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Alcohol and aggression: An integration of findings from experimental studies

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Abstract

Correlational studies had uncovered a relationship between alcohol consumption and violent criminal behavior; however, as these studies had typically suffered from weak internal validity, they had left doubt as to the causal influence of alcohol on violence. This article seeks to complement the correlational research by reviewing the experimental literature on alcohol and interpersonal aggression. The dominant experimental paradigms are reviewed, and a synthesis of findings from seven published meta-analytic studies is presented. Conclusions from the experimental literature affirm the popular belief that alcohol consumption increases aggressive behavior. This effect is not uniform, however, and is instead moderated by factors commonly found in real-world accounts of intoxicated violence. Theoretical explanations for the alcohol/violence link are discussed, and suggestions for future research are presented.

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... Several pathways by which alcohol use may cause aggression have been proposed. Exum (2006) 39 theorized that alcohol can suppress inhibition of innate aggressive responses, based upon biological evidence that alcohol use impairs higher level brain functions including working memory, planning and response inhibition. Intoxicated individuals tend to focus on more immediate situational cues than future consequences. ...
... 41 Even within the low alcohol doses used in these experiments, dose-response effects have been demonstrated suggesting aggressive behaviour is even more likely at higher BACs. 39 This same review also concluded that expectancy effects i.e. the belief alone that alcohol had been consumed, had minimal or no effects on aggression. ...
... Most reviews of laboratory studies conclude that the pharmacological effects of alcohol are indeed an important contributing cause of aggression under some specific circumstances. [39][40][41] A causal relationship between alcohol's pharmacological effects and aggression is also supported by findings from animal studies. 41 ...
Technical Report
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This research report is a unique compilation of research on how alcohol affects the human brain throughout the life course. Overall, it shows that brain health benefits from avoiding alcohol. This applies both to occasional drinking as well as to intensive or regular consumption over time. The report highlights that alcohol affects all brain functions and that it impairs, for example, memory and intellectual ability. In addition, alcohol increases the risk of several brain diseases and injuries, for example fetal alcohol syndrome, accidents, stroke, and dementia. Reducing or avoiding alcohol intake is an important factor in preserving brain health. To get there, alcohol policy measures are required to reduce alcohol’s contribution to neurological, cognitive and psychiatric problems at the population level.
... Alcohol abuse is considered the fourth leading preventable cause of mortality in the U.S. alone, with approximately 88.000 people; generally, men pass away from alcohol abuse yearly (e.g., Stahre, Roeber, Kanny, Brewer, & Zhang, 2014). It is usually accepted that alcohol abuse produces aggressive or antisocial behaviour (Chester, & DeWall, 2018;Exum, 2006;Murdoch & Ross, 1990). For example, according to the Centre on Addiction and Substance Abuse (1998), alcohol abuse is typically more significantly associated with aggressive behaviour or violent crime than property crimes. ...
... (e.g., Miczek, Weerts, & DeBold, 1993;Parker & Auerhahn, 1998). Unsurprisingly, Exum's (2006) meta-analysis discovered that alcohol abuse increases aggressive behaviour. Felson and Staff (2010) investigated the impact of alcohol abuse in a representative sample of US inmates' aggressive or violent behavior. ...
... In line with a meta-analysis, alcohol addiction increases violent behavior. (Exum, 2006). Social learning theory explains that interactions with peers or relatives who exhibit violent behaviors while under the influence of alcohol play a crucial role in the onset of alcohol abuse-related violence through modelling. ...
Article
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Abuse during childhood is an important risk factor for violent behavior and diminished anger management as an adult. The study examined whether participants who reported severe childhood maltreatment also reported high levels of violent conduct and decreased emotional control in sober and drunk states as adults, and compared this to participants who reported less severe maltreatment. We also investigated the link between excessive alcohol consumption and offensive behaviour. The study was based on self-reports of childhood maltreatment, violent conduct, and use of alcohol, in addition to self-reports of the participants' typical levels of anger control in sober and use of alcohol states in a population-based sample (N=10980) of Finnish twins and their siblings. Men with severe emotional abuse reported a higher level of physical violence compared to those with mild emotional abuse. Men who experienced severe emotional abuse reported a higher level of physical violence than those who experienced less severe emotional abuse. In contrast, women with severe physical and emotional abuse and emotional and physical neglect reported higher physical violence levels than women with non-severe levels of these abuse types. Concerning greater levels of verbal violence, men with severe (vs. non-severe) physical abuse reported greater levels of verbal violence. Also, women with severe (vs. non-severe) physical and emotional abuse reported a higher level of verbal violence. In men, there were no effects of severe childhood maltreatment on levels of anger control, neither in the self-reported sober or use of alcohol state in adulthood. In the self-reported sober state, women who had experienced severe physical violence had higher levels of anger control than in the self-reported use of alcohol state. In contrast, women who self-reported being sober exhibited reduced levels of anger control when they had experienced severe emotional abuse. In addition, women with severe sexual abuse and severe physical neglect reported higher levels of anger control when sober In their self-reported sober state. Finally, women with severe emotional neglect exhibited reduced levels of anger control. There were substantial links between heavy alcohol consumption and violent behaviour in both men and women. In sum, severe abuse during childhood increases the likelihood of antisocial behaviour and impairs adult anger control
... Alcohol abuse is considered the fourth leading preventable cause of mortality in the U.S. alone, with approximately 88.000 people; generally, men pass away from alcohol abuse yearly (e.g., Stahre, Roeber, Kanny, Brewer, & Zhang, 2014). It is usually accepted that alcohol abuse produces aggressive or antisocial behaviour (Chester, & DeWall, 2018;Exum, 2006;Murdoch & Ross, 1990). For example, according to the Centre on Addiction and Substance Abuse (1998), alcohol abuse is typically more significantly associated with aggressive behaviour or violent crime than property crimes. ...
... (e.g., Miczek, Weerts, & DeBold, 1993;Parker & Auerhahn, 1998). Unsurprisingly, Exum's (2006) meta-analysis discovered that alcohol abuse increases aggressive behaviour. Felson and Staff (2010) investigated the impact of alcohol abuse in a representative sample of US inmates' aggressive or violent behavior. ...
... In line with a meta-analysis, alcohol addiction increases violent behavior. (Exum, 2006). Social learning theory explains that interactions with peers or relatives who exhibit violent behaviors while under the influence of alcohol play a crucial role in the onset of alcohol abuse-related violence through modelling. ...
Article
Full-text available
Abuse during childhood is an important risk factor for violent behavior and diminished anger management as an adult. The study examined whether participants who reported severe childhood maltreatment also reported high levels of violent conduct and decreased emotional control in sober and drunk states as adults, and compared this to participants who reported less severe maltreatment. We also investigated the link between excessive alcohol consumption and offensive behaviour. The study was based on self-reports of childhood maltreatment, violent conduct, and use of alcohol, in addition to self-reports of the participants' typical levels of anger control in sober and use of alcohol states in a population-based sample (N=10980) of Finnish twins and their siblings. Men with severe emotional abuse reported a higher level of physical violence compared to those with mild emotional abuse. Men who experienced severe emotional abuse reported a higher level of physical violence than those who experienced less severe emotional abuse. In contrast, women with severe physical and emotional abuse and emotional and physical neglect reported higher physical violence levels than women with non-severe levels of these abuse types. Concerning greater levels of verbal violence, men with severe (vs. non-severe) physical abuse reported greater levels of verbal violence. Also, women with severe (vs. non-severe) physical and emotional abuse reported a higher level of verbal violence. In men, there were no effects of severe childhood maltreatment on levels of anger control, neither in the self-reported sober or use of alcohol state in adulthood. In the self-reported sober state, women who had experienced severe physical violence had higher levels of anger control than in the self-reported use of alcohol state. In contrast, women who self-reported being sober exhibited reduced levels of anger control when they had experienced severe emotional abuse. In addition, women with severe sexual abuse and severe physical neglect reported higher levels of anger control when sober In their self-reported sober state. Finally, women with severe emotional neglect exhibited reduced levels of anger control. There were substantial links between heavy alcohol consumption and violent behaviour in both men and women. In sum, severe abuse during childhood increases the likelihood of antisocial behaviour and impairs adult anger control
... Consumption of alcohol is known to influence a wide array of psychological processes, including emotional and cognitive ones (e.g., lower dispositional empathy or reduced executive cognitive functioning: Euser and Franken 2012; Giancola et al. 2010;Ray et al. 2012;Sayette et al. 2012;Thoma et al. 2013). Moreover, it changes the behavior so that one becomes more impulsive, violent, aggressive, and less sexually controlled, which can sometimes even lead to criminal violations (Exum 2006;Greenfield 1998;Heath and Hardy-Vallée 2015;Pernanen 1991;Roizen 1997). That is why we tested the hypothesis of the possibility of the sacralization of five moral foundations in a sample of alcohol-intoxicated participants. ...
... For example, alcohol increases muscle relaxation (which usually makes intoxicated people more relaxed) and disinhibition (which can make people more confident and talkative) (Bodnár et al. 2021). Moreover, the social disinhibition associated with alcohol consumption can lead to impulsive, violent, and less sexually controlled behaviors (Exum 2006;Greenfield 1998;Heath and Hardy-Vallée 2015;Pernanen 1991;Roizen 1997). Suppose individuals rely on these behaviors when making moral judgments. ...
... Roughly 40% of incarcerated inmates for violent offenses were under the influence of alcohol during committing the crime (Alcohol Rehab 2022). Thus, our results may be helpful for researchers to understand better the immoral behaviors under the influence of alcohol, including violent behaviors and sexual crimes (Exum 2006;Greenfield 1998;Heath and Hardy-Vallée 2015;Pernanen 1991). Past studies have already focused on criminal behaviors under the influence of alcohol, but our study takes a step back by showing that the change also appears in making decisions about right or wrong. ...
Article
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We aimed to understand if alcohol intoxication affects the willingness to violate moral foundations (care, fairness, authority, loyalty, and purity). We conducted a laboratory study (N = 387) with three randomized groups: alcohol intoxication, placebo, and control, measuring the sacralization of moral foundations via the Moral Foundations Sacredness Scale. The study showed intoxicated participants sacralized moral foundations of care and purity more often than participants from control and placebo groups. It means participants declared more willing to physically harm other people and animals and behave impurely, e.g., doing deviant sexual behaviors or selling their souls. No differences related to fairness, authority, and loyalty were found. Our study helps to understand the decision processes underlying immoral behaviors, including crimes. We showed that even one drink makes people change their judgments about what is right and wrong (in the cases of harmful and impure behaviors), and because this kind of judgment precedes immoral behaviors, our results may help explain why some people under the influence of alcohol break the rules by doing things which they would never do when sober.
... Alcohol-affected perceptions are also consequential because they translate into actions. For instance, people who consume alcohol may behave aggressively and impulsively (Exum, 2006;Greenfield, 1998;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Pernanen, 1991;Roizen, 2002). ...
... Alcohol's impact on behavior constitutes a third category of mechanisms that may influence self-assessment. Alcohol increases disinhibition (Bodnár et al., 2021), leading to impulsive, violent, or less sexually controlled behaviors (Exum, 2006;Greenfield, 1998;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Pernanen, 1991;Roizen, 2002). When evaluating themselves, intoxicated people may draw on these negative behaviors, perceiving themselves as less moral. ...
... Asking about aggressiveness helped us to understand if alcohol may impact this self-assessment. We already know that alcohol may make people behave more violently (Alcohol Rehab, 2022;Exum, 2006;Pernanen, 1991) but we do not know whether it may impact the self-assessment of aggressiveness as a trait, an intervening factor that may drive violent behavior. ...
Article
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People generally perceive themselves as moral but does this tendency change after alcohol consumption? In the current research, we tested whether alcoholic intoxication affects self-assessments of morality (i.e., the self-importance of moral identity and the moral self-concept), and we also tested self-assessment of aggressiveness and intelligence. We conducted a preregistered laboratory experiment with participants divided into three groups: alcohol intoxication (n = 106), placebo (n = 114), and control condition (n = 109). We did not detect statistically significant differences in self-assessments across conditions. These data are consistent with the conclusion that self-assessments of morality, aggressiveness, and intelligence may be too stable to be affected by the momentary changes in self-perception caused by alcoholic intoxication.
... Such perceptions are consequential because they can influence an individual's actions. For example, drunk people may become more impulsive, violent, aggressive, and less sexually controlled, which can sometimes even lead to criminal violations (Exum, 2006;Greenfield, 1998;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Pernanen, 1991;Roizen, 1997). ...
... On the other hand, it is also possible that alcohol will impact self-assessments of personality. There are three reasons to believe that drunk people may change their self-perceptions: (1) their moods and emotional states change (Cohen et al., 1958;Corazzini et al., 2015;Euser & Franken, 2012;Giancola et al., 2010;Kuntsche & Cooper, 2010;Ray et al., 2012;Sayette et al., 2012); (2) their cognitive reasoning is distorted (Euser & Franken, 2012;Giancola et al., 2010;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Steele & Josephs, 1990;Weafer et al., 2016); (3) alcohol affects their behaviors (Bodnár et al., 2020;Exum, 2006;Greenfield, 1998;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Pernanen, 1991;Roizen, 1997), upon which self-assessments may be based. Before examining the processes that might drive self-assessment processes, it is necessary to determine whether alcoholic intoxication really does influence self-assessment; that was the aim of this study. ...
... If individuals draw upon these positive behaviors when making self-assessments, then we may expect drunk people to see themselves as more emotionally stable, more extroverted, and more open to new experiences. However, the social disinhibition associated with alcohol consumption can also lead to impulsive, violent, and less sexually controlled behaviors (Exum, 2006;Greenfield, 1998;Heath & Hardy-Vallée, 2015;Pernanen, 1991;Roizen, 1997). If individuals draw upon these negative behaviors when making self-assessments, then we may expect drunk people to see themselves as less agreeable, less conscientious, and less emotionally stable. ...
Article
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cAlohol affects how people think, feel, and behave, and how they perceive the physical and social world around them. But does alcohol also influence how people perceive themselves? Past work points to a number of possibilities, suggesting intoxication could lead to positive biases, to negative biases, or have no effects on self-assessments at all. Here we tested whether alcoholic intoxication affects self-assessments of personality within the Big Five personality framework. We hypothesized that intoxicated participants would see themselves more positively than non-intoxicated individuals would. We conducted a preregistered laboratory experiment on participants divided into three groups: alcohol intoxication (n = 106), placebo (n = 114), and control conditions (n = 109). Contrary to predictions, we found no differences in self-assessments of personality across conditions. Findings point to the possibility that self-assessments of personality may be too stable to be affected by the momentary changes in thoughts and feelings caused by alcoholic intoxication.
... It is well established that alcohol consumption, and HED (also referred to as binge drinking or risky single occasion drinking), is involved in various forms of aggressive and violent behaviours [6]. In fact, alcohol affects people's behaviour and judgement in a way that increases the risk of aggression and violence [7] in a dose-related fashion [8,9]. The underlying mechanisms behind this association are complex and dependent on both individual and environmental factors [7,9]. ...
... In fact, alcohol affects people's behaviour and judgement in a way that increases the risk of aggression and violence [7] in a dose-related fashion [8,9]. The underlying mechanisms behind this association are complex and dependent on both individual and environmental factors [7,9]. However, a central feature is that alcohol intoxication leads to a loss of control of feelings of anger that are suppressed in a sober state [8]. ...
... This was true for both men and women. It is known that consumption of larger amounts of alcohol on a single occasion increases the risk of alcohol-related aggression [8,9]. Therefore, the finding that the individual exposure to others' alcohol-related aggressive behaviour was higher in countries where HED is more common was expected and in line with previous research based on data restricted at the aggregated [10,11] and the individual level [14]. ...
Article
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Introduction: There is limited knowledge about how individual experiences of harm from others' drinking are influenced by heavy episodic drinking (HED) at the country level. The present study aimed to assess (1) the association between the country-level prevalence of HED and the risk of experiencing harm from others' drinking-related aggression and (2) if HED at the country level modifies the association between consumption of alcohol per capita (APC) and such harm. Methods: Outcome data from 32,576 participants from 19 European countries stem from the RARHA SEAS study. Self-reported harm from others' drinking included having been verbally abused, harmed physically, or having serious arguments. Data on country-level drinking patterns were derived from the World Health Organization. Associations between country-level prevalence of monthly HED and experiences of aggression (at least 1 of 3 studied harms) were derived through multilevel models - adjusted for country-level age structure and by including the respondent's own HED patterns as a mediator. Results: A 1% increase in the prevalence of monthly HED was associated with 5% higher odds (odds ratio [OR] 1.05) of experiencing others' alcohol-related aggression among men, and 6% (OR 1.06) among women. The results suggest that the association between APC and harm was stronger in countries with high prevalences of HED, but the modifying effect could not be confirmed. Discussion/conclusion: Harm from others' drinking-related aggression depends not only on individual factors but is also influenced by the drinking patterns of the population. However, the country-level prevalence of HED only explains a small part of the variance of this type of harm.
... However, alternative considerations suggest that alcohol intoxication will have stronger effects on crimes that are more serious, that involve personal confrontation and are riskier, and that result from a dispute [11,12]. Some of these explanations have been supported by experimental studies, with reviews documenting that subjects intoxicated with alcohol behave more aggressively in the laboratory compared to subjects that receive placebo substances [13,14]. A review of meta-analyses of experimental studies supported the view that alcohol produces certain cognitive changes that interact with external factors (such as frustration) to increase the likelihood of aggression [13]. ...
... Some of these explanations have been supported by experimental studies, with reviews documenting that subjects intoxicated with alcohol behave more aggressively in the laboratory compared to subjects that receive placebo substances [13,14]. A review of meta-analyses of experimental studies supported the view that alcohol produces certain cognitive changes that interact with external factors (such as frustration) to increase the likelihood of aggression [13]. These findings support the conventional belief that people behave more aggressively whilst under the influence of alcohol, but such experimental findings are difficult to corroborate with observational studies 'in the field' [15]. ...
... This study adds to a growing body of literature supporting a short-term effect of alcohol consumption on crime using a variety of methods. Reviews of experimental studies show that subjects intoxicated with alcohol behave more aggressively in the laboratory compared to subjects that receive placebo substances [13,14]. Additionally, observational studies have shown within-person effects of alcohol consumption on antisocial or criminal behaviour in young adulthood [30][31][32][33], indicating that when a young person reports consuming more alcohol than normal, they also report engaging in higher than usual levels of antisocial behaviour. ...
Article
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Experimental studies support the conventional belief that people behave more aggressively whilst under the influence of alcohol. To examine how these experimental findings manifest in real life situations, this study uses a method for estimating evidence for causality with observational data—‘situational decomposition’ to examine the association between alcohol consumption and crime in young adults from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Self-report questionnaires were completed at age 24 years to assess typical alcohol consumption and frequency, participation in fighting, shoplifting and vandalism in the previous year, and whether these crimes were committed under the influence of alcohol. Situational decomposition compares the strength of two associations, (1) the total association between alcohol consumption and crime (sober or intoxicated) versus (2) the association between alcohol consumption and crime committed while sober. There was an association between typical alcohol consumption and total crime for fighting [OR (95% CI): 1.47 (1.29, 1.67)], shoplifting [OR (95% CI): 1.25 (1.12, 1.40)], and vandalism [OR (95% CI): 1.33 (1.12, 1.57)]. The associations for both fighting and shoplifting had a small causal component (with the association for sober crime slightly smaller than the association for total crime). However, the association for vandalism had a larger causal component.
... One pathway proposes that while humans possess an innate aggressiveness usually suppressed by inhibitory functions of the brain, alcohol overcomes this inhibitory effect. 25 This is based upon biological evidence that alcohol use impairs higher level brain functions including working memory, planning, response inhibition and the observation that intoxicated individuals tend to focus on more immediate situational cues than future consequences. 28 Such areas of the brain are vulnerable to damage from both the short and long term effects of alcohol which, in turn, may lead to aggression by reducing anxiety and increased acting-out in threatening circumstances. ...
... 26 Even within the limited range of doses of alcohol permitted in these drinking experiments, dose-response effects have been demonstrated which further supports a causal relationship i.e., aggressive behavior is even more likely with higher doses of alcohol. 25 A second pathway investigates whether learned beliefs (sometimes referred to as 'expectancies') about alcohol and aggressive behavior, rather than the pharmacological or physiological effects of alcohol on the brain, increase the likelihood of violent behavior. However, a review by Exum from 2006 of experimental studies which have manipulated both pharmacological and expectancy effects using balanced placebo designs suggest that expectancies per se have a small to negligent effect on aggression. ...
... However, a review by Exum from 2006 of experimental studies which have manipulated both pharmacological and expectancy effects using balanced placebo designs suggest that expectancies per se have a small to negligent effect on aggression. 25 Nevertheless, expectancies may work synergistically with pharmacological effects 27 to increase the likelihood of aggressive acts particularly in relation to sexual violence. 28 Some experimental drinking studies have investigated sexual aggression in the laboratory by using verbal vignettes, videotapes or audiotapes describing date rape scenarios. ...
Technical Report
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Alcohol and cancer - A survey of international and Swedish research
... contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. However, alcohol consumption does not always produce prosocial behaviours; alcohol can lead to antisocial behaviours such as aggression and violence (Exum 2006;Heath and Hardy-Vallée 2015), as well as asocial consequences, such as social withdrawal (MacAndrew and Edgerton 1969), impaired social cognition and theory of mind (Mitchell et al. 2011) and reduced altruism (Corazzini et al. 2015). Taken together, evidence suggests that alcohol can elicit both prosocial and asocial acute effects on behaviour. ...
... A range of doses was administered via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection 30 min prior to social fear extinction: 0 (VEH), 0.25, 0.8 and 1.6 g/kg body weight at a constant injection volume of 10.67 mL/kg body weight. Involuntary administration (i.p.) of ethanol was utilised as most research examining the effects on ethanol on social behaviour in assays similar to the SFC paradigm have used i.p. injections Lister and Hilakivi 1988;Varlinskaya and Spear 2002, 2006. Moreover, it is simply not feasible to control voluntary consumption (and thus dose and exposure) in this model to a degree where we could sufficiently determine any dosedependency of effects, a key focus of the study. ...
... Apart from anecdotal reports in qualitative literature (MacAndrew and Edgerton 1969), scant human research has demonstrated high-dose alcohol-induced asociability. However, the current findings align with research assessing high-dose ethanol effects on antisocial behaviours in humans; a meta-analysis examining alcohol-induced aggression revealed that alcohol increases aggression at higher doses in adults (Exum 2006). ...
Article
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Background Motivations for alcohol consumption often focus on ethanol’s purported prosocial effects: social enhancement and reduction of socially focused anxiety. Despite substantial research supporting prosocial effects, contrary research exists demonstrating alcohol-elicited antisocial and asocial behaviours. Additionally, evidence typically fails to delineate whether alcohol-induced prosocial effects are due to alcohol expectancies or pharmacological actions of ethanol. Studies exploring ethanol’s pharmacological effects on social behaviour and factors that modulate apparent contradictory prosocial versus asocial effects are lacking. Objectives This study investigated whether factors of age, ethanol dose and social fear modulate ethanol-induced pharmacological effects on sociability and social anxiety–like avoidance. Methods Experiments examined the acute effects of ethanol doses (0, 0.25, 0.8, 1.6 g/kg; i.p.) in adult (10-week-old) and adolescent (PND 31–33) C57BL/6J male mice on social interaction using a social fear conditioning paradigm. Control experiments assessed whether ethanol-induced effects were social-specific. Results In adult mice, no specific effects of ethanol on social avoidance were observed at any dose. However, high-dose ethanol (1.6 g/kg) suppressed social approach in all adult mice. In contrast, low-dose ethanol (0.25 g/kg) alleviated social avoidance in adolescent mice and no social suppression was observed at higher ethanol doses. Thus, higher doses of ethanol impair social behaviour in adult mice, whereas lower doses specifically alleviate social anxiety–like avoidance in adolescent mice. Conclusions Age, dose and social fear are critical modulators of acute ethanol-induced pharmacological effects on social behaviour. Inconsistencies in ethanol-induced social consequences appear at least partly mediated by pharmacological interactions—not solely alcohol expectancies.
... The great majority of attendees also consume alcohol during or prior to entering the festival area [1][2][3][4]. High levels of alcohol intoxication increase the risk of injuries, sexual risk-taking and various forms of violence, including sexual violence [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. Furthermore, the use of illicit drugs is prevalent in nightlife settings [13][14][15][16][17][18][19], including music festivals [2,3,[20][21][22]. ...
... Self-reported data for cannabis (n = 20), cocaine (n = 27), ecstasy (n = 26), amphetamine (n = 15), mushrooms (n = 10), LSD (n = 8), NPS (n = 13), ketamine (n = 13), and heroin (n = 11) are missing. 5 Chi-square test of corresponding values between countries. ...
Article
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Illicit drug use is common among attendees of electronic dance music (EDM) festivals, but is often significantly underreported by participants. The current study aimed to compare the prevalence and over- and under-reporting of illicit drug use among attendees at EDM festivals in two European countries with distinct drug laws and cultures. Self-reported data regarding recent drug use were collected through interviews. Participants’ blood alcohol concentrations were measured using a breathalyzer. Recent illicit drug use was assessed through sampling microparticles in the breath and consequent off-site analysis through liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectroscopy. Illicit drug use was higher in Belgium than in Sweden as indicated by self-reports (56.8 vs. 4.3%) and drug testing (37.2 vs. 12.5%). Underreporting was higher in Sweden than in Belgium; in Sweden, only 2.6% reported taking an illicit drug other than cannabis, whereas 11.6% tested positive, while the corresponding figures in Belgium were 36.5% and 36.9%. In both countries, results from self-reporting and drug testing for specific drugs matched poorly at the individual level, indicating unwitting consumption of substances. This study indicates that the drug use prevalence and the likelihood of disclosure may differ between countries or cultures, which should be considered when choosing methods to investigate drug use prevalence.
... First, virtually no research has investigated whether the association between self-control and antisocial behavior is conditioned by alcohol intoxication. 1 Attending to this deficit is important because many offenses are carried out while under the influence of alcohol (e.g., Exum, 2006;Miller et al., 2006). For example, using data collected from approximately 18,000 individuals who participated in the 1997 Survey of Inmates of State and Federal Bureau of Prisons, Felson and Staff (2010) estimated that 36% of convicted offenders had been drinking at the time of the offense for which they were convicted. ...
... At the same time, intoxication alters neurotransmission (e.g., dopaminergic) in ways that shift preferences toward immediate rewards and the discounting of future events (Osgood & Muraven, 2018). Given these observations, research investigating whether alcohol moderates the effect of self-control on antisocial behavior is warranted (see Exum, 2006). Second, and related to the prior observation, experimental research is needed that considers the factors that moderate the association between self-control and antisocial behavior (Dezember et al., 2021). ...
Article
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Objectives Past research has investigated factors that condition the association between self-control and antisocial behavior. Absent from consideration has been the possible moderating effect of alcohol intoxication. Methods Using a placebo-controlled experimental design, we explore whether alcohol intoxication moderates the association between self-control and two vignette-based measures of reactive aggression. Results Self-control is negatively associated with reactive aggression among sober participants, but the association is no different from zero among participants assigned to intoxicated and placebo conditions. For the vignette revealing stronger evidence of a moderating effect of alcohol intoxication, the negative effect of self-control on reactive aggression becomes non-significant starting at a breath alcohol concentration that amounts to approximately one alcoholic beverage. Conclusions This study provides initial evidence that alcohol intoxication diminishes the association between self-control and reactive aggression, adding to existing research focused on factors that condition the association between self-control and antisocial behavior.
... Regarding plausible causal pathways that explain links between alcohol and injury, experimental studies offer the firmest evidence by virtue of their ability to randomly assign participants to placebo and exposure groups, subjectively measure functional biomarkers and control alcohol dosage. Though not immune, experimental studies are also best equipped to separate out pharmacological/physiological effects from 'expectancy' effects, i.e., personal beliefs about how alcohol affects behaviour, such as physical aggression, which can vary widely among individuals and cultures [27,28]. ...
... Outside of the laboratory, observational studies confirm every-day experience that not all alcohol use, or even intoxication, necessarily results in injury. Risk of injury from alcohol can be influenced by individual differences and expectancies about appropriate or permissible behaviours [27,32,33] as can social and cultural norms (e.g., community acceptance or rejection of drinking and driving). External factors such as setting (e.g., home, pub, park), price and physical availability of alcohol also have major impacts on alcohol-caused injuries at a population level [34,35]. ...
Article
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Globally, almost four and a half million people died from injury in 2019. Alcohol’s contribution to injury-related premature loss of life, disability and ill-health is pervasive, touching individuals, families and societies throughout the world. We conducted a review of research evidence for alcohol’s causal role in injury by focusing on previously published systematic reviews, meta-analyses and where indicated, key studies. The review summarises evidence for pharmacological and physiological effects that support postulated causal pathways, highlights findings and knowledge gaps relevant to specific forms of injury (i.e., violence, suicide and self-harm, road injury, falls, burns, workplace injuries) and lays out options for evidence-based prevention.
... It was also reported that heavy alcohol consumption can occur more risk of violence [25]. In addition, alcohol intoxication is associated with increasing an aggressive response [26], and alcohol availability was also related to harmful behaviors such as violence occurring and alcohol related-harms [27]. ...
... The associations of alcohol-related behaviors and drug use with eve having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products among adolescents are shown in Table 3. In the multiple logistic 26) for participants who drank alcohol more than 10 days per month, six to nine days per month, and one to five days per month, respectively, than for non-drinkers, and the likelihood of ever having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products increased with drinking , for participants who drank more than four bottles of beer, more than two but no more than four bottles, and two or fewer bottles, respectively, than for non-drinkers, and the likelihood of ever having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products increased with drinking quantity (P for trend < .001). In addition, the higher ORs of ever , for participants who experienced alcohol intoxication more than five days per month, three to four days per month, and one to two days per month, respectively, than for non-drinkers, and the likelihood of ever having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products increased with the frequency of alcohol intoxication (P for trend < .001). ...
Article
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Background The tobacco industry has aggressively introduced new and diverse products in the market, including electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) and heat-not-burn (HNB) tobacco products, to which adolescents are readily susceptible. Conventional cigarettes have a well-established relationship with adolescent risky behaviors such as alcohol and drug use; however, no studies exist on the association between alcohol consumption and use of e-cigarettes or HNB tobacco products among Korean adolescents. This study evaluated alcohol-related behaviors and drug use in relation to whether a Korean nationally representative adolescent sample had ever used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products. Methods Data from the 2018 Korean Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey were analyzed. The final study sample comprised 60,040 adolescents. Chi-square and logistic regression were used to examine whether the ever having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products was associated with alcohol-related behaviors and drug use. P-values for trends were calculated to examine the dose-response relationship for each variable. Results Respondents with higher drinking frequency, drinking quantity, alcohol intoxication, alcohol availability, and drug use were more likely to report having used e-cigarettes and HNB tobacco products, thus implying a significant relationship between substance use and novel tobacco product (P < .001). Conclusions Our findings suggest that at-risk adolescents who are engaged in other forms of risk-taking behaviors are prone to attract the experimentation with e-cigarettes or HNB tobacco products. Thus, smoking cessation programs related to substance use should be implemented, and there is an urgent need to monitor and regulate these products effectively.
... In the wider population, poorer emotion recognition is associated with higher levels of aggression (Taylor and Jose, 2014) and anti-social behaviour (Marsh and Blair, 2008). A large body of evidence links alcohol consumption with aggressive behaviour, and reviews of experimental research suggest that this association is causal (Exum, 2006;Heinz et al., 2011). Given that ineffective emotional processing may increase the likelihood of aggression, it follows that alcohol might influence social interactions, including aggressive exchanges, by altering emotional face processing. ...
... Our second study was powered to detect a moderate effect yet did not directly replicate study one and the effects that were detected were small and unlikely to be clinically or socially important. Additionally, higher alcohol doses than 0.4 g/kg could reveal a larger effect of alcohol on emotion recognition as more alcohol-related aggression is seen following higher doses (Exum, 2006). However, if the alcohol dose were to be increased, the placebo control would also need to be improved; at 0.4 g/kg of alcohol versus 0.0 g/kg placebo, participants were substantially more likely to believe they received alcohol and this difference may be greater when using higher doses. ...
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Background:: Research suggests that acute alcohol consumption alters recognition of emotional expressions. Extending this work, we investigated the effects of alcohol on recognition of six primary expressions of emotion. Methods:: We conducted two studies using a 2 × 6 experimental design with a between-subjects factor of drink (alcohol, placebo) and a within-subjects factor of emotion (anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, happiness, fear). Study one ( n = 110) was followed by a direct replication study ( n = 192). Participants completed a six alternative forced choice emotion recognition task following consumption of 0.4 g/kg alcohol or placebo. Dependent variables were recognition accuracy (i.e. hits) and false alarms. Results:: There was no clear evidence of differences in recognition accuracy between groups ( ps > .58). In study one, there were more false alarms for anger in the alcohol compared to placebo group ( n = 52 and 56, respectively; t(94.6) = 2.26, p = .024, d = .44) and fewer false alarms for happiness ( t(106) = -2.42, p = .017, d = -.47). However, no clear evidence for these effects was found in study two (alcohol group n = 96, placebo group n = 93, ps > .22). When the data were combined we observed weak evidence of an effect of alcohol on false alarms of anger ( t(295) = 2.25, p = .025, d = .26). Conclusions:: These studies find weak support for biased anger perception following acute alcohol consumption in social consumers, which could have implications for alcohol-related aggression. Future research should investigate the robustness of this effect, particularly in individuals high in trait aggression.
... Some argue that this relationship exists because alcohol establishments bring large numbers of people together, often strangers to each other, increasing the risk of both offending and victimization (Bernasco & Block, 2011;Groff & Lockwood, 2013). Coupled with alcohol consumption that increases aggression and reduces self-control (Exum, 2006), patrons are more likely to be motivated offenders and increasingly see fellow patrons as potential suitable targets (Groff & Lockwood, 2013;Gruenewald et al., 2006). Along with these conditions, the built environment literature suggests crime is more likely to occur in areas with increased accessibility (Brantingham & Brantingham, 1993;Groff & Lockwood, 2013). ...
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The spatial relationship between violent crime and alcohol outlets is well documented. Yet, it is unclear whether on- or off-premises alcohol outlets have greater effects on violent crime and whether this varies by interpersonal crimes and off-premises outlet subtype. This study addresses this gap by using both Routine Activities and Social Disorganization Theories. Using census block groups (n = 1,126) in the Bronx, NY, spatial access methods were used to measure violent crimes from 2018 to 2020 (n = 28,587) and alcohol outlets from 2020 (n = 1,984). Social disorganization measures consisting of various socioeconomic factors and accessibility factors were included. Five models were estimated using a Spatial Lag regression model. A positive direct, indirect, and total effect was observed for liquor, grocery, and drug stores on total violent crime exposure, but on-premise alcohol outlets was not related. Specific types of off-premises alcohol outlets were associated with various violent crimes, with liquor and grocery stores consistently related across all models. On-premises alcohol outlets were not associated with violent crime with the exception of assaults.
... Anders als die zuvor beschriebenen Faktoren wird hierbei angenommen, dass sie sich nicht in einer Art Wechselwirkung sowohl auf den Alkoholkonsum als auch auf die Kriminalität auswirken, sondern dass bei Alkoholkonsum die bereits vorhandenen Prädispositionen verstärkt zum Ausdruck kommen und so zu kriminellem Verhalten führen können. Alkohol ist weithin bekannt für seine enthemmende Wirkung, die oft zu einer Verringerung von Ängsten führt und dazu, dass Konsumierende sich mutiger, aber auch reizbarer und aggressiver fühlen (Exum, 2006). Dies kann zu einem Anstieg von riskantem und potenziell gefährlichem Verhalten, sowohl gegenüber sich selbst als auch anderen, führen. ...
Chapter
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Der Einfluss von Alkoholkonsum spielt bei einer beträchtlichen Anzahl von Straftaten eine wichtige Rolle. In diesem Beitrag werden zunächst verschiedene Befunde vorgestellt, die die Bedeutung von Alkohol als Faktor für die Erklärung von kriminellem Verhalten verdeutlichen. Anschließend werden unterschiedliche Erklärungsansätze dieses mehrfach empirisch bestätigten Phänomens präsentiert und diskutiert. Die Ergebnisse aktueller wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen legen zwar nahe, dass es einen erheblichen Schnittpunkt zwischen problematischem Alkoholkonsum und einem erhöhten Risiko für die Begehung von Straftaten gibt, so dass Merkmale und Faktoren, die ein erhöhtes Risiko für Kriminalität indizieren, auch für die Risikoeinschätzung hinsichtlich des Alkohols von Nutzen sein können. Allerdings begeht die Mehrheit, die Alkohol konsumiert, keine Straftaten, so dass in vielen Fällen nicht von Alkohol als alleiniger bzw. entscheidender Ursache für Kriminalität gesprochen werden kann. The consumption of alcohol plays a substantial role for a comparatively large proportion of crimes. This contribution initially presents various findings that underscore the importance of alcohol as a factor in explaining criminal behavior. Subsequently , various explanatory approaches to this empirically confirmed phenomenon are presented and discussed. The results of current scientific investigations suggest that there is indeed a substantial intersection between problematic alcohol consumption and an increased risk of committing criminal offenses, such that characteristics and factors indicating an elevated risk of criminality may also be useful for assessing the risks associated with alcohol. However, most individuals who consume alcohol do not engage in criminal activities, thereby precluding that alcohol cannot be considered as a sole or pivotal causal factor for criminality.
... Interestingly, we found that alcohol consumption was not associated with RTCs in our main analysis but when younger age groups were included, there was an association, even though most of the population (around 80%) had not consumed alcohol in the past month. Our findings may be reflective of the greater risk-taking behaviour in younger populations [37,46]. Impactful legislative changes to inhibit alcohol intake amongst drivers have been credited with driving down RTC rates in some countries [47] and the dose risk relationship between alcohol consumption and risk of RTC is well established [48]. ...
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Incidence of road traffic collisions (RTCs), types of users involved, and healthcare requirement afterwards are essential information for efficient policy making. We analysed individual-level data from nationally representative surveys conducted in low- or middle-income countries (LMICs) between 2008–2019. We describe the weighted incidence of non-fatal RTC in the past 12 months, type of road user involved, and incidence of traffic injuries requiring medical attention. Multivariable logistic regressions were done to evaluate associated sociodemographic and economic characteristics, and alcohol use. Data were included from 90,790 individuals from 15 countries or territories. The non-fatal RTC incidence in participants aged 24–65 years was 5.2% (95% CI: 4.6–5.9), with significant differences dependent on country income status. Drivers, passengers, pedestrians and cyclists composed 37.2%, 40.3%, 11.3% and 11.2% of RTCs, respectively. The distribution of road user type varied with country income status, with divers increasing and cyclists decreasing with increasing country income status. Type of road users involved in RTCs also varied by the age and sex of the person involved, with a greater proportion of males than females involved as drivers, and a reverse pattern for pedestrians. In multivariable analysis, RTC incidence was associated with younger age, male sex, being single, and having achieved higher levels of education; there was no association with alcohol use. In a sensitivity analysis including respondents aged 18–64 years, results were similar, however, there was an association of RTC incidence with alcohol use. The incidence of injuries requiring medical attention was 1.8% (1.6–2.1). In multivariable analyses, requiring medical attention was associated with younger age, male sex, and higher wealth quintile. We found remarkable heterogeneity in RTC incidence, the type of road users involved, and the requirement for medical attention after injuries depending on country income status and socio-demographic characteristics. Targeted data-informed approaches are needed to prevent and manage RTCs.
... arguments suggest that alcohol consumption may be related to violence because alcohol may lower inhibitions, increase impulsivity, or increase risk-taking behaviors (Sellers, 1999). Also, alcohol affects decision-making through working memory disruption, cognitive-perceptual distortions, and attention deficits (Fagan, 1990;white, 2015), leading to alcohol myopia (giancola et al., 2010) and increasing aggression (Exum, 2006;Felson et al., 2008). The present study contributes to the literature in several ways. ...
Article
Although past research highlights a close relationship between alcohol and crime, its role as a static (i.e., stable) and dynamic (i.e., changing) risk factor of violent delinquency has been less studied. Cross-lagged dynamic panel models were employed to address this issue based on a longitudinal Korean adolescent sample. Despite the significant independent effects of baseline individual differences in alcohol use, its impact on violence was no longer statistically significant when accounting for within-individual changes in alcohol consumption. However, we also found interaction effects between baseline and within-individual changes in alcohol consumption; youth who consume more alcohol at earlier ages and engage in more alcohol use over time are more likely to engage in violence. Findings stress the importance of studying static and dynamic factors and their interaction to provide a greater understanding of violent delinquency. Limitations and implications for policy and practices are discussed.
... A large number of studies have demonstrated a link between alcohol consumption and aggressive behavior. Meta-analytic reviews of experimental studies that have randomly assigned participants to different levels of alcohol intoxication have supported the hypothesis of a causal role of alcohol in triggering aggressive behavior (Bushman & Cooper, 1990;Exum, 2006), and studies in naturalistic contexts have also been conclusive in demonstrating that alcohol is frequently involved in aggressive and violent behavior, such as intimate partner violence (e.g., Testa & Derrick, 2014), sexual aggression (Abbey, Wegner, Woerner, Pegram, & Pierce, 2014), and violence in a sports context (Sønderlund et al., 2014). ...
Chapter
Aggression, defined as a behavior intended to inflict harm on another person, causes misery and suffering to people and incurs high costs for societies. Hence, understanding what makes individuals and groups engage in aggressive behavior is crucial not only for explaining aggressive behavior but also for preventing it. This chapter presents the major social–psychological theories seeking to explain aggressive behavior. These explanations focus on the cognitive and affective processes that lead to aggressive behavior and consider differences in aggressive behavior as a function of the person and the situation. In terms of person variables, differences in aggressive behavior in relation to gender and personality traits are discussed. Situational factors precipitating aggression include alcohol, exposure to media violence, and heat.
... […]Μια ζωή στις εκδρομές και στα ασπρόμαυρα, με πουτάνες με ρακιές και με χασίς […] […] My whole life on away trips, in colours black and white, with whores, raki, and hashish […] Alcohol consumption is also related to violent and aggressive behaviour in football cultures and especially among Ultras groups (Exum 2006;Ostrowsky 2018 In a similar vein, Panathinaikos Ultras emphasize the match day experience and describe the elements that construct an ideal match day; they sing: ...
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This article explores the phenomenon of drug-themed chanting among Greek Ultras. We reviewed 440 chants from 11 Greek football clubs to examine the role of these chants, discussing critically the reasons that led to their genesis and their reproduction. We found multiple references to substances which are used in the lyrics either as analogies, or referring to drug use, or to a ‘state of mind’. The overall low degree of drug normalization in Greece, lead the Ultras to seek spaces and time where they can freely talk about drugs without the fear of social or legal control. In addition, drug-themed chanting is a part of a self-identification process through which Greek Ultras seek recognition by the audience in or outside the stadium. That recognition can be used as a process of distinction and differentiation, and also function as a symbolic opposition ‘against modern football’.
... Pharmacological effects refer to crimes directly caused by the ingestion of specific substances. For instance, alcohol consumption, shown in experimental studies to increase aggression (Exum 2006), has also been consistently linked to violence in observational research. Prolonged use of psychostimulants, like cocaine and methamphetamine, similarly heightens aggressive and violent behavior (McKetin et al. 2020;McKetin et al. 2014;Darke, Lappin, and Farrell 2019). ...
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We develop a strong triple difference design, with variation across crimes and areas, to quantify the impact of Australia's 2001 heroin shortage on crime, providing precise and uniform evidence on both the immediate and long-term effects of drug law enforcement. Applying the design to 25 years of monthly postcode data, we show that crime experiences an 8.4% surge in the first month, followed by a 1% decrease every 13 months, resulting in a cumulative 22% reduction over 18 years. This translates to an annual saving of approximately AUD 2.21 billion from crimes averted, highlighting that the benefits of supply-side drug policies are significant and often underestimated due to their delayed realization. We conclude that supply-side policies have a more substantial role in reducing drug-related harm than is conventionally assumed.
... Overall, research suggests that the neurophysiologically arousing effects of alcohol are likely compounded by the physiological arousal (i.e., emotional flooding) experienced in the context of conflict. Coupled with physically aggressive partners' difficulty to self-regulate in aroused states under conditions of intoxication and (perceived) provocation (Exum, 2006), this necessitates a nuanced understanding of the association between conflict dynamics (i.e., demand/ withdraw communication) and physiological arousal (i.e., emotional flooding) experienced during conflict among couples who use alcohol and who do and do not experience IPV. ...
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Purpose Although alcohol-related intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health problem, the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. For instance, prior research has shown differences in distressed violent (DV) and distressed nonviolent (DNV) couples’ demand/withdraw communication and the extent to which they become emotionally flooded (i.e., physiologically aroused) in response to conflict. Additionally, alcohol use is associated with increased demand/withdraw communication, IPV, and emotional flooding. Therefore, the present study sought to clarify the association between demand/withdraw communication and emotional flooding among relationally couples who use alcohol and who do and do not experience IPV. Methods Relationally distressed couples (Mage = 30.1 years) reported on their physical aggression, demand/withdraw communication, emotional flooding, and total number of drinks during the past six months. Couples were denoted as DV (N = 58) if at least one partner reported IPV and DNV (N = 29) if neither partner reported IPV. Actor-partner interdependence modeling was used to test whether couple type (DV versus DNV) moderates the link between demand/withdraw behavior and emotional flooding. Results With one exception, alcohol use was unrelated to any of the processes under investigation in the current study. Moreover, men’s and women’s report of a woman-demand/man-withdraw pattern and man-demand/woman-withdraw pattern, respectively, were positively associated with each partner’s own emotional flooding. Couple type (DV vs DNV) did not moderate these associations. Conclusion The present results highlight the need for sensitive measures that can capture the nuanced processes that underlie IPV in couples who use alcohol.
... First, problematic substance use consistently predicted nonuse of strategies to avoid detection. This result supports the findings of Balfe et al. (2015) and is consistent with work on the effect of substance use on criminal behavior that shows that such use affects cognitive abilities, reducing the ability to rationally analyze costs and benefits associated with behavior (see Assaad and Exum 2002;Beauregard, Lussier, and Proulx 2005;Exum 2006). Substance use alters decisionmaking mechanisms, resulting in altered perceptions of reality, reduced understanding of costs (i.e., police identification), and overestimation of the benefits of the crime (Assaad and Exum 2002;Peterson et al. 1990). ...
Article
While online sex offenders use a wide range of strategies to try to avoid police detection, attempts to avoid detection of child sexual exploitation materials (CSEM) and online sexual solicitation of children have received very little attention. This study aims to understand online sex offenders' behaviors by modeling the factors associated with their use of technological data protection and anonymity preservation strategies. The data is based on a sample of 199 men involved in crimes related to the use of child pornography or sexual solicitation of minors online. The analytical strategy based on the use of an artificial neural network (ANN), a machine-learning system, identified two trends. First, those who displayed problematic substance use and sexual thoughts and fantasies as well as behaviors reported to be preoccupying did not use specific strategies to avoid police detection. Second, two combinations of factors predict use of police anti-detection strategy, suggesting that the criminal expertise of online sex offenders is manifested in two different patterns: those building on existing knowledge, and those learning skills through previous judicial experience.
... First, problematic substance use consistently predicted nonuse of strategies to avoid detection. This result supports the findings of Balfe et al. (2015) and is consistent with work on the effect of substance use on criminal behavior that shows that such use affects cognitive abilities, reducing the ability to rationally analyze costs and benefits associated with behavior (see Assaad and Exum 2002;Beauregard, Lussier, and Proulx 2005;Exum 2006). Substance use alters decisionmaking mechanisms, resulting in altered perceptions of reality, reduced understanding of costs (i.e., police identification), and overestimation of the benefits of the crime (Assaad and Exum 2002;Peterson et al. 1990). ...
... Other studies that included a placebo condition found that placebo participants responded like sober participants Davis et al., Alcoholic or nonalcoholic beverage 2016Johnson, Noel, & Sutter-Hernandez, 2000;Neilson et al., 2017;Noel et al., 2009;Norris et al., 2002). Similarly, alcohol administration studies that assess general aggressive behavior consistently find that intoxicated men are more aggressive than sober men, particularly when provoked or when they have high levels of trait aggression; however, they rarely find placebo effects (for reviews, see Chermack & Giancola, 1997;Exum, 2006;Ito, Miller, & Pollock, 1996;Kuypers, Verkes, van den Brink, van Amsterdam, & Ramaekers, 2018). When explaining these findings, most researchers argue that there is a synergistic relationship between alcohol expectancies and pharmacology. ...
Chapter
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Alcohol’s role in men’s sexual aggression against women is complicated. This chapter begins with an overview of general risk factors for sexual assault perpetration and a description of the pharmacological and psychological mechanisms through which alcohol impacts behavior. Most of the chapter describes the relevant empirical literature which is divided into sections based on the type of design, which affects the types of conclusions which can be drawn from the findings. First, the evidence is reviewed from cross-sectional surveys that assess the relationship between alcohol consumption and sexual aggression within a single time point; and then from prospective surveys which examine the relationship between alcohol consumption and sexual aggression at multiple time points, including daily assessments. Next studies which examine alcohol consumption during a sexual assault incident are reviewed, including evidence as to whether there are personal characteristics that distinguish between perpetrators who consume alcohol and perpetrators who are sober during the incident, whether alcohol use is a consistent component of a perpetrator’s modus operandi, whether assault characteristics differ for perpetrators who consume alcohol and perpetrators who are sober at the time of a sexual assault, and whether there are factors that distinguish perpetrators who use the victim’s alcohol impairment as their primary tactic from other perpetrators. The final set of reviewed studies are experiments in which men are randomly assigned to drink an alcoholic or nonalcoholic beverage and then respond to a sexual assault scenario. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future directions for research, and implications for prevention and policy. Effective programming and policy need to start early and be comprehensive because alcohol works in conjunction with many other risk factors at the individual, peer group, community, and societal level.
... This is concerning as young people aged 18-24 are most likely to exceed the risk guidelines for single occasion alcohol use (five or more drinks, 41%) and one in seven (14.6%) report drinking more than 11 standard drinks on one occasion at least monthly (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2019). Reviews of experimental studies confirm causal, dose dependent associations between alcohol, aggression, and violence but note the importance of individual and environmental influences (Exum, 2006;Tomlinson et al., 2016). The relationship between mental health symptoms such as psychological distress and violent behavior is less clear. ...
Article
Young adulthood is an important developmental period for investigating the nature of violent behavior. This study examines the unique contribution of alcohol use to violence perpetration among young adults in the Australian community, after accounting for the influence of sociodemographic, early life, trait, and well-being influences. Cross-sectional, self-report data was collected from 507 young adults aged 18-20 years in the Australian general community via an online survey. Sequential logistic regressions examined the relative and independent contribution of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), impulsivity, psychological distress, and hazardous alcohol use to past-year violent behavior. Results show one in eight young adults aged 18-20 (13%) reported at least one act of violent behavior in the past year, primarily assault perpetrated against another person. Sequential logistic regression identified that after controlling for other risk factors, the number of ACEs reported and hazardous alcohol use were independently and positively associated with increased odds of reporting violent behavior in young adulthood. These findings demonstrate that ACEs and hazardous alcohol use are important, independent correlates of violent behavior in young adults. While preventing early adversity is key for reducing violence in the community, this evidence suggests that it is also important to target proximal causes such as hazardous alcohol use. Increasing early and widespread access to evidence-based, trauma-informed violence-prevention programs targeting risk factors across multiple settings is critical for reducing harm and supporting young people into healthy adulthood.
... The increase in consumption of alcohol lead to more number of people drinking heavily, resulting in a greater number of people behaving aggressively (Bye and Rossow, 2008;Ramstedt, 2011). There is an increased possibility of aggression with the consumption of alcohol (Bushman and Cooper, 1990;Exum, 2006). Greater consumption of alcohol also results in a larger number of drinking occasions, and there is a relationship between the frequency of drinking occasions and violence, including homicide (Landberg and Norstrom, 2011;Norstrom and Ramstedt, 2005;Room and Rossow, 2001). ...
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Consumption of alcohol has an impact on violent crimes and homicides. The study examines the association between aggregate level consumption of spirit and homicide rates in the State of Kerala in India. Time-series analyses were conducted by building Autoregressive Moving Average with Exogenous Variables (ARMAX) models and OLS Regression models to explain the relationship between the monthly rate of consumption of alcoholic spirits and homicide rates. The study concludes that consumption of alcoholic spirits has a statistically significant impact on the total homicide rates and the male and female homicide rates. The study has significant policy implications being one of the first studies examining the relationship between alcohol consumption and homicide rates in India and suggesting methods to address challenges of adverse public health consequences associated with alcohol consumption.
... Risk-taking is associated with increased violent behaviors. For instance, substance use, including alcohol (Bushman & Cooper, 1990;De Sousa Fernandes Perna et al., 2016;Exum, 2006) or methamphetamines (McKetin et al., 2014) increase the likelihood of violent behaviors. Further risk-taking behaviors associated with violence, particularly sexual violence, include having multiple sexual partners and impersonal sex or casual attitudes toward sex (Tharp et al., 2012). ...
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Despite compelling evidence that victimization and offending co-occur, it remains unclear what types of victimization are linked to specific forms of perpetration. Here we examined the relationship between physical, psychological, and sexual violence with respect to influencing variables including mental health, risk-taking behaviors, and coping strategies. Data from 5385 men were collected as part of an epidemiological study on violence experience. A classification and regression tree analysis identified the main predictors of violence perpetration and classified violent offending into high- and low-risk groups. Results indicate that violence is best predicted by previous exposure to violence and polyvictimization. Physical violence is best predicted by prior exposure to physical violence and this is further influenced by the frequency of and the age at which violence was experienced. Drug use was a strong predictor of physical and psychological violence. The latter is best predicted by a history of polyvictimization, the severity and the originator of violence. Sexual violence is strongly predicted by one's sexual violence experience. Other factors such as demographic characteristics are less predictive. Our results may contribute to the development of early prevention and intervention approaches that account for different risk factors. The significance of violence exposure suggest that intervention measures must focus on victims of early and prolonged experience of violence. On the strength of the link between drug use and violence, exposure to violence should be considered in drug prevention and intervention and vice versa.
... A high proportion of violent crimes are carried out by people who are under the influence of alcohol at the time of the offence (CSEW, 2013), and general population surveys show a high proportion of people report a personal association between drinking alcohol and violence (Jones et al., 2020;Wells et al., 2006). In addition, evidence from laboratory studies supports a direct temporal effect of alcohol on aggression (Exum, 2006). ...
Article
Alcohol consumption is known to have a disinhibiting effect and is associated with a higher likelihood of aggressive behavior, especially among men. People with certain personality traits maybe more likely to behave aggressively when intoxicated, and there may also be variation by gender. We aimed to investigate whether the reason why men and women with certain personality traits are more likely to engage in violence may be because of their alcohol use. The Big Five personality traits and anger-hostility, alcohol consumption, and violence were measured by questionnaire in 15,701 nationally representative participants in the United States. We tested the extent to which alcohol mediates the relationship between personality factors and violence in men and women. We found that agreeableness was inversely associated with violence in both genders. Alcohol mediated approximately 11% of the effect in males, but there was no evidence of an effect in females. Anger-hostility was associated with violence in both sexes, but alcohol mediated the effect only in males. We also found that Extraversion was associated with violence and alcohol use in males and females. Alcohol accounted for 15% of the effect of extraversion on violence in males and 29% in females. The mechanism by which personality traits relate to violence may be different in men and women. Agreeableness and anger-hostility underpin the relationship between alcohol and violence in men, but not in women. Reducing alcohol consumption in men with disagreeable and angry/hostile traits would have a small but significant effect in reducing violence, whereas in women, reducing alcohol consumption among the extraverted, would have a greater effect.
... Music festivals are events where several thousands of people, mainly young, gather and socialize, often over several days, and alcohol is usually a focal point that contributes to the festival experience. High levels of alcohol intoxication among festival-goers [1][2][3] and risky consumption [4][5][6] are concerning, since alcohol increases the risk for a number of public health-related problems such as injuries, sexual harassment, and violence [7][8][9], especially in large crowds [10]. ...
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Music festivals are often high-risk settings associated with large numbers of visitors and high alcohol intoxication levels, which contribute to a number of public health-related problems. According to the Swedish Alcohol Act, servers are responsible for not overserving alcohol to obviously intoxicated patrons. The aim of the current study was to examine compliance to the Swedish Alcohol Act at music festivals by assessing the rate of alcohol overserving to festival-goers. We conducted a study at a large music festival in Sweden hosting approximately 50,000 visitors. Professional actors, i.e., pseudo-patrons, enacted a standardized scene in which a highly intoxicated festival-goer attempted to buy beer at licensed premises inside the festival. Observers monitored each attempt. A total of 52 purchase attempts were conducted. The rate of overserving was 26.9% and was not influenced by the server's gender, the number of servers, or the level of crowdedness at the bar area. Overserving differed between server age groups, which was not statistically significant when controlling for other factors. Compliance to the Alcohol Act at the festival can be improved. Intoxication levels and related problems can be reduced by implementing a multicomponent intervention including staff training, policy work, and improved enforcement.
... Late 20th-century ethnographic and sociological studies drew out how much 'drunken comportment' takes a range of socially collective and culturally varied forms that may or may not include frequent aggression (Cavan 1966;MacAndrew and Edgerton 1969). This qualitative research gave an important lead to later studies from criminology and AOD studies that have suggested there is no singular, fixed, social response to collective drinking, in opposition to claims that individual responses are pharmacologically determined Homel 1997, 2008;Exum 2006). ...
... 112 There is evidence to support the connection between alcohol consumption and aggressive, violent and offending behaviours. 113 Difficulties as a result of alcohol consumption or abuse contribute significantly to offending on to regular of a basis. This is despite a large number of young offenders being under the age of 18. Suggesting that alcohol abuse needs to be considered in the rehabilitation process of young offenders of all ages. ...
... The mechanisms linking alcohol use to increased homicide risk have been studied extensively. For instance, the pharmacological disinhibition model posits that alcohol intoxication impacts the area of the brain responsible for impulse control, judgment and interpretation of social cues, resulting in impulsive or aggressive behaviors (Exum 2006). Similarly, it is evident that marijuana use impairs cognitive functions, inhibits impulse control, and increases aggressive behaviors (Yanowitch and Coccaro 2011;Temple et al. 2013). ...
Article
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Background: Use of alcohol and other drugs is a major risk factor for assaultive injuries and violent deaths. The purpose of this study was to examine the time trends in the prevalence of alcohol and marijuana detected in homicide victims. Methods: We analyzed toxicological testing data for homicide victims (n = 12,638) from the 2004-2016 National Violent Death Reporting System in 9 US states (Colorado, Georgia, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin). We used the Cochran-Armitage test for trend to assess the statistical significance of changes in the prevalence of alcohol and marijuana detected in these homicide victims during the study period. Results: Overall, 37.5% of the homicide victims tested positive for alcohol, 31.0% positive for marijuana, and 11.4% positive for both substances. During the study period, the prevalence of marijuana increased from 22.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 19.6, 25.0) in 2004 to 42.1% (95% CI = 39.2, 44.9) in 2016 (Z = -15.7; P < .001) while the prevalence of alcohol declined slightly (Z = 1.5; P = 0.143). Marked increases in the prevalence of marijuana were observed in both sexes and across age and racial groups. Conclusions: Marijuana is increasingly detected in homicide victims irrespective of demographic characteristics. Further research is needed to assess the causal role of marijuana use and concurrent use of marijuana and alcohol in homicide victimization.
... Alcohol drinking at these large events can have a number of negative consequences. First, alcohol consumption can cause various security problems that can harm both the individual who is drinking and bystanders, for example, drunk driving and resulting car accidents [1] and injuries inflicted by violent, alcohol-intoxicated individuals [2][3][4]. Furthermore, in the case of rapid evacuations due to fire alarms, bomb threats or terrorist attacks, heavily intoxicated individuals can slow or impede progress, thereby harming themselves or others. Simulation models by Moore and coworkers suggest that alcohol intoxication that hampers balance and increases staggering would cause a more disordered and slower crowd flow dynamic [5]. ...
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... However, it is worth noting that the present study did not examine the effect of alcohol on sexual assaults. Evidence from prior research suggests that alcohol intoxication does increase the risk of sexual victimization (Abbey, 2002;Felson & Burchfield, 2004), and research on violence generally suggests that alcohol has a causal effect on violence (e.g., Felson et al., 2008; for a review, see Exum, 2006). ...
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Using a rational choice framework, this study examines the effects of alcohol and anger on violent decision making. Male students of legal drinking age participated in a randomized experiment in which intoxication and anger levels were manipulated. Participants read a “bar fight” scenario and completed a series of questions measuring aggressive intentions and the perceived consequences of violence. Results indicate that alcohol and anger interacted to increase one measure of aggressivity, but the perceived costs and benefits of violence were unaffected. Exploratory analyses call into question the robustness of the rational choice model, suggesting that the perspective may not be the general explanation for crime it is proclaimed to be.
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Intoxicated and nonintoxicated subjects with self-reported high, moderate, and low aggressive dispositions were given the opportunity to administer electric shocks to an increasingly provocative opponent within the context of a competitive reaction time task. Intoxicated subjects selected higher levels of shock than non-intoxicated subjects under low provocation conditions. The highly intoxicated high and moderate aggressors tended to increase their shock settings more rapidly as a function of the opponent's provocation than the highly intoxicated low aggressors.
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Determined the mediating effects of alcohol and behavior contingencies on aggression in male social drinkers. 72 18–35 yr old Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 × 2 factorial design. To control for alcohol and expectation effects, one third of the Ss received alcoholic beverages, one third received placebo drinks, and another third was not administered any beverages. Aggression was assessed by the intensity and duration of shocks administered to a bogus partner in a modification of the Buss aggression procedure. Half of the Ss were exposed to aversive contingencies correlated with their aggressive responses, and half received random aversive contingencies. The inebriated Ss were significantly more aggressive than the sober Ss. The former Ss displayed an equally aggressive pattern under both contingency conditions, whereas the nonintoxicated Ss displayed a differential response pattern affected by the contingency type. These findings are attributed to the disrupting effect of alcohol on information processing and to the mediating effect of contingencies on the nonintoxicated individuals' aggressive behavior. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Current issues in alcohol-related violence are highlighted through the examination of correlational studies between alcohol and violent crime. Alcohol is associated with violent crime at a greater than chance level and at a significantly higher level than it is associated with nonviolent crime. Heavy drinking and a verbal argument usually precede the violent act and the victim is as likely as the offender to initiate the altercation. However, it is the precipitator of the altercation who is more likely to be intoxicated. Alcohol and aggression are more strongly related than expected with violent offenders demonstrating psychopathology. Marital violence appears related to alcohol independent of other marital problems. Although there exists a strong correlational relationship between alcohol and violent crime, the nature of the evidence prohibits the establishment of a causal link. In particular, methodological problems, such as a lack of appropriate comparison groups, make it difficult to draw conclusions in this area.
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While the empirical association of drinking and problem drinking to violence is well established, the etiological nature of the relationship is poorly understood. Using data collected from 1,149 convicted male felons, the acute (drinking just before the violent event) and chronic (a psychiatric diagnosis of alcohol abuse or dependence) effects of alcohol use on violence were analyzed. Logistic regression models were used to examine the relationship of acute and chronic alcohol effects to incarceration for a violent offense and arrest for a violent offense, with demographic and criminal history factors controlled. The acute effects of alcohol were found to be significantly associated with incarceration for a violent offense, but the net explanatory capacity of acute alcohol effects was not large. Chronic alcohol effects were not significantly associated with incarceration for a violent offense or arrest for a violent offense in the previous year. The findings were interpreted as being consistent with the hypothesis that alcohol effects violence directly, acting through the acute effects of use, rather than indirectly through the effects of underlying or mediating factors.
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In a balanced placebo experiment it was hypothesized that pharmacological effects of alcohol would override expectancy effects and that alcohol would increase aggression only under frustrative conditions by a process of an exaggerated subjective experience of frustration. In a modified “aggression-machine” frustration was defined as arbitrary and manipulated in a within-subjects fashion. Manipulation checks indicated difficulties in deceiving subjects as to the content of the drink, and it was not possible to evaluate pure pharmacological effects. Ratings of subjective frustration did not differentiate experimental groups. Only during frustrative conditions did intoxicated subjects increase their aggression regardless of information about drink's content. Frustration per se and expectancy factors did not lead to increased aggression. This was explained in terms of a more narrow focusing on outstanding available response alternatives and as opposed to the 1983 Taylor and Leonard explanation of alcohol-incr...
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Drinking alcohol clearly has important effect on social behaviors, such as increasing aggression, self-disclosure, sexual adventuresomeness, and so on. Research has shown that these effects can stem from beliefs we hold about alcohol effects. Less is known about how alcohol itself affects these behaviors. A cognitive explanation, that alcohol impairs the information processing needed to inhibit response impulses--the abilities to foresee negative consequences of the response, to recall inhibiting standards, and so on--has begun to emerge. We hypothesize that alcohol impairment will make a social response more extreme or excessive when the response is pressured by both inhibiting and instigating cues--in our terms, when it is under inhibitory response conflict. In that case, alcohol's damage to inhibitory processing allows instigating pressures more sway over the response, increasing its extremeness. In the present meta-analysis, each published test of alcohol's effect on a social, or socially significant behavior was rated (validated against independent judges) as to whether it was under high or low inhibitory conflict. Over low-conflict tests, intoxicated subjects behaved only a tenth of a standard deviation more extremely than their sober controls, whereas over high-conflict tests they were a full standard deviation more extreme. The effect of conflict increased with alcohol dosage, was shown not to be mediated by drinking expectancies, and generalized with few exceptions across the 34 studies and 12 social behaviors included in this analysis.
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An expectancy hypothesis has been put forward to explain the relationship between alcohol intoxication and aggressive behavior. An experiment tested this hypothesis using a balanced placebo design. The experiment was performed within a modified version of the Buss 'shock-machine' procedure. Subjects were randomly assigned to either an alcohol-drinking group or a tonic-drinking group. Each group was further subdivided into one informed that the drink contained alcohol and one informed that the drink contained only tonic. Subjects' expectancies concerning the effects of alcohol on aggression were actively manipulated. Aggressive behavior was measured both in an absolute and a relative way. Given difficulties with the procedural deception about the drink, it was not possible to evaluate pure pharmacological effects. Results did not support an expectancy interpretation in that the two alcohol-drinking groups were more aggressive than the two tonic-drinking groups.
Article
This experiment investigated aggression as an interactive effect of alcohol and frustration in a situation where frustration was defined as strong and arbitrary and aggression as instrumental. 40 male subjects were randomly assigned to either an alcohol or a placebo group, each group further divided into an aggressive-cue group and a no-aggressive-cue group. Subjects either consumed an alcohol dose of 0.8 ml of pure alcohol per kg body weight or a placebo drink. Intensity and duration of shocks administered by subjects to a bogus partner in a supervision 'cover task' were measures of relative aggression and absolute aggression was defined as number of shocks given. The aggressive cue manipulation had no effect, and both absolute and relative aggression increased only when intoxicated subjects were frustrated. Aggression was clearly of an instrumental kind with no ingredients of emotional aggression. The different dependent measures were highly intercorrelated and not associated with different types of aggression. The results were discussed as supportive of a model proposing a shift in attentional processes under alcohol to salient external features.
Article
It has been suggested that alcohol ingestion facilitates escalatory processes in aggressive interactions. The present study examined interaction patterns in intoxicated, sober and mixed dyads. Thirty pairs of men college students were randomly assigned to these conditions. Subjects who received alcohol received .964 g of absolute alcohol per kg of body weight. At the beginning of each trial in a reaction-time competition, each member of the dyad selected the shock level that he wanted his opponent to receive if the opponent was slower on the trial. Further, each member was informed by feedback lights of the shock level that his opponent had selected for him. The results indicated that the intoxicated dyads selected higher shock levels than did the sober dyads. Mixed dyads tended to select lower shock levels than intoxicated dyads but higher shock levels than sober dyads. However, these differences were not statistically significant. Additionally, intoxicated dyads escalated in aggression over the first block of six trials, whereas neither sober nor mixed dyads evidenced such an escalation. One interpretation of these findings is that the cognitive disruption caused by the alcohol interfered with the subjects' ability to evaluate the consequences of their behavior and to interpret the behavior of their opponents. A second interpretation is that, because of the expectancy effects associated with alcohol consumption, intoxicated dyads did not feel constrained to a nonaggressive stance. Finally, the value of the dyadic-interaction paradigm in the study of alcohol-related violence was discussed.
Article
48 males participated in an aggression task after receiving either alcoholic or placebo beverages and after being told that they had received either a high or a low dose of alcohol. All Ss in the alcohol group actually received the same dose. Measures of aggression were the intensity and duration of shock given to a bogus partner in a RT-pain perception task and a score on a posttask attitude questionnaire. Blood alcohol readings were taken 3 times during the session, and a locus of control scale was administered before and after drinking. For Ss in the alcohol conditions, blood alcohol levels averaged .079% before the task and .085% afterwards. Alcohol resulted in higher aggression scores only on the questionnaire measure, and an interaction between drug and attribution was found for the measure of shock duration. Attribution alone resulted in greater aggression on the measure of shock intensity. Ss in groups where the attribution was discrepant with the drug condition were the most aggressive on the measures of shock intensity and duration. These Ss became more external, reflecting a high correlation between their aggression and a stimulus tone. Results suggest that a person's increased aggressiveness when intoxicated results from an interaction between alcohol and an altered responsivity to provoking stimuli. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
This article reviews literature on the utility of different experimental designs in human alcohol administration research, with particular attention to the balanced-placebo design (BPD). Many believe the BPD can orthogonally manipulate alcohol's pharmacological effects and the effects of dosage-set (believing that one has consumed a certain amount of alcohol). However, research has accumulated that suggests these effects cannot be disentangled at moderate to high doses of alcohol. The strengths and weaknesses of a number of experimental designs are discussed with regard to the variables that designs can assess or control. Methodological issues in deception conditions and manipulation checks are reviewed. Topics in need of empirical investigation are highlighted. It is concluded that the appropriate alcohol administration design depends on the particular theoretical and methodological issues of a research program.
Article
Research on the relationship between alcohol, drugs and aggression is reviewed. The findings indicate that alcohol is a potent antecedent of aggressive behavior. Studies conducted in our laboratory demonstrate that aggressive behavior is related to the quantity of alcohol ingested, that the effect of social pressure to aggress and of intense provocation is enhanced by alcohol, that the instigating effect of alcohol depends upon the aggressive disposition of the alcohol consumer, that the aggressive behavior of the intoxicated person can be regulated by altering cues that affect cognitive processes and that other depressant increase aggressive responding. A hypothetical model is described that summarizes the experimental findings and provides a vehicle for discussing the major factors and psychological processes involved in alcohol-induced aggression.
Article
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies to investigate 2 explanations of how alcohol increases aggression by decreasing sensitivity to cues that inhibit it. Both the level of anxiety and inhibition conflict moderated the difference between the aggressive behavior of sober and intoxicated participants, but neither level adequately accounted for variation in effect sizes. Additional analyses of 3 social psychological moderating variables-provocation, frustration, and self-focused attention-showed that the aggressiveness of intoxicated participants relative to sober ones increased as a function of frustration but decreased as a function of provocation and self-focused attention. The authors also examined the moderating effects of dose.
Article
Epidemiological research on alcohol and violence exhibits a number of methodological limitations. This is the case whether it is event based (i.e., based on samples of victims and/or perpetrators of violence) or based on samples of the general population. The chapter identifies some of the limitations that confront researchers, policymakers, and other end-users of the research. The methodological issues are illustrated by exploring one type of violent event-rape-and one general population study-Kai Pernanen's research on alcohol-related violence in a Canadian community. It is argued the epidemiological research would benefit from further qualitative research on the natural history of violent events.
Article
Little is known about the precise role of alcohol in the escalation of interactions from threats into physical violence or its contribution to the risk of injury. Experimental studies indicate that intoxicated subjects (allegedly) give markedly higher electric shocks than sober subjects and are less sensitive to their cries of pain. However, few studies in a naturalistic setting have examined whether aggressive acts become more serious and result in higher injury rates when the assailants have been drinking than when they are sober. This chapter reviews the two bodies of research on the effects of alcohol on interpersonal aggression and violence; presents new data on the escalation of threatening interactions to assaults and the likelihood of victim injury given an assault, using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey for the years 1992 and 1993; and suggests future directions for research based on our findings that alcohol's impact on both escalation and injury differed according to the victim-assailant relationship.
Article
The relation between acute alcohol consumption and aggressive behavior is a complex phenomenon that has been studied from a variety of different disciplines. This article reviews findings from both survey and experimental research. The influence of both situational and individual difference variables on the alcohol-aggression relation is discussed and the strengths and weaknesses of various methodological approaches are highlighted. Current theoretical perspectives of the alcohol-aggression relation are reviewed. An integrated heuristic framework of the alcohol-aggression relation also is outlined. This conceptualization involves both distal and proximal risk factors for problems with alcohol and violence, which include biological, psychological, interpersonal, and contextual influences. Research and treatment implications of this framework are also discussed. It is recommended that researchers attempt to measure variables from a variety of domains in order to obtain a better understanding of this complex phenomenon. Furthermore, it is emphasized that there is a clear need to further implement and assess primary and secondary prevention efforts and to design integrated and flexible approaches for individuals with alcohol and violence problems.
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did not specifically state the number of comparisons or the number of reports used in their alcohol/ aggression analyses. The numbers reported in this review were derived by examining " Appendix A: Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis
  • Steele
  • Southwick
Steele and Southwick (1985) did not specifically state the number of comparisons or the number of reports used in their alcohol/ aggression analyses. The numbers reported in this review were derived by examining " Appendix A: Studies Included in the Meta-Analysis " (pp. 32–33) and identifying those studies that pertained to alcohol and aggression.