Thus, maintaining sustained attention is difficult. The goal of this article is to evaluate the metacognitive penetrability of attention by examining whether dynamic control over the pacing of an ongoing attention-demanding task helps individuals maintain attention. In Experiments 1 and 2, breaks were found to provide a small localized benefit in performance, but self-administered breaks were no more beneficial than ones imposed by the experimenter. Experiment 3 and 4 provided subjects full control over the onset of each trial. Subjects who self-paced stimuli now outperformed yoked controls who experienced the stimuli at a fixed rate and also those who experienced the exact same schedule as the self-pacing subjects. Experiment 5 replicated this set of findings and demonstrated that the benefit of self-pacing was diminished under dual-task conditions. Taken together, it appears that providing workers control over the pace of work allows them to coordinate the occurrence of cognitively demanding events with moments of heightened attention. However, the improvement in performance is subject to important boundary conditions on the parameters of control, does not diminish the vigilance decrement associated with fatigue, and is reduced under conditions in which attention is divided.
... Overload theories pose that increasing task demands would lead to a greater vigilance decrement, which has indeed been observed under normal conditions [39][40][41] and found to be accentuated by sleep deprivation 42 . Underload theories, on the other hand, predict that lowering cognitive demands would lead to a less engaged and more mindless performance, steering thoughts away from the task's goal 43 , producing the vigilance decrement 44 . Further support for underload theories stems from selfreported high mindlessness predicting worse performance in a vigilance task where targets appear with low frequency 45 , reports of task-induced physiological disengagement (i.e., parasympathetic activation and reduced cardiac reactivity) 46 , and activation of DMN structures with time-on-task 47 . ...
... This further reinforced the view that the EV decrement, present with under and over-demand, is mitigated with intermediate cognitive demands. The current understanding of how cognitive demands affect the vigilance decrement is still unclear given the disparity of findings [39][40][41]44,46 , and the current lack of models that explain diverging results. This is further obscured by the contradictory findings when using tDCS to modulate these effects 11,57,58 . ...
Maintaining vigilance is essential for many everyday tasks, but over time, our ability to sustain it inevitably decreases, potentially entailing severe consequences. High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) has proven to be useful for studying and improving vigilance. This study explores if/how cognitive load affects the mitigatory effects of HD-tDCS on the vigilance decrement. Participants (N = 120) completed a modified ANTI-Vea task (single or dual load) while receiving either sham or anodal HD-tDCS over the right posterior parietal cortex (rPPC). This data was compared with data from prior studies (N = 120), where participants completed the standard ANTI-Vea task (triple load task), combined with the same HD-tDCS protocol. Against our hypotheses, both the single and dual load conditions showed a significant executive vigilance (EV) decrement, which was not affected by the application of rPPC HD-tDCS. On the contrary, the most cognitively demanding task (triple task) showed the greatest EV decrement; importantly, it was also with the triple task that a significant mitigatory effect of the HD-tDCS intervention was observed. The present study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the specific effects of HD-tDCS on the vigilance decrement considering cognitive demands. This can ultimately contribute to reconciling heterogeneous effects observed in past research and fine-tuning its future clinical application.
... In seminal work by Mackworth (1948), the decrement was most prominent after 30 min in a 2-h long task, but follow-up research found it could occur as soon as 5-min depending on task demands (e.g., Nuechterlein et al., 1983). In addition to studying the onset and magnitude of the decrement (Parasuraman et al., 1987;See et al., 1995), researchers have also investigated methods to mitigate it, like giving observers a break from monitoring (McCormack, 1958;Bergum and Lehr, 1962;Ariga and Lleras, 2011;Helton and Russell, 2012, 2015Ross et al., 2014;Ralph et al., 2017). ...
... To understand the effect of the break, we examine the nonsignificant fixed time slope between the last 5 min of Block 3 and the break and the random time slope between the break to the first 5 min of Block 4. The former suggests there is no evidence that cardiac vagal tone changed during the break. Previous research found a performance benefit from a break and suggests it was due to cognitive resource recovery (McCormack, 1958;Bergum and Lehr, 1962;Ariga and Lleras, 2011;Helton and Russell, 2012, 2015Ross et al., 2014;Ralph et al., 2017). If a break allowed cognitive resources to replenish, we would expect cardiac vagal tone to increase, indicating an increase in parasympathetic nervous system activity and thus, a recovery in cognitive and emotional resource regulation. ...
Introduction
Research over the last couple of decades has demonstrated a relationship between psychophysiological measures, specifically cardiac functions, and cognitive performance. Regulation of the cardiac system under parasympathetic control is commonly referred to as cardiac vagal tone and is associated with the regulation of cognitive and socioemotional states. The goal of the current study was to capture the dynamic relationship between cardiac vagal tone and performance in a vigilance task.
Method/Results
We implemented a longitudinal growth curve modeling approach which unveiled a relationship between cardiac vagal tone and vigilance that was non-monotonic and dependent upon each person.
Discussion
The findings suggest that cardiac vagal tone may be a process-based physiological measure that further explains how the vigilance decrement manifests over time and differs across individuals. This contributes to our understanding of vigilance by modeling individual differences in cardiac vagal tone changes that occur over the course of the vigilance task.
... Yes-no tasks also provide no direct method of testing for a third form of vigilance error: attentional lapses, or brief periods of disengagement from the task. The mindlessness (Manly et al., 1999;Robertson et al., 1997) and goal habituation (Ariga & Lleras, 2011) models of sustained attention argue that vigilance errors are caused by breakdowns of goal maintenance that decouple response selection from stimulus processing. The resource control and opportunity cost (Kurzban et al., 2013) models link lapses to traditional resource theories, suggesting that failures of executive control or motivation allow resources to wander from the vigilance task to unrelated thoughts (e.g., Antrobus et al., 1967;Cunningham et al., 2000;Martínez-Pérez et al., 2021;McVay & Kane, 2009, causing processing and performance failures (e.g., Barron et al., 2011;Krimsky et al., 2017;McVay & Kane, 2009Thomson et al., 2014). ...
... In both sets of data, the decrement was largely driven by (1) conservative shifts in bias as determined by the observer's response cutoff, and (2) more frequent attentional lapses coupled with a slightly lower tendency to make positive guesses. Response cutoff shifts, of course, are wellestablished as a cause of vigilance decrement (e.g., Broadbent & Gregory, 1965;Parasuraman, 1978;Williges, 1969), and attentional lapses have likewise been implicated as a cause of vigilance loss in earlier work (e.g., Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Cunningham et al., 2000;Robertson et al., 1997;Thomson et al., 2014). Changes in guess rate can be regarded as an alternative form of bias change, separate from the shift of the signal detection response cutoff. ...
When human monitors are required to detect infrequent signals among noise, they typically exhibit a decline in correct detections over time. Researchers have attributed this vigilance decrement to three alternative mechanisms: shifts in response bias, losses of sensitivity, and attentional lapses. The current study examined the extent to which changes in these mechanisms contributed to the vigilance decrement in an online monitoring task. Participants in two experiments (N = 102, N = 192) completed an online signal detection task, judging whether the separation between two probes each trial exceeded a criterion value. Separation was varied across trials and data were fit with logistic psychometric curves using Bayesian hierarchical parameter estimation. Parameters representing sensitivity, response bias, attentional lapse rate, and guess rate were compared across the first and last 4 minutes of the vigil. Data gave decisive evidence of conservative bias shifts, an increased attentional lapse rate, and a decreased positive guess rate over time on task, but no strong evidence for or against an effect of sensitivity. Sensitivity decrements appear less robust than criterion shifts or attention lapses as causes of the vigilance loss.
... They posit that what appears to be a lapse in attention is often a diversion of attentional resources when the task at hand becomes too monotonous (Manly et al., 1999;Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). Across different versions of underload theories, attention is proposed to move to internally-generated thoughts (mind wandering: Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Robertson et al., 1997;Schooler et al., 2011;Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), nowhere (i.e., a mindless state: Fortenbaugh et al., 2017), or (critically) outward toward nontarget content (Lavie et al., 2004;Mittner et al., 2016). Thus, lapses in attention could shift processing resources from information that is strictly relevant to that which is less relevant to one's current goals. ...
... These findings provide evidence for underload theories of attention, which propose that resources are not entirely depleted during an attentional lapse, but rather are redeployed elsewhere (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Manly et al., 1999;Robertson et al., 1997;Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). In particular, we show that resources may be directed towards other information in our environments. ...
Attentional lapses have been found to impair everything from basic perception to learning and memory. Yet, despite the well-documented costs of lapses on cognition, recent work suggests that lapses might unexpectedly confer some benefits. One potential benefit is that lapses broaden our learning to integrate seemingly irrelevant content that could later prove useful-a benefit that prior research focusing only on goal-relevant memory would miss. Here, we measure how fluctuations in sustained attention influence the learning of seemingly goal-irrelevant content that competes for attention with target content. Participants completed a correlated flanker task in which they categorized central targets (letters or numbers) while ignoring peripheral flanking symbols that shared hidden probabilistic relationships with the targets. We found that across participants, higher rates of attentional lapses correlated with greater learning of the target-flanker relationships. Moreover, within participants, learning was more evident during attentional lapses. These findings address long-standing theoretical debates and reveal a benefit of attentional lapses: they expand the scope of learning and decisions beyond the strictly relevant.
... Some form of mental fatigue is typically associated with a vigilance decrement, and this mental fatigue has been linked to increased human error rate [7][8][9]. If this mental fatigue could be detected using artificial intelligence (AI), then systems could be developed to regulate mental fatigue by varying levels of stimulus to aid in sustained attention [10,11] or by providing recovery time [12]. ...
... Physiological measurements such as EEG, electrocardiography (ECG), and electrooculography (EOG) have been progressively utilized to better understand the underlying mechanisms of mental fatigue and the vigilance decrement over the past two decades, with EEG receiving significant attention in research for its insight into the status of the brain [16]. EEG signals are a measure of the electrical activity in the brain using electrodes distributed over the scalp, and EEG is often referred to by its different clinical frequency bands, namely delta (2-4 Hz), theta (4-7 Hz), alpha (8)(9)(10)(11)(12), beta (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29), and gamma . A physiological measurement such as EEG has the advantage of providing a more objective measurement of fatigue than a behavioral measure, as behavioral measures are subjective in nature and left to the experimenter's or participant's judgment. ...
Tasks which require sustained attention over a lengthy period of time have been a focal point of cognitive fatigue research for decades, with these tasks including air traffic control, watchkeeping, baggage inspection, and many others. Recent research into physiological markers of mental fatigue indicate that markers exist which extend across all individuals and all types of vigilance tasks. This suggests that it would be possible to build an EEG model which detects these markers and the subsequent vigilance decrement in any task (i.e., a task-generic model) and in any person (i.e., a cross-participant model). However, thus far, no task-generic EEG cross-participant model has been built or tested. In this research, we explored creation and application of a task-generic EEG cross-participant model for detection of the vigilance decrement in an unseen task and unseen individuals. We utilized three different models to investigate this capability: a multi-layer perceptron neural network (MLPNN) which employed spectral features extracted from the five traditional EEG frequency bands, a temporal convolutional network (TCN), and a TCN autoencoder (TCN-AE), with these two TCN models being time-domain based, i.e., using raw EEG time-series voltage values. The MLPNN and TCN models both achieved accuracy greater than random chance (50%), with the MLPNN performing best with a 7-fold CV balanced accuracy of 64% (95% CI: 0.59, 0.69) and validation accuracies greater than random chance for 9 of the 14 participants. This finding demonstrates that it is possible to classify a vigilance decrement using EEG, even with EEG from an unseen individual and unseen task.
... In response to these theories, Ariga and Lleras (2011) have also proposed an alternative theory of vigilance, referred to as the goal habituation theory. This theory suggests that the cognitive control mechanism in the brain is unable to maintain the goal of the vigilance task over time. ...
... This theory suggests that the cognitive control mechanism in the brain is unable to maintain the goal of the vigilance task over time. Essentially, the goal becomes habituated over time and as a result, performance declines (Ariga and Lleras 2011). They suggested switching the task goals during the task may attenuate the decrement. ...
Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention for an extended period of time and to respond to infrequently occurring critical signals. One of the most replicable findings within the vigilance literature is the performance decrement; the decline in performance as time on task increases. In an effort to attenuate the decrement, and decrease the workload and stress associated with vigilance, the present study investigated the role of choice of rest break duration on vigilance performance, perceived workload, and stress. Participants were assigned to one of three conditions: (1) choice condition, (2) no-choice condition (yoked-control), and (3) a no-break control condition. Participants completed a sensory vigilance task and common measures of workload and stress. A vigilance decrement was observed in all conditions. Participants in the choice condition exhibited more conservative responses and fewer false alarms than the no-choice condition. Across all conditions, task engagement and worry decreased, and distress increased.
Practitioner Summary: This study shows the impact of rest breaks and autonomy on vigilance task performance. The findings suggest that resource theory is a plausible explanation for the vigilance decrement. Additionally, providing a choice in rest break length changes the operator’s criterion following the break.
Abbreviations: TSA: transportation security administration; SART: sustained attention to response task; ERP: event-related potential; S-DT: self-determination theory; ISI: interstimulus interval; DSSQ: dundee stress state questionnaire; CFQ: cognitive failures questionnaire; BP: boredom proneness; NASA-TLX: NASA task load index; IMI: intrinsic motivation inventory
... This technique assists leaders in minimizing interruptions and keeping their attention, which increases productivity. It has been demonstrated that taking a larger number of short brea ks frequently enhances effectiveness and allows for the preservation of cognitive function acro ss extended working periods [7,8]. Leaders using this technique are capable of organizing their work in a manner that minimizes fatigue and fosters prolonged focus. ...
Increased productivity, action, and results are oriented towards the objectives of the organization and rely heavily on effective time management, which is among the critical attributes of a leader. This article argues that time management should be treated as a key skill among leaders, with a focus on the need for reserving time for what matters, effective delegation, and resolution of overstrain. This article addresses multiple streams that present the phenomenon of time management as a problem of leadership, productivity, and emotional intelligence in a remote and hybrid era. How time management is perceived in different cultures and time management in a globalized world are examined as well. Additionally, this study illustrates a positive relationship between efficient time organization and the performance of the organization, including creativity and motivation among employees. With the criticism of the literature already available, the possibilities for the practical application of such strategies as planning a management process and consideration of the trends are presented in a more general way. This study emphasizes the changing landscape of leadership output while shedding light on how time management skills can be aligned with today’s organizations.
... Finally, we presented them with a slider to rate the similarity; once a value was chosen, they moved to the potential break. An optional break was offered to the participants, which they can take or continue with the task with a button press [1]. After each break, we recalibrated the eye tracker to ensure the quality of the eyetracking data. ...
Perceptual similarity assessment plays an important role in processing visual information, which is often employed in Human-AI interaction tasks such as object recognition or content generation. It is important to understand how humans perceive and evaluate visual similarity to iteratively generate outputs that meet the users' expectations better and better. By leveraging physiological signals, systems can rely on users' EEG responses to support the similarity assessment process. We conducted a study (N=20), presenting diverse AI-generated images as stimuli and evaluating their semantic similarity to a target image while recording event-related potentials (ERPs). Our results show that the N400 component distinguishes low, medium, and high similarity of images, while the P2 component showed no significant impact, implying consistent early perceptual processing. Thus, we demonstrate that ERPs allow us to assess the users' perceived visual similarity to support rapid interactions with human-AI systems. CCS CONCEPTS • Human-centered computing → Human computer interaction (HCI).
... Multiple previous experiments have shown that attentioncontingent rewards can affect vigilance: Offering incentives to participants based on their performance in vigilance tasks reliably boosts vigilance performance (Bergum & Lehr, 1964;Esterman et al., 2014Esterman et al., , 2016Esterman et al., , 2017Massar et al., 2016;Robison et al., 2021). Generally, such work uses psychometric vigilance tasks (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Basner & Dinges, 2011;Lim & Dinges, 2008) or variants of continuous performance tasks (deBettencourt et al., 2018;Esterman et al., 2013Esterman et al., , 2014Esterman et al., , 2016Esterman & Rothlein, 2019;Manly et al., 1999) to behaviorally track sustained attention. In one example, Esterman et al. (2014) found that participants who were incentivized with money (or a shortened task duration) were more accurate and showed more consistent response times on a continuous performance task designed to measure sustained attention. ...
Our ability to maintain a consistent attentional state is essential to many aspects of daily life. Still, despite our best efforts, attention naturally fluctuates between more and less vigilant states. Previous work has shown that offering performance-based rewards or incentives can help to buffer against attentional lapses. However, such work is generally focused on long timescales and, critically, does not dissociate between task-based motivation (i.e., where reward is contingent on attention performance) versus more generic motivation or arousal accounts of reward effects. Here, we investigated the influence of reward feedback on attentional vigilance during a simultaneous sustained attention and reinforcement learning (RL) task. Crucially, rewards were tied only to the RL task rather than to attentional performance. We assessed the impact of two core components of RL—reward and surprise—on short-term fluctuations in attentional vigilance. In two experiments (N = 161), we demonstrated that intermittent, attention-independent rewards transiently boosted vigilance on a timescale of seconds. We did not find consistent evidence that surprises modulated vigilance. In a third experiment (N = 135), we observed that even passively received rewards elicit transient boosts in sustained attention. Together, these findings suggest that rewards transiently buffer against attentional lapses to improve vigilance, likely through generic increases in arousal or motivation. These results point to a fundamental relationship between reward and sustained attention.
... Doing a break and giving the brain some rest can be beneficial to overcome side effects of concentrated working: fatigue and distraction, which results in errors and eventual frustration. Neuroscience researcher recommend taking a short break after periods of concentrated work [3]. Besides taking a break, we assume that struggling students also regard the break intervention as a motivation to review the course material. ...
A typical problem in MOOCs is the missing opportunity for course conductors to individually support students in overcoming their problems and misconceptions. This paper presents the results of automatically intervening on struggling students during programming exercises and offering peer feedback and tailored bonus exercises. To improve learning success, we do not want to abolish instructionally desired trial and error but reduce extensive struggle and demotivation. Therefore, we developed adaptive automatic just-in-time interventions to encourage students to ask for help if they require considerably more than average working time to solve an exercise. Additionally, we offered students bonus exercises tailored for their individual weaknesses. The approach was evaluated within a live course with over 5,000 active students via a survey and metrics gathered alongside. Results show that we can increase the call outs for help by up to 66% and lower the dwelling time until issuing action. Learnings from the experiments can further be used to pinpoint course material to be improved and tailor content to be audience specific.
... A study using event-related potentials found that psychological fatigue during or after prolonged cognitive activity impairs workers' ability to concentrate and focus their attention [31]. Similar symptoms have been observed in vigilance tasks [56], suggesting that as individuals maintain attention and alertness to specific stimuli over time, their ability to detect target stimuli gradually decreases, reaction times increase, and error rates increase-a phenomenon known as vigilance decrement. ...
The popularity of online shopping in China has increased significantly, creating new development opportunities for the express delivery industry. However, the rapid expansion of the express industry has also created challenges in the parcel sorting process. The demanding nature of parcel sorting work, which is characterized by intense and prolonged repetitive tasks, makes individuals particularly vulnerable to the effects of fatigue. Fatigue is a complex condition that encompasses both physiological and psychological exhaustion. It often results in reduced energy levels and diminished functionality, significantly impacting an individual’s performance at work and their overall well-being. This study aimed to investigate how physiological and psychological fatigue affects sorting efficiency and to identify appropriate rest periods that will allow employees to maintain their performance levels. The research involved fifteen participants who took part in a 60 min continuous sorting experiment and a similar experiment with scheduled breaks. During both trials, we collected data on participants’ electromyography (EMG) and electrodermal activity (EDA), as well as subjective fatigue ratings (RPE). Signal features such as the median frequency (MF) of EMG and the skin conductance level (SCL) were analyzed to assess physiological and psychological fatigue, respectively. The results show that physiological fatigue mainly affects sorting efficiency in the first 30 min, while psychological fatigue becomes more influential in the following half-hour period. In addition, subjective fatigue levels during the first 30 min are primarily determined by psychological factors, while beyond that point, both physiological and psychological fatigue contribute to subjective fatigue. Rest periods of 415–460 s, based on EDA recovery times, effectively support sorting efficiency and participants’ recovery. This study highlights the complex ways in which fatigue affects parcel sorting performance and provides valuable theoretical and practical insights for establishing labor quotas and optimizing work schedules in the parcel sorting industry.
... The foregoing offers the possibility of integrating planned interruptions into modern work processes to regenerate cognitive performance (e.g. Ariga & Lleras, 2011). However, important aspects remain unexplored. ...
... An impression of that sort has formed the basis of the long-standing arousal theory that accounts for the vigilance decrement in terms of a lack of stimulation necessary to maintain alertness. Similar to mindlessness theory, Ariga & Lleras (2011) proposed a new theory of vigilance decrement: goal habituation. This theory is more cognitive in scope, using sensory habituation only as an analogy. ...
Vigilance refers to the ability to remain alert on a specific task for longer period of time. During vigilance task performance usually declined with increase in time which is termed as vigilance decrement. Present paper discusses about numerous theories that have been proposed to explain vigilance performance. However, yet a theory has to emerge that could make specific performace related predictions. Recently, two broad families of theories of failures of sustained attention are widely debated in the literature. The first family of theories contends that the decrement in vigilance performance occurs due to mindlessness, boredom, or cognitive under-load produced by monotonous nature of vigilance tasks. On the contrary, the second family of theories posits that the vigilance decrement occurs due to resource demand, mental fatigue, or cognitive over-load placed by highly demanding nature of vigilance tasks.
... 83 % of students who actively use social networks admit that their lives are "quite stressful" or "very stressful". The results of the study also emphasize that the use of social networks reduces students' ability to concentrate and learn effectively (Atsunori & Lleras, 2011). On the other hand, in the study "Your Brain on Facebook" (2011) points out that when communicating with people online, we usually do not get the hormones of happiness that occur when we interact with someone in real time (Rock, 2012). ...
Nowadays one of the major problems in education is the lack of a specific strategy for the implementation of breaks (recess policy) in an educational institution. The development of such a strategy in the majority of cases is different for every school, as evaluating several factors is required, e.g., the age of students, interests, learning needs and progress, the location and specialization of the school, etc. However, students` awareness of the necessity for individual recess strategy gains importance as well. The research aim is to investigate and clarify the possibilities and necessity of recess breaks in primary school. There are theoretical research methods and empirical research methods (students’, teachers’ and parents’ surveys), data processing and analysis methods (quantitative, graphical representation of data, data analysis using IBM SPSS v.22 predictive analytics and statistical analysis software package) used in the research. The analysis of students’ survey emphasized that students more often prefer listening to music or socializing during breaks. While parents’ questionnaire highlighted the necessity for their offsprings to spend more time outside in fresh air. They mean it would help their children to better concentrate in lessons. While teachers` survey analysis revealed that students concentration is better if students are more interested in a particular subject.
... One popular time tracking application, DeskTime, suggests that 52 minutes working and then a 17-minute break leads to the highest productivity, obtained by studying the most productive 10% of its users [5]. The data analysed by DeskTime is further supported by an exhaustive study by Ariga et al., which advocates for an hourly break [6]. Whilst 30-to-60minute intervals are shown to work for most people, ultimately, the time a break should be taken varies both per individual and per task, requiring fine tuning to truly perfect. ...
Taking breaks from the computer is an important part of information-centred work contexts. Existing research shows that break reminder tools tend to fall into one of two categories: either they are too intrusive or not intrusive enough. In this article, we present the results from our break reminder tool BreakBuddy, which we have developed as a unique and personal approach to reminders. The importance of taking breaks and how important they are for focus, health, and productivity during work has been carefully addressed through existing research, which we attempt to leverage and incorporate into the tool. In this paper, we present results that suggest BreakBuddy can help users to take breaks through using the character to graphically represent the need to take a break. We also present the utility of BreakBuddy, how it helped participants to be more aware of taking breaks, and how the aspect of fun in the form of the customised approach made the user more inclined to continue using the application. MOTIVATION Contrasting approaches have been enacted when attempting to implement research on how best to get people to take breaks from the computer, and when to do it, into tools. Break reminder tools tend to fall into one of two categories: either they are too intrusive or are not intrusive enough. Tools that are too intrusive, such as alerts that take over the screen [7] [8], tend to irritate users and ultimately deter them away from further usage, whilst tools that are not intrusive enough [10] simply go unnoticed, ergo ineffective. In this study, guided by a body of prior research related to break timing [1] [2] [3] [4] [5], we attempt a different and unique approach to tool implementation; the primary goal of which is to get the user to take breaks effectively, without dissuading them from further use (as to fit between the two categories of existing tools). To try and achieve this, we implement a four-phase intrusiveness level shift, whereby a customisable animated character changes across four equal intervals, gradually becoming more intrusive each phase. The changes are conveyed graphically via the character, primarily through altering its facial expression, to gradually appear more and less focussed. Once the user set break timer is exceeded, the character will enter the most intrusive state, which involves sending out desktop notifications and randomly moving around the screen. For the reminder intervals, our tool leverages in part the approach studied by Luo et al. in their tool, Time for Break [1], where break prompts are set flexibly by the user.
... In addition, pauses can also indicate cognitive reappraisal strategies such as affective regulation (Spann, Shute, Rahimi, D'Mello, 2019;Gross, 1998). Studies have also shown that even a short passive pause from cognitive tasks can increase subsequent cognitive performance (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Jansseen et al., 2014). However, on the other hand, pauses can also simply indicate disengagement. ...
In the context of game-based learning environments, stealth assessment unobtrusively measures learning outcomes. However, designing a robust evidence model requires careful consideration of learning behaviors in context. This chapter presents a case on designing evidence models for stealth assessment in a game-based learning environment. In this study, the authors employ a finite mixture model to analyze players' pause behaviors in the game, interpreting the meanings of these behaviors under different contexts. The findings contribute to the understanding of how to balance granularity and context in designing evidence models, proving valuable for enhancing the efficacy of stealth assessments for game-based learning.
... When feeling focus decline, taking a walk, sitting quietly, or taking deep breaths can bring rejuvenation. 36 An effective method to support this concept of "taking a break" might involve setting an alarm to go off every hour with a reminder, to take a few minutes to regroup and increase focus. ...
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, physician burnout is a more relevant concern than ever. Pre-existing stressors in health care, such as poor work-life balance, perfectionism, and inadequate social support, have been exacerbated by uncertainty, increased risk exposure, and general anxiety. Burnout places not only physicians, but also patients, systems, and communities at risk. The promotion of physician well-being is critical to sustaining the health care system. Actions to reduce burnout and increase well-being can and should occur on multiple levels. Organizations and leaders must take steps to create a culture of support and respect for health care providers. Such steps may include improved time-off policies, destigmatizing the use of mental health services, and reducing administrative burden. Physician well-being may benefit from action on an individual level as well. The pillars of Lifestyle Medicine provide a framework for engaging in behaviors compatible with overall well-being, such as physical activity, social connection, and sleep. Lifestyle Medicine plays a key role in mitigating the impact of physician burnout, and will be essential to the success of the health care system moving forward.
... This suggests that students take a cognitive break after being engaged for a long time. While the other state has a short duration in general (median = 5 seconds), research suggests that breaks during learning activities can be beneficial, providing students with cognitive rest (Ariga and Lleras, 2011;Lim and Kwok, 2016). ...
Affect dynamics in digital learning systems (DLS) research investigates how students’ emotions evolve while using these systems. This information can reveal the most common emotions experienced by students and how they transition between them. Recent studies indicate that affect dynamics in DLS vary depending on students’ demographic and personal characteristics, such as nationality. However, most research has focused on students from the United States and the Philippines, leaving a gap in understanding Latin American learners and the potential differences in affect dynamics based on gender and emotion duration. This study introduces an affect dynamics model for Brazilian students using a Math DLS in a school setting, encompassing emotions like confusion, frustration, boredom, and engagement. We also present evidence that affect dynamics models differ based on students’ gender and emotion duration. Analyzing affect dynamics across cultures allows for better understanding and generalization of the resulting models while also demonstrating the influence of emotion duration and learners’ gender on affect dynamics. This knowledge enables tailoring more adaptive interventions for students’ emotions in DLS.
... Vigilance is the ability to remain focused on a task for a period of time and its decrease is reflected in a decline in performance, such as an increase in response latency (e.g., Mackworth, 1950;See et al., 1995). Brief breaks in sustained attention tasks may increase vigilance and improve performance (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Helton & Warm, 2008) and it was suggested that this technique may affect the task (Robison et al., 2021). ...
Mind wandering (MW) reflects a situation in which the cognitive system is detached from the main task and involved with inner thoughts. It has been well document that music and other background sounds can have positive effects on number of cognitive functioning. In addition, other body of literature suggests that background sounds might have specifically positive effect on individuals with more attention deficiencies. Hence, the current study examines the effect of background sounds on MW. In two experiments, the effect of background sounds: music (Experiment 1) or an alerting tone (Experiment 2) while performing sustained attention tasks was examined among typical development participants with different severity of attention deficiency. Background sounds were found to reduce MW especially in individuals with more ADHD symptoms. This was further discussed in the context of several theories, and it was suggested that background sound might be used as a tool for MW reduction.
... Related, commuting students say that they recognize the commute as an important time for study and learning (e.g., Asher et al., 2017;. Research demonstrating the benefits of breaks and rest for learning (e.g., Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Diekelmann & Born, 2010) may also apply to separating oneself from an earlier learning event at work such that consolidation and storage continues during the commute in a relatively resource-free manner. Moreover, as Beier (2021) points out, seeking to expand one's knowledge in a familiar domain (e.g., job knowledge) reduces the cognitive load of learning because the existing frame of reference facilitates the integration of new knowledge. ...
Though commuting is often seen as a source of stress, commuters may take advantage of travel time to pursue learning and developmental goals—a concept we refer to as Commute-Based Learning (CBL). We draw on self-regulation and learning and development theories to define CBL in terms of its context, content, and process and present the findings of a systematic review of multitasking activities in the transportation literature. This review demonstrates that (a) travel-based activities related to learning are increasingly prevalent, (b) people enjoy being productive during their commutes, and (c) commute mode and environmental characteristics impact multitasking and evaluations of the commute itself. We then integrate these review findings with psychological theories to propose a framework specifying the predictors of CBL, its benefits, and drawbacks, and the commute mode's moderating influence. These efforts yield several practical implications and future research directions to increase CBL's potential benefits while reducing potential harm.
... Researchers are increasingly interested in identifying and implementing different strategies that will help to keep individuals feeling refreshed, energized, and engaged while at work or school. Mounting scholarship has indicated that taking short "mental breaks" or "micro-breaks" in which an individual focuses on a task that is unrelated to work or study results in overall increased productivity, content absorption, and engagement (Ariga & Lleras, 2011). College and university students often participate in study for long periods of time without interruption. ...
Over the past decade there has been an increasing awareness of the need for wholistic means of support for college and university students. With the rate of mental health concerns continuing to rise, institutions of higher education are working more collaboratively to create increased access to mental health support on campuses. Although academic libraries have customarily been responsible for bolstering their parent institution’s commitment to academic success as well as student and faculty research initiatives – it has become increasingly clear that prioritizing their community’s mental health plays a critical role in achieving these goals. As a result, many academic libraries have begun utilizing methods of play to support the mental health and wellbeing of their patronage. Most commonly art supplies, videogame consoles/games, and kinetic resources such as Legos and Play-Doh are offered year-round for check out at many institutions, while events including coloring and crafting opportunities are offered monthly with an increased presence near midterms and finals. This paper will utilize a combination of annual reports, scholarly articles, and library websites to identify and convey trends, emerging practices, and initiatives.
... To address this palpably, reef tourism businesses need to manage services to schedule adequate breaks and adjust crew-to-passenger ratios (which may involve optimising staff numbers) in ways that ensure break times are preserved and not sacrificed in the wake of service delivery needs. Breaks during long working hours facilitate natural recovery, mental disengagement, and psychological detachment (from work) and improve subsequent task focus for longer periods (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Tucker, Folkard, & Macdonald, 2003). As emotional exhaustion has also been linked to impaired cognitive functioning (Diestel et al., 2013;van Dam et al., 2011), better management of staff to enable designated breaks to be taken (or when deemed needed) will be empowering but also ensure appropriate safety management of every person onboard. ...
Emotional labour is important to the performance of interactive service work in the tourism industry. However, emotional labour dysregulation, defined as a difficulty in managing emotions in daily routines, may lead to negative outcomes. This study aimed to fill an important gap by gaining a better understanding of perceived countermeasures for effectively managing emotional labour dysregulation in tourism workers. Using snowball sampling to recruit participants, eight focus groups were conducted with 42 reef workers in Cairns (Australia), using a novel scenario-based technique for knowledge elicitation. Findings outline countermeasures to emotional labour dysregulation according to two themes: (1) individual-level strategies, and (2) broader system factors. Both themes deal with the demands of emotional labour. Knowledge about countermeasures to emotional labour dysregulation has the potential to support employees and in turn influence positive tourism experiences which can help the industry to achieve business success and positive customer reviews.
... Incentive (level 3): This level is included to improve the child's attention span by providing a non-task break. There is evidence to support the use of breaks and rest during learning tasks to improve task performance (Toppino et al., 1991;Ariga and Lleras, 2011). This led us to include children's jokes within this prompt category to provide an opportunity for the child to relax and refocus on the task at hand. ...
This work describes the design of real-time dance-based interaction with a humanoid robot, where the robot seeks to promote physical activity in children by taking on multiple roles as a dance partner. It acts as a leader by initiating dances but can also act as a follower by mimicking a child’s dance movements. Dances in the leader role are produced by a sequence-to-sequence (S2S) Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network trained on children’s music videos taken from YouTube. On the other hand, a music orchestration platform is implemented to generate background music in the follower mode as the robot mimics the child’s poses. In doing so, we also incorporated the largely unexplored paradigm of learning-by-teaching by including multiple robot roles that allow the child to both learn from and teach to the robot. Our work is among the first to implement a largely autonomous, real-time full-body dance interaction with a bipedal humanoid robot that also explores the impact of the robot roles on child engagement. Importantly, we also incorporated in our design formal constructs taken from autism therapy, such as the least-to-most prompting hierarchy, reinforcements for positive behaviors, and a time delay to make behavioral observations. We implemented a multimodal child engagement model that encompasses both affective engagement (displayed through eye gaze focus and facial expressions) as well as task engagement (determined by the level of physical activity) to determine child engagement states. We then conducted a virtual exploratory user study to evaluate the impact of mixed robot roles on user engagement and found no statistically significant difference in the children’s engagement in single-role and multiple-role interactions. While the children were observed to respond positively to both robot behaviors, they preferred the music-driven leader role over the movement-driven follower role, a result that can partly be attributed to the virtual nature of the study. Our findings support the utility of such a platform in practicing physical activity but indicate that further research is necessary to fully explore the impact of each robot role.
... Studying for long hours without a break is not the way to go since our memory would deteriorate from trying to memorize and understand too much information at once. A study by Ariga and Lleras (2011) showed that short breaks from a task could drastically increase one's ability to concentrate on that task for much longer. In the study, the participants were asked to perform a 50-minute task. ...
... Vigilance is the ability to remain focused on a task for a period of time and its decrease is reflected in a decline in performance, such as an increase in response latency (e.g., Mackworth, 1950;See et al., 1995). Brief breaks in sustained attention tasks may increase vigilance and improve performance (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Helton & Warm, 2008). ...
Background
Individuals with an ADHD diagnosis have increased levels of interfering thoughts, especially in the form of mind wandering. This was mostly investigated in sustained attention tasks; hence it is unclear whether the findings are only due to their difficulties in those types of tasks. Moreover, it is unclear how the amount of control invested in the task will affect those differences between control and ADHD groups.
Method
ADHD and matched control groups performed the Stroop task under high and low conflict conditions while measuring their interfering thoughts level.
Results
Individuals with ADHD have more interfering thoughts compared to a control group even when they are able to change their control level according to the task conflict.
Conclusion
Interfering thoughts are an independent predictor of ADHD impairments, observed regardless of the degree of control invested in the task.
... there is an alternate explanation for attentional performance decline. Concerning the latter, several other hypotheses regarding the origin of vigilance decrements have been proposed (Ariga & Lleras, 2011;Hancock, 2013;Mackworth, 1968;Robertson, Manly, Andrade, Baddeley, & Yiend, 1997). Two theories regarding the habituation of either sensory or motivational systems, the signal and goal habituation models respectively, are not conducive to our data as measures of perceptual sensitivity and omissions remain stable throughout task performance. ...
Attention is critical for interacting with our dynamic cue-rich environments and consequently attentional deficits can escalate to yield incapacitating disorders. In order to develop rational treatments for the attentional instabilities that typify a wide range of brain disorders, it is crucial that we determine the validity of behavioral tasks used to reveal neurobehavioral and neurocognitive mechanisms of attention in both rodent models and healthy and impaired humans. Measures of behavioral performance from tasks with little or uncertain validity yield misleading neuro-behavioral mappings that offer little translational utility. Here, we assessed the construct validity of a common rodent attentional task, the Sustained Attention Task (SAT), examined competing models for the psychological mechanisms which mediate effects of performance challenges thought to tax attentional resources or effort, and determined individual differences in the neurobiological and cognitive mechanisms for SAT performance. Dominant conceptualizations about the psychological nature of the SAT have assumed that it necessitates “top-down”, or goal-directed, attentional control for the successful detection of relatively rare stimuli. The work presented in this dissertation challenges the assumption that in all individuals, SAT engages “top-down” attentional mechanisms. Specifically, animals with relatively “hot” cognitive-motivational styles (sign-trackers), prone to attributing incentive motivational properties to reward predictive cues, engage perceptual, but not cholinergic-attentional mechanisms to respond to salient cues in SAT. Next, we examined the cognitive mechanisms underlying task decline or maintenance in SAT, particularly in the face of challenges. To this aim we tested two competing models of effortful performance: the resource depletion model and the opportunity cost model. The former proposes that performance on tasks, such as the SAT, declines over time as a function of consumed biological and psychological resources. However, this model fails to explain a number of critical features of effortful performance and can be methodologically irrefutable. Alternatively, the opportunity cost model is computationally accessible, proposing that task performance declines as a result of subjective feelings of effort arising from cost/benefit calculations for the value of staying on task versus switching to an alternate action. We employed SAT manipulations proposed to alter the demands on task-related processing resources versus opportunity costs associated with task maintenance in opposing directions. Male and female rats trained to SAT criterion performed four versions of SAT: with a flashing house light distractor (dSAT), dSAT with a rest period from task performance, with blocks where the intertrial interval (ITI) is shortened, and with blocks where the ITI is lengthened. Importantly, the two competing theoretical perspectives predict opposed outcomes of these task manipulations: long ITIs should not tax attentional resources, but they should be neutral to or elevate opportunity costs. Conversely, shorter ITIs are thought to tax processing resources but may be neutral with respect to, or even decrease, opportunity costs. The rest period during dSAT is proposed to offer relief and restoration for consumed resources while remaining neutral to opportunity costs. The results from these manipulations were not consistent with a resource depletion account of task maintenance nor did they conform to predictions set by the opportunity cost model. Collectively, the data presented in this dissertation have established a research program designed to determine the construct validity of SAT, to test competing psychological theories about the mechanisms involved in the response to task manipulations, and further examined individual differences in attentional strategies.
This study aimed to investigate the cognitive mechanisms behind vigilance changes in multi-task scenarios. Moreover, we compared the effects of four types of rest activities, i.e. meditation, virtual exposure to nature, listening to music, playing an action video game (AVG), on mitigating possible performance decline and regulating task-induced emotional changes in complex multiple-source vigilance tasks. Results of a two-session experiment on fifty-six participants using the Multi-Attribute Task Battery-II (MATB-II) suggest that the participants’ arousal levels increased with time-on-task in both sessions, and performance decrement was observed only in the second session. Mindlessness measures were associated with performance fluctuations. All types of rest led to significant performance improvement in the second session, with meditation having the largest effect and AVG having the smallest. Rest activities restore performance by improving executive control (meditation), reducing emotional activity (meditation and nature exposure), or boosting arousal (music).
Alcohol has complex and multifarious effects on cognition. One means by which alcohol can influence a wide variety of cognitive behaviors is through its effects on attention. This study investigated the effects of alcohol consumption on sustained attention, or vigilance. We report here a high-powered study in which participants consumed either an alcoholic or a non-alcoholic beverage and then completed a spatial vigilance task, with half of the subjects in each condition receiving two rest breaks interleaved throughout the task. Alcohol impaired vigilance performance and also decreased the local recuperative benefit of rest breaks. Difference in decision processes were apparent, with intoxicated participants employing a more liberal and less optimal response criterion. These findings underscore the detrimental effects of alcohol on attention and provide novel evidence that rest is less effective following alcohol consumption.
The ability to monitor for rare critical events tends to deteriorate over time on task, an effect termed the vigilance decrement. Although the decrement has been replicated many times, it has generally been studied with sensory discrimination tasks. Research using cognitive vigilance tasks, which require judgments of symbolic stimulus characteristics, has produced less consistent results. To test the robustness and nature of the cognitive vigilance decrement, the current study developed a computational performance model of a novel monitoring task. Participants monitored for critical events in a task that required them to estimate the central tendency of a set of three-digit readings each trial. For analysis, data from the first and last 4-min blocks of trials were fit with a model based on signal detection theory. The model assumed that participants could either perform the task in an attentive state, in which decisions were stimulus-driven, or could lapse into an inattentive state, in which decisions were guessed. Parameter estimates indicated an increase in attentional lapse rate and a decrease in positive guess rate over time, coupled with a decrease in internal processing noise. The effects of these latent changes on observable response rates, however, were modest and partially offsetting. Results suggest that attention lapses and a tendency toward negative guesses are common causes of vigilance loss across sensory and cognitive tasks, but can have small effects on observed responses.
Despite its importance in different occupational and everyday contexts, vigilance, typically defined as the capacity to sustain attention over time, is remarkably limited. What explains these limits? Two theories have been proposed. The Overload Theory states that being vigilant consumes limited information‐processing resources; when depleted, task performance degrades. The Underload Theory states that motivation to perform vigilance tasks declines over time, thereby prompting attentional shifts and hindering performance. We highlight some conceptual and empirical problems for both theories and propose an alternative: the Strategic Allocation Theory . For the Strategic Allocation Theory, performance on vigilance tasks optimizes as a function of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, including metacognitive factors such as the expected value of effort and the expected value of planning. Limited capacities must be deployed across task sets to maximize expected reward. The observed limits of vigilance reflect changes in the perceived value of, among other things, sustaining attention to a task rather than attending to something else. Drawing from recent computational theories of cognitive control and meta‐reasoning, we argue that the Strategic Allocation Theory explains more phenomena related to vigilance behavior than other theories, including self‐report data. Finally, we outline some of the testable predictions the theory makes across several experimental paradigms.
This article is categorized under: Philosophy > Foundations of Cognitive Science
Psychology > Attention
The ability to sustain attention is often measured with either objective performance indicators, like within-person RT variability, or subjective self-reports, like mind wandering propensity. A more construct valid approach, however, may be to assess the covariation in these performance and self-report measures, given that each of these is influenced by different sources of measurement error. If the correlation between performance-variability and self-report measures reflects the sustained attention construct, then task manipulations aimed at reducing the sustained attention demands of tasks should reduce the correlation between them (in addition to reducing mean levels of variability and mind wandering). The current study investigated this claim with a combined experimental-correlation approach. In two experiments (Ns ~ 1,500 each), participants completed tasks that either maximized or minimized the demand for sustained attention. Our demand manipulations successfully reduced the mean levels of sustained attention failures in both the objective and subjective measures, in both experiments. In neither experiment, however, did the covariation between these measures change as a function of the sustained attention demands of the tasks. We can therefore claim only minimal support for the construct validity of our measurement approach to sustained attention.
There is a growing body of literature demonstrating that language rehabilitation can improve naming impairments for individuals with aphasia. However, there are challenges applying evidence-based research to clinical practice. Well-controlled clinical studies often consist of homogenous samples and exclude individuals who may confound group-level results. Consequently, the findings may not generalize to the diverse clients serviced by speech-language therapists. Within evidence-based guidelines, clinicians can leverage their experiences and theoretical rationale to adapt interventions to meet the needs of individual clients. However, modifications to evidence-based interventions should not alter aspects of treatment that are necessary to produce change within the treatment target. The current discussion paper uses errorless learning, errorful learning, and retrieval practice for naming in aphasia to model how treatment theories can guide clinicians in making theory-informed modifications to interventions. First, we briefly describe the learning mechanisms hypothesized to underlie errorless learning, errorful learning, and retrieval practice. Next, we identify ways clinicians can provide targeted supports to optimize learning for individual clients. The paper ends with a reflection on how well-defined treatment theories can facilitate the generation of practice-based evidence and clinically relevant decision making.
In comparison to your undergraduate, postgraduate study offers a considerable increase in independence and responsibility for managing your own deadlines and commitments. Therefore, as a postgraduate student, effective time management is a crucial skill to adapt to the many competing demands on your time. Throughout my own postgraduate studies as a master’s and PhD student, I have learnt multiple techniques which have helped me prioritise my time. Within this article, I share a few of these strategies in an attempt to help other postgraduate students develop their own time management skills.
The construction industry is suffering, in part, from a lack of training programs offered to the construction workforce. Unfortunately, most construction training and education research focuses on university student education. Integrating education science theory into construction workforce training has the potential to improve industry training but there is a dearth of studies that present details of this integration process. To address this gap, a training framework was developed to educate material stakeholders on material properties, selection, and installation. This framework is based on andragogical and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles. An assessment method evaluates training agendas to improve upon instructional design before training implementation. This method assesses the proposed training framework by enumerating the occurrences of Bloom’s Taxonomy verbs to determine how closely the proposed training’s goals and objectives followed Bloom’s guidelines. This study culminates by establishing linkages from educational theory to proposed training modules. The module template is presented in a goals and objectives format so that organizations can best implement and test this training framework.
Digital distractions are an important and prevalent aspect of college students' lives. Using a self-regulated learning perspective, this chapter provides an in-depth understanding of students' digital distractions in academic settings and highlights how college instructors can empower their students to manage digital distractions and self-regulate their own learning. In particular, the chapter discusses both the causes and consequences of engaging in digital distractions with a focus on the impact of multitasking. In addition, the chapter argues that students' engagement in digital distractions is closely connected to their motivation and emotions. This chapter highlights how college students can regulate their digital distractions throughout the learning process during each phase of self-regulated learning. Finally, the chapter reviews the ways college instructors can support students' management of distractions through their instructional approaches.
Seemingly distinct cognitive tasks often activate similar anatomical networks. For example, the right fronto-parietal cortex is active across a wide variety of paradigms suggesting that these regions may subserve a general cognitive function. We utilized fMRI and a GO/NOGO task consisting of two conditions, one with intermittent unpredictive "cues-to-attend" and the other without any "cues-to-attend," in order to investigate areas involved in inhibition of a prepotent response and top-down attentional control. Sixteen subjects (5 male, ages ranging from 20 to 30 years) responded to an alternating sequence of the letters X and Y and withheld responding when the alternating sequence was broken (e.g., when X followed an X). Cues were rare stimulus font-color changes, which were linked to a simple instruction to attend to the task at hand. We hypothesized that inhibitions and cues, despite requiring quite different responses from subjects, might engage similar top-down attentional control processes and would thus share a common network of anatomical substrates. Although inhibitions and cues activated a number of distinct brain regions, a similar network of right dorsolateral prefrontal and inferior parietal regions was active for both. These results suggest that this network, commonly activated for response inhibition, may subserve a more general cognitive control process involved in allocating top-down attentional resources.
The ability to remain vigilant over long periods of time is critical for many everyday tasks, but controlled studies of visual sustained attention show that performance declines over time when observers are required to respond to rare stimulus events (targets) occurring in a sequence of standard stimulus events (nontargets). When target discrimination is perceptually difficult, this vigilance decrement manifests as a decline in perceptual sensitivity. We examined whether sudden-onset stimuli could act as exogenous attentional cues to improve sensitivity during a traditional sustained attention task. Sudden-onset cues presented immediately before each stimulus attenuated the sensitivity decrement, but only when stimulus timing (the interstimulus interval [ISI]) was constant. When stimulus timing was variable, exogenous cues increased overall sensitivity but did not prevent performance decline. Finally, independent of the effects of sudden onsets, a constant ISI improved vigilance performance. Our results demonstrate that exogenous attention enhances perceptual sensitivity during vigilance performance, but that this effect is dependent on observers' being able to predict the timing of stimulus events. Such a result indicates a strong interaction between endogenous and exogenous attention during vigilance. We relate our findings to a resource model of vigilance, as well as to theories of endogenous and exogenous attention over short time periods.
Although mind wandering occupies a large proportion of our waking life, its neural basis and relation to ongoing behavior remain controversial. We report an fMRI study that used experience sampling to provide an online measure of mind wandering during a concurrent task. Analyses focused on the interval of time immediately preceding experience sampling probes demonstrate activation of default network regions during mind wandering, a finding consistent with theoretical accounts of default network functions. Activation in medial prefrontal default network regions was observed both in association with subjective self-reports of mind wandering and an independent behavioral measure (performance errors on the concurrent task). In addition to default network activation, mind wandering was associated with executive network recruitment, a finding predicted by behavioral theories of off-task thought and its relation to executive resources. Finally, neural recruitment in both default and executive network regions was strongest when subjects were unaware of their own mind wandering, suggesting that mind wandering is most pronounced when it lacks meta-awareness. The observed parallel recruitment of executive and default network regions--two brain systems that so far have been assumed to work in opposition--suggests that mind wandering may evoke a unique mental state that may allow otherwise opposing networks to work in cooperation. The ability of this study to reveal a number of crucial aspects of the neural recruitment associated with mind wandering underscores the value of combining subjective self-reports with online measures of brain function for advancing our understanding of the neurophenomenology of subjective experience.
Perceptual load is a key determinant of distraction by task-irrelevant stimuli (e.g., Lavie, N. (2005). Distracted and confused?: Selective attention under load. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 75–82). Here we establish the role of perceptual load in determining an internal form of distraction by task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs or “mind-wandering”).
Four experiments demonstrated reduced frequency of TUTs with high compared to low perceptual load in a visual-search task. Alternative accounts in terms of increased demands on responses, verbal working memory or motivation were ruled out and clear effects of load were found for unintentional TUTs. Individual differences in load effects on internal (TUTs) and external (response-competition) distractors were correlated. These results suggest that exhausting attentional capacity in task-relevant processing under high perceptual load can reduce processing of task-irrelevant information from external and internal sources alike.
The neuropsychological investigation of frontal lobe functioning requires a new approach. We have presented one possible framework. The focus of study should be defined categories of tasks that allow measurement of the component processes necessary for successful task completion. Our hypotheses derive from previous investigations showing dissociations of behaviors. Our approach is rooted in cognitive theory. Converging investigations from anatomy, neuropsychology, and physiology can be used to provide congruent evidence to demonstrate dissociable human prefrontal functions.
The prefrontal cortex has long been suspected to play an important role in cognitive control, in the ability to orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal goals. Its neural basis, however, has remained a mystery. Here, we propose that cognitive control stems from the active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal cortex that represent goals and the means to achieve them. They provide bias signals to other brain structures whose net effect is to guide the flow of activity along neural pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task. We review neurophysiological, neurobiological, neuroimaging, and computational studies that support this theory and discuss its implications as well as further issues to be addressed
Cases in which salient visual stimuli do not register consciously are known to occur in special conditions, such as the presentation of dissimilar stimuli to the two eyes or when images are stabilized on the retina. Here, we report a striking phenomenon of 'visual disappearance' observed with normal-sighted observers under natural conditions. When a global moving pattern is superimposed on high-contrast stationary or slowly moving stimuli, the latter disappear and reappear alternately for periods of several seconds. We show that this motion-induced blindness (MIB) phenomenon is unlikely to reflect retinal suppression, sensory masking or adaptation. The phenomenology observed includes perceptual grouping effects, object rivalry and visual field anisotropy. This is very similar to that found in other types of visual disappearance, as well as in clinical cases of attention deficits, in which partial invisibility might occur despite the primary visual areas being intact. Disappearance might reflect a disruption of attentional processing, which shifts the system into a winner-takes-all mode, uncovering the dynamics of competition between object representations within the human visual system.
College Ss repeated a word and then rated the word along scales of the semantic differential. Changes in ratings between normal and satiation conditions reveal a movement of ratings toward the meaningless points of scales. This phenomenon is a cognitive form of reactive inhibition and is related to Osgood's theory of representational mediation processes. A 2nd experiment shows that these mediation processes are central rather than peripheral-muscular activities by having one group think the words and another group actually satiate by saying the words.
In multiple comparison we may compare not only means but also variances, proportions, medians, correlations, etc. A general method is presented and illustrated for use of a particular statistic.
This article reviews the hypothesis that mind wandering can be integrated into executive models of attention. Evidence suggests that mind wandering shares many similarities with traditional notions of executive control. When mind wandering occurs, the executive components of attention appear to shift away from the primary task, leading to failures in task performance and superficial representations of the external environment. One challenge for incorporating mind wandering into standard executive models is that it often occurs in the absence of explicit intention--a hallmark of controlled processing. However, mind wandering, like other goal-related processes, can be engaged without explicit awareness; thus, mind wandering can be seen as a goal-driven process, albeit one that is not directed toward the primary task.
Cognitive control impairments in healthy older adults may partly reflect disturbances in the ability to actively maintain goal-relevant information, a function that depends on the engagement of lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). In 2 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies, healthy young and older adults performed versions of a task in which contextual cues provide goal-relevant information used to bias processing of subsequent ambiguous probes. In Study 1, a blocked design and manipulation of the cue-probe delay interval revealed a generalized pattern of enhanced task-related brain activity in older adults but combined with a specific delay-related reduction of activity in lateral PFC regions. In Study 2, a combined blocked/event-related design revealed enhanced sustained (i.e., across-trial) activity but a reduction in transient trial-related activation in lateral PFC among older adults. Further analyses of within-trial activity dynamics indicated that, within these and other lateral PFC regions, older adults showed reduced activation during the cue and delay period but increased activation at the time of the probe, particularly on high-interference trials. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that age-related impairments in goal maintenance abilities cause a compensatory shift in older adults from a proactive (seen in young adults) to a reactive cognitive control strategy.
Arien Mack and Irvin Rock make the radical claim that there is no conscious perception of the visual world without attention to it.
Many people believe that merely by opening their eyes, they see everything in their field of view; in fact, a line of psychological research has been taken as evidence of the existence of so-called preattentional perception. In Inattentional Blindness, Arien Mack and Irvin Rock make the radical claim that there is no such thing—that there is no conscious perception of the visual world without attention to it.
The authors present a narrative chronicle of their research. Thus, the reader follows the trail that led to the final conclusions, learning why initial hypotheses and explanations were discarded or revised, and how new questions arose along the way. The phenomenon of inattentional blindness has theoretical importance for cognitive psychologists studying perception, attention, and consciousness, as well as for philosophers and neuroscientists interested in the problem of consciousness.
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An important aspect of cognitive control is the ability to appropriately select, update, and maintain contextual information related to behavioral goals, and to use this information to coordinate processing over extended periods. In our novel, neurobiologically based, connectionist computational model, the selection, updating, and maintenance of context occur through interactions between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dopamine (DA) neurotransmitter system. Phasic DA activity serves two simultaneous and synergistic functions: (1) a gating function, which regulates the access of information to active memory mechanisms subserved by PFC; and (2) a learning function, which allows the system to discover what information is relevant for selection as context. We present a simulation that establishes the computational viability of these postulated neurobiological mechanisms for subserving control functions.
Neuropsychological results are increasingly cited in cognitive theories although their methodology has been severely criticised. The book argues for an eclectic approach but particularly stresses the use of single-case studies. A range of potential artifacts exists when inferences are made from such studies to the organisation of normal function – for example, resource differences among tasks, premorbid individual differences, and reorganisation of function. The use of “strong” and “classical” dissociations minimises potential artifacts. The theoretical convergence between findings from fields where cognitive neuropsychology is well developed and those from the normal literature strongly suggests that the potential artifacts are not critical. The fields examined in detail in this respect are short-term memory, reading, writing, the organisation of input and output speech systems, and visual perception. Functional dissociation data suggest that not only are input systems organised modularly, but so are central systems. This conclusion is supported by findings on impairment of knowledge, visual attention, supervisory functions, memory, and consciousness.
Rapid changes in consumer technology mean that many of us now carry a range of automated cueing devices. The value of organisers and pagers in cueing specific to-be-remembered items, particularly for people with memory deficits, is clear. Here we investigate whether cueing can serve a more general purpose—not in reminding us of a particular event or action, but in helping us to periodically take a more “executive” stance to our activities. In these studies we use a highly reduced “model task”, the Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART)—designed to provoke “absentminded” lapses in action. Seven patients with right hemisphere stroke and who experienced difficulties in maintaining attention completed the task under two conditions. Periodic auditory cues that carried no content other than by association with the patient's remembered goal and which had no predictive value for events in the task were, nevertheless, associated with significant improvements in accuracy compared with an un-cued condition. A second experiment suggests that these improvements are not necessarily accompanied by an overall slowing in performance or a generally decreased tendency to make responses. We speculate that the transient hiatus in responses observed immediately following a cue serves a role in disrupting automatic, stimulus-driven responding and allows a more attentive stance to be re-established. Consistent with this view, in a final study we show that disruption to responses is substantially greater in a variant of the task designed to maximally encourage “unsupervised” action. We suggest that interruption to current activity can—at times—be a useful aid to keeping track of one's overall goals. The potential role of such cueing in helping dysexecutive patients to generalise training from the clinic to everyday settings is discussed.
The present study was designed to explore whether sustained attention tasks can be adequately described by a mindlessness perspective or a limited resource perspective. One hundred and seventy six participants (88 women and 88 men) were assigned at random to one of two signal salience conditions: high and low. Performance and self-reported states, Energetic Arousal, Tense Arousal, Task-Related-Thoughts, and Task-Unrelated-Thoughts, were collected. Overall performance efficiency and the rate of the vigilance decrement were influenced by the salience level of the signal being observed. Post-task self-reports of Task-Unrelated-Thoughts were significantly related to overall performance efficiency, but not with the vigilance decrement. Post-task self-reports of Energetic Arousal were significantly related to both overall performance and the vigilance decrement. The results support a resource theory perspective in regards to the vigilance decrement and are in contradiction to the mindlessness theory in regards to the vigilance decrement.
Insufficient attention to tasks can result in slips of action as automatic, unintended action sequences are triggered inappropriately. Such slips arise in part from deficits in sustained attention, which are particularly likely to happen following frontal lobe and white matter damage in traumatic brain injury (TBI). We present a reliable laboratory paradigm that elicits such slips of action and demonstrates high correlations between the severity of brain damage and relative-reported everyday attention failures in a group of 34 TBI patients. We also demonstrate significant correlations between self-and informant-reported everyday attentional failures and performance on this paradigm in a group of 75 normal controls. The paradigm (the Sustained Attention to Response Task—SART) involves the withholding of key presses to rare (one in nine) targets. Performance on the SART correlates significantly with performance on tests of sustained attention, but not other types of attention, supporting the view that this is indeed a measure of sustained attention. We also show that errors (false presses) on the SART can be predicted by a significant shortening of reaction times in the immediately preceding responses, supporting the view that these errors are a result of `drift' of controlled processing into automatic responding consequent on impaired sustained attention to task. We also report a highly significant correlation of −0.58 between SART performance and Glasgow Coma Scale Scores in the TBI group.
We have previously demonstrated that performance on a brief and conceptually simple laboratory task (the Sustained Attention to Response Test: SART) was predictive of everyday attentional failures and action slips in brain injured patients and normal control participants. The SART is a go-no-go paradigm in which the no-go target appears rarely and unpredictably. Performance on this measure was previously interpreted as requiring sustained attention to response rather than a putative response inhibition capacity. Three further studies are presented which support this claim. They demonstrate that performance is crucially determined by the duration of time over which attention must be maintained on ones own actions that this demand underpins the tasks relationship to everyday attentional lapses. In keeping with a number of recent studies it suggests that inefficiencies in the maintenance of attentional control may be apparent over much briefer periods than is traditionally considered using vigilance measures and analysis.
Dual-task studies assessed the effects of cellular-phone conversations on performance of a simulated driving task. Performance was not disrupted by listening to radio broadcasts or listening to a book on tape. Nor was it disrupted by a continuous shadowing task using a handheld phone, ruling out, in this case, dual-task interpretations associated with holding the phone, listening, or speaking, However significant interference was observed in a word-generation variant of the shadowing task, and this deficit increased with the difficulty of driving. Moreover unconstrained conversations using either a handheld or a hands-free cell phone resulted in a twofold increase in the failure to detect simulated traffic signals and slower reactions to those signals that were detected. We suggest that cellular-phone use disrupts performance by diverting attention to an engaging cognitive context other than the one immediately associated with driving.
Even dissimilar tasks interfere with one another when done together. We used visual search to examine the underlying cause of such interference. In many models, visual search is a process of biased competition controlled by a template describing the target to be sought. When the display is processed, matching against this template guides attention to the target. We show that increasing template complexity increased interference with a dissimilar concurrent task, story memory. This result was independent of reaction time: Increases in template complexity were associated with no increase in search time in Experiment 1 and with a decrease in search time in Experiment 2. The results show that the dual-task demands of visual search reflect the complexity of the template used in task control, and that this factor can be isolated from other sources of difficulty.
Through a widespread efferent projection system, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system supplies norepinephrine throughout the central nervous system. Initial studies provided critical insight into the basic organization and properties of this system. More recent work identifies a complicated array of behavioral and electrophysiological actions that have in common the facilitation of processing of relevant, or salient, information. This involves two basic levels of action. First, the system contributes to the initiation and maintenance of behavioral and forebrain neuronal activity states appropriate for the collection of sensory information (e.g. waking). Second, within the waking state, this system modulates the collection and processing of salient sensory information through a diversity of concentration-dependent actions within cortical and subcortical sensory, attention, and memory circuits. Norepinephrine-dependent modulation of long-term alterations in synaptic strength, gene transcription and other processes suggest a potentially critical role of this neurotransmitter system in experience-dependent alterations in neural function and behavior. The ability of a given stimulus to increase locus coeruleus discharge activity appears independent of affective valence (appetitive vs. aversive). Combined, these observations suggest that the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system is a critical component of the neural architecture supporting interaction with, and navigation through, a complex world. These observations further suggest that dysregulation of locus coeruleus-noradrenergic neurotransmission may contribute to cognitive and/or arousal dysfunction associated with a variety of psychiatric disorders, including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, sleep and arousal disorders, as well as certain affective disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Independent of an etiological role in these disorders, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system represents an appropriate target for pharmacological treatment of specific attention, memory and/or arousal dysfunction associated with a variety of behavioral/cognitive disorders.
Our eyes continually move even while we fix our gaze on an object. Although these fixational eye movements have a magnitude that should make them visible to us, we are unaware of them. If fixational eye movements are counteracted, our visual perception fades completely as a result of neural adaptation. So, our visual system has a built-in paradox — we must fix our gaze to inspect the minute details of our world, but if we were to fixate perfectly, the entire world would fade from view. Owing to their role in counteracting adaptation, fixational eye movements have been studied to elucidate how the brain makes our environment visible. Moreover, because we are not aware of these eye movements, they have been studied to understand the underpinnings of visual awareness. Recent studies of fixational eye movements have focused on determining how visible perception is encoded by neurons in various visual areas of the brain.