Article

Motivation through Conscious Goal Setting

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Abstract

The article describes what has been found during 30 years of research by the author and others on the relationship between conscious performance goals and performance on work tasks. This approach is contrasted with previous approaches to motivation theory which stressed physiological, external or subconscious causes of action. The basic contents of goal setting theory are summarized in terms of 14 categories of findings. An applied example is provided.

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... Self-regulated strategies within the task analysis category include goal setting and strategic planning (Zimmerman, 2000). Goal setting theory suggests that learners are more motivated to persist with a goal and demonstrate higher achievement if goals are specific, clear, and challenging (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990). When learners are pursuing clearly defined goals, they are more likely to engage appropriate, specific task strategies to meet the goals (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990). ...
... Goal setting theory suggests that learners are more motivated to persist with a goal and demonstrate higher achievement if goals are specific, clear, and challenging (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990). When learners are pursuing clearly defined goals, they are more likely to engage appropriate, specific task strategies to meet the goals (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990). Additionally, challenging goals motivate learners, but the learner must feel as if the goal is attainable and valuable to persist with the task (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990;Schunk et al., 2014). ...
... When learners are pursuing clearly defined goals, they are more likely to engage appropriate, specific task strategies to meet the goals (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990). Additionally, challenging goals motivate learners, but the learner must feel as if the goal is attainable and valuable to persist with the task (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990;Schunk et al., 2014). The self-motivation beliefs category includes motivational strategies, such as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, task interest/value, and goal orientation (Zimmerman, 2000). ...
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This research sought to answer the question about what students learnt from a self-regulated learning (SRL) video annotation tool in a hybrid secondary acting classroom. SRL is an important skill for students to self-direct their own learning processes. For the intervention, students engaged in a series of SRL activities through the video annotation tool, VideoAnt, for six weeks during the distance learning period. A convergent parallel mixed methods design was conducted. Quantitative data was collected using the International Thespian Society – Acting Rubric to assess students’ acting skills. Qualitative data was collected via semi-structured individual interviews. Quantitative findings demonstrated students gained proficiency in acting skills after using the video annotation tool in the acting classroom. Interview data about participants’ perceptions of the intervention were analyzed to triangulate quantitative findings. Implications of these findings for theatre/art educators and academics investing in SRL are discussed.
... This theory states that performance increases when individuals are presented with 'hard and specific' instead of 'do your best' goals. Goal setting theory has been studied through hundreds of experiments in various settings (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 2019), and research based on goal setting theory continues to proliferate (see appendix A). By 2006, more than 1,000 studies had been conducted in the field of goal setting theory, covering 88 different tasks and involving over 40,000 individuals (Latham & Locke, 2006;Latham et al., 2016;Mitchell & Daniels, 2003). ...
... Existing research on goal specificity as perceived by employees concludes that goal specificity increases performance (Botti & Monda, 2019;Latham et al., 2017;Locke & Latham, 2019;Sawyer, 1992;Taing et al., 2013;Wood et al., 1987) and contributes to employee satisfaction (Botti & Monda, 2019;Tosi et al., 1970), commitment (Bozkurt et al., 2017;Klein et al., 1999), motivation (Botti & Monda, 2019;Mikami, 2017;Wallace & Etkin, 2018), and empowerment (Jong & Faerman, 2021); it also regulates performance and reduces performance variance (Locke, 1996). ...
... Managerial specifying capability and goal blurring can affect the specificity of employee goals, which, in turn, can influence employee motivation and performance. Our research supports some findings of extant literature, namely, that specificity of employee goals is an important factor in increasing performance and motivation of employees (Klein et al., 1999;Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 2019;Mikami, 2017;Sawyer, 1992;Tosi et al., 1970;Wallace & Etkin, 2018;Wood et al., 1987). ...
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Many researchers and practitioners believe that the lack of specificity of employee goals is detrimental to the effectiveness of performance management in firms. Using an inductive grounded theory approach, this study identifies two managerial factors that could impact negatively goal specificity in real-life corporate environments. First, ‘goal blurring’ is a counterintuitive purposeful managerial behavior that results in blurred employee goals being set during annual reviews. Second, ‘specifying capability’ incorporates factors that can result in a lower level of specificity of employee goals with no purposeful intent. The findings reveal two main reasons managers set less specific goals: (1) limited capability and (2) choice to purposefully blur employee goals to maintain flexibility in evaluating their subordinates. While non-purposeful blurring occurs because of circumstances that make setting specific goals difficult and limit the capabilities of managers to do so, purposeful blurring of goals occurs with the main aim of maintaining flexibility in evaluating employees. As a result, blurred goals are set for employees despite managers’ awareness of the benefits of setting specific goals, which is supported by extensive research and management practice. Our work reveals the purposeful managerial blurring of employee goals, a phenomenon that has a significant impact on firm performance, though it has not been previously identified as such, or explained.
... Solution-focused thinking across the subscales goal-orientation, problem disengagement and resource activation increased in this preliminary research. This is not surprising as goal attainment is a key objective of coaching psychology (Grant, 2001) a discipline that was developed on the principles of goal theory (Locke, 1996) and the cycle of self-regulated change (Carver & Scheier, 1998). Every session starts with goal-setting and is followed by self-reflection, and adjustment of the coaching goal, if needed. ...
... 'Improve leadership and perspective-taking capacity' or personal wellbeing, e.g., building 'Self-care & effective work habits'. Coaches were instructed to collaboratively customise goals to each entrepreneur's needs reinforcing a high degree of autonomy in goal selection for higher motivation and goal attainment (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 2002) On a final note, the entrepreneurs in this sample were highly motivated individuals who participated in the accelerator programme to progress their ventures. An intrinsic motivation to progress towards their business goals could have positively influenced the levels of effort that they exerted towards progressing in coaching (Kotha et al., 2023). ...
... An intrinsic motivation to progress towards their business goals could have positively influenced the levels of effort that they exerted towards progressing in coaching (Kotha et al., 2023). While being ambitious positively impacts performance and goal attainment (Locke, 1996), it can equally impact wellbeing negatively (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), particularly if goals are unrealistic or overly outcome-focused. Coaches can provide support to balance goal attainment of entrepreneurs with MWB by helping them set attainable goals linked to their values and their broader purpose in life (Locke & Latham, 2002). ...
... 4 The goal-setting literature establishes three features of such goals or reference points. 5 First, goals motivate individuals to exert effort to be in the region of gains (Locke andLatham 1990, 2002). Second, the difficulty of such goals is positively related to exerted effort. ...
... Their findings are consistent with the S-shape value function under prospect theory and support the notion that goals serve as reference points. Such properties of goals are also reflected in goal-setting theory, which argues that wage-invariant goals can be implicit benchmarks that motivate employees to work harder (Latham and Locke 1979;Locke 1996;Heath et al. 1999;Gomez-Minambres 2012) and that more difficult goals can serve to increase effort (see Locke and Latham (1990) for a review). While much work in the goal-setting literature analyzes specific tasks, such as logging production, arithmetic problem solving, or toy assembly (Locke 1996), Gomez-Minambres (2012) brings goal-setting theory to standard economic theory and proposes a principal-agent model in which the agent's motivation to work is driven by both extrinsic incentives (i.e., pay-per-performance wage) and intrinsic motivation (i.e., an internal sense of achievement from accomplishing wage-invariant goals). ...
... Such properties of goals are also reflected in goal-setting theory, which argues that wage-invariant goals can be implicit benchmarks that motivate employees to work harder (Latham and Locke 1979;Locke 1996;Heath et al. 1999;Gomez-Minambres 2012) and that more difficult goals can serve to increase effort (see Locke and Latham (1990) for a review). While much work in the goal-setting literature analyzes specific tasks, such as logging production, arithmetic problem solving, or toy assembly (Locke 1996), Gomez-Minambres (2012) brings goal-setting theory to standard economic theory and proposes a principal-agent model in which the agent's motivation to work is driven by both extrinsic incentives (i.e., pay-per-performance wage) and intrinsic motivation (i.e., an internal sense of achievement from accomplishing wage-invariant goals). Also applying a principal-agent framework, Corgnet et al. (2018) develop a model with reference-dependent utility and show that optimal labor contracts can include wage-invariant goals in addition to monetary incentives. ...
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We find irregular patterns in the distribution of firms’ reported quarterly gross margin percentages. Specifically, there is significant bunching around percentage integers that are highly round (e.g., multiples of 10, such as 30%, 40%, etc.) or are neatly divisible (e.g., 25%, 75%), compared to what is predicted by counterfactual distributions. Further investigation reveals that highly round gross margin firms are smaller, exert higher effort, achieve higher productivity, have more difficult goals, and pay their CEOs with a higher portion of fixed income. We also find that highly round gross margins are associated with superior performance. Additionally, we do not find consistent evidence that highly round gross margin reference points are linked to external rewards. Collectively, our evidence is consistent with reference-dependent preferences for highly round gross margins likely being driven by intrinsic (rather than extrinsic) motivations.
... Quem faz uso das aplicações móveis tem motivações que podem ser intrínsecas como a necessidade de autonomia, a necessidade de competência e a necessidade de relacionamento que conduzem a melhores atitudes relativamente aos comportamentos, aumentando os indicadores físicos e a auto monitorização (Deci et al., 1989;Williams et al., 1996;Black & Deci, 2000;Baard et al., 2004), ou motivações extrínsecas como a perceção de autonomia, necessidade de competência e interação social e são todas responsáveis pela lealdade dos utilizadores às aplicações (recompensas, evitar penalidades), que também tem um impacto positivo no envolvimento com as aplicações móveis (Deci, 2017;Locke, 1996;Cafazzo et al., 2012). Estas podem promover mudanças de comportamentos nomeadamente nas populações mais jovens que procuram alterar hábitos alimentares e atividade física (Higgins, 2016). ...
... As motivações intrínsecas como a necessidade de autonomia, a necessidade de competência e a necessidade de relacionamento que conduzem a melhores atitudes relativamente aos comportamentos, aumentando os indicadores físicos e a auto-monitorização (Deci et al., 1989;Williams et al., 1996;Black & Deci, 2000;Baard et al., 2004), enquanto que, outros autores estudaram as motivações extrínsecas como a perceção de autonomia, necessidade de competência e interação social e são todas responsáveis pela lealdade dos utilizadores às aplicações (recompensas, evitar penalidades), que também tem um impacto positivo no envolvimento com as aplicações móveis (Locke, 1996, Cafazzo et al., 2012, Deci, 2017 . As motivações de alguns entrevistados vão de encontro com o que os autores demonstraram no seu estudo: ...
Thesis
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Há aplicações móveis que fazem a gestão das doenças e facilitam muito a vida das populações ao juntar todo o manancial de informação que os utilizadores necessitam ter para controlarem os seus indicadores de saúde e mudarem comportamentos. A influência social, a perceção dos resultados, os esforços para os atingir e a intenção de comportamento são variáveis que influenciam a adoção de aplicações móveis que promovem a atividade física. O conhecimento sobre essas variáveis por parte das populações tem um forte impacto na adoção das aplicações móveis para atingirem mudanças de comportamento. O esforço expectável e as influências sociais também contribuem positivamente para que existam mudanças de comportamento. Quanto maior for a intenção de comportamento, maior é a prática do mesmo. Estes estudos são compatíveis com todas as classes populacionais, apesar das classes mais jovens apresentarem menor resistência na adoção de tecnologias móveis que lhes permitem atingir as mudanças de comportamentos pretendidas. O conhecimento é um fator determinante para a adoção de aplicações móveis para promover atividade física. As aplicações móveis de Atividade física não levam a um aumento da atividade física, embora resultados positivos possam advir do uso das aplicações móveis de saúde, desde que seja por um período curto e quando direcionadas apenas para a Atividade física. Para aprofundar essa teoria recorreu-se à utilização de 37 entrevistas semiestruturadas a desportistas utilizadores de aplicações móveis, de forma a perceber melhor a forma como interagem com as mesmas. Os resultados das 37 entrevistas sugerem que para aumentar o período de permanência das aplicações móveis deve-se recorrer a modelos de desbloqueio, como por exemplo novos conteúdos por atingir, metas ou incentivos. É importante que estas apps futuramente estejam equipadas com recursos que permitam aumentar estas estratégias de permanência dos utilizadores pois está provado que interações mais prolongadas com determinado aplicativo móvel aumentam o grau de envolvimento dos utilizadores.
... Notably, goal-setting theory of motivation also warns that inappropriate goal-setting engenders demotivating or even counterproductive behaviors, diminishing performance (Ord oñez et al., 2009). In particular, conflicting organizational goals-hierarchically or crossfunctionally-promote action drift (Locke, 1996). Unfortunately, sustainability goals in companies and supply chains are often plagued by complex trade-offs and tensions between different goals and desired outcomes (Matos et al., 2020). ...
... Goal-setting theory of motivation. Building on the insights from the systems perspective, our findings fit the tenet of goal-setting theory of motivation that conflicting organizational goals lead to poorly aligned decision-making (Locke, 1996;Slocum et al., 2002;Ord oñez et al., 2009). The transformational tension between the three systems acts as an impediment as opposed to a driver of progress. ...
Article
Purpose Sustainability continues to be put forth as a strategic priority. However, sustainability efforts are often deemphasized for short-term profitability. This study explores the nuances in managerial decision-making related to adopting sustainability initiatives within food supply chains in an emerging economy. We identify a complex interaction between sustainability efforts and risk mitigation. We derive a model to explain conflicting company goals, managerial decisions and system design. Design/methodology/approach We followed an exploratory research design with an inductive approach. We analyzed data from semi-structured interviews with 29 companies representing different tiers in Turkish food supply chains. We refined and validated the interview findings through a focus group with nine senior managers. We conducted open, focused and theoretical coding in an iterative and reflective manner to analyze the data and derive our results. Findings From the data, three themes emerged, indicating that managers are pursuing different, often conflicting, goals concerning value creation, risk management and sustainability performance. Managers identified and commented on new risks brought on by sustainability initiatives. These sustainability-induced risks were seen as a threat to operational performance, a driver of increased costs and a negative impact on product quality and delivery performance. Trade-offs across operating, sustainability and risk management systems create transformational tension that confounds the sustainability adoption decision-making process. Originality/value The data from the study was contrasted with a theoretical framework derived from systems theory, goal-setting theory of motivation and the theory of planned behavior. We identified four distinct decision paths that managers pursue. Increased awareness of transformational tension and how it influences managerial decision-making can enhance strategic sustainability system design and initiative success.
... Hascher & Moser, 1999) und die Arbeit an Zielen besitzt einen Einfl uss auf die Leistung, wobei der Rückmeldung eine Moderatorenfunktion zugesprochen wird (vgl. Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002 ...
... Zudem besitzt das zielorientierte Arbeiten motivationale Aspekte, die einer Person helfen können, eine bestimmte Leistung zu vollbringen (vgl.Spinath & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2003).Das Teilkonstrukt «Zielverbindlichkeit» ist ein weiterer wesentlicher Bestandteil des zielorientierten pädagogischen Coachings. NachLocke (1996) ist die Zielverbindlichkeit gewährleistet, wenn Ziele schwierig sowie spezifi sch sind und eine Person davon ausgeht, dass sie das Ziel erreichen kann. Somit reicht es nicht aus, einfach Ziele zu setzen, sondern es muss auch garantiert werden, dass daran gearbeitet wird. ...
Article
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Die Sicherstellung der Qualität in der berufspraktischen Ausbildung angehender Lehrerinnen und Lehrer ist eine wichtige Aufgabe der Lehrpersonenbildungsinstitutionen. In der Praxis ist diese Anforderung nicht einfach umzusetzen. Sie wird durch die Aus- und Weiterbildung von Praxislehrpersonen angestrebt. Der Ansatz des zielorientierten pädagogischen Coachings, welcher auf der Gestaltung einer positiven Arbeitsatmosphäre, dem Erarbeiten von Zielen und dem verbindlichen Arbeiten an diesen Zielen basiert, wird in diesem Beitrag ins Zentrum gerückt. Dabei wird der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern ein zielorientiertes pädagogisches Coaching in der berufspraktischen Ausbildung aus der Perspektive angehender Lehrpersonen wirkt. 481 angehende Lehrpersonen schätzten qualitative Merkmale der Betreuung durch ihre Praxislehrpersonen retrospektiv per Fragebogen ein. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass ein zielorientiertes pädagogisches Coaching einen Einfluss auf die subjektiv wahrgenommene Qualität der Rückmeldung und die subjektiv eingeschätzte Erweiterung der Handlungskompetenz besitzt.
... Hal tersebut dapat diartikan bahwa kinerja para auditor intern pemerintah di Indonesia dapat menurun ketika terjadi ambiguitas peran. Hasil penelitian ini mendukung Teori Penetapan Tujuan oleh Locke (1996) yang menyatakan bahwa terdapat hubungan antara tujuan dan kinerja individu yakni individu yang menetapkan tujuan khusus atau sulit cenderung bisa mencapai kinerja yang lebih baik dari individu yang menetapkan tujuan secara umum atau mudah. Hasil penelitian ini mendukung penelitian Islami dan Sukarmanto (2020) serta Husain et al. (2022). ...
... Hal ini berarti bahwa dampak negatif dari ambiguitas peran terhadap kinerja auditor dapat diturunkan oleh kecerdasan emosional yang dimiliki seseorang. Hasil penelitian ini mendukung Teori Penetapan Tujuan oleh Locke (1996) yang menyatakan bahwa ketika seorang auditor memiliki pemahaman yang jelas tentang tujuan dari kinerjanya, auditor akan tetap berusaha mematuhi aturan meskipun menghadapi tekanan dari berbagai pihak. Hasil penelitian ini mendukung penelitian Ermawati, Sinarwati dan Sujana (2014) serta Ismail et al (2015). ...
Article
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui secara empiris adanya ambiguitas peran dan kelebihan peran terhadap kinerja auditor internal pemerintah di Indonesia, dengan kecerdasan emosional sebagai pemoderasinya. Subjek penelitian adalah auditor internal yang bekerja pada instansi pemerintah Indonesia, dengan jumlah sampel sebanyak 114 orang yang dipilih melalui teknik purposive sampling. Teknik analisis regresi berganda yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dan SPSS versi 29 digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis. Berdasarkan analisis data pada penelitian ini, ambiguitas peran dan kelebihan peran mempunyai dampak negatif terhadap kinerja auditor. Kecerdasan emosional dapat melemahkan pengaruh ambiguitas peran terhadap kinerja auditor, namun tidak terbukti melemahkan pengaruh role overflow terhadap kinerja auditor. Ketika seorang individu mengalami ambiguitas peran dan kelebihan peran, kinerjanya cenderung menurun. Namun semakin tinggi tingkat kecerdasan emosional individu maka pengaruh ambiguitas peran terhadap kinerja auditor semakin menurun.
... (Erpenbeck/Sauter 2015). Diesbezüglich gilt es zu beachten, dass das Kriterium der Zielverbindlichkeit gemäß Locke (1996) insbesondere dann eingehalten werden kann, wenn Ziele spezifisch und nicht zu anspruchsvoll formuliert werden. Des Weiteren sollte der Coachee davon überzeugt sein, dass seine gesetzten Ziele bedeutend, herausfordernd und erreichbar sind (Locke 1996). ...
... Diesbezüglich gilt es zu beachten, dass das Kriterium der Zielverbindlichkeit gemäß Locke (1996) insbesondere dann eingehalten werden kann, wenn Ziele spezifisch und nicht zu anspruchsvoll formuliert werden. Des Weiteren sollte der Coachee davon überzeugt sein, dass seine gesetzten Ziele bedeutend, herausfordernd und erreichbar sind (Locke 1996). Nach Bachmann (2014) ...
Article
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Die berufspraktische Ausbildung angehender Lehrpersonen gilt als zentrales Element der Ausbildung, wobei die professionelle Begleitung eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Forschungserkenntnisse belegen jedoch, dass die Lernprozesse in Praktika teilweise unkontrolliert ablaufen. Auf bestimmte Schweizer Ausbildungssettings für Lehrpersonen der beruflichen Grundbildung könnte dies aufgrund struktureller Gegebenheiten ebenfalls zutreffen, da Studierende nicht oder nur wenig begleitet werden. Es stellt sich deshalb die Frage, wie die Begleitung in Praxisphasen optimiert werden könnte. Einen möglichen Ansatz bietet der Einsatz des Webtools "Kompetenzorientierte Praxisbegleitung" (KOMPRA), welches zielorientiertes Arbeiten an berufsspezifischen Kompetenzen anleitet und unterstützt. In diesem Beitrag steht die Frage im Zentrum, wie die Arbeit mit KOMPRA in der berufspraktischen Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrpersonen und den sie betreuenden Praxislehrpersonen wahrgenommen wird und welche Herausforderungen sich dabei stellen. Die Ergebnisse einer Evaluation zeigen, dass die Arbeit mit KOMPRA kritisch beurteilt wird und ein Teil der Befragten nicht oder nur ansatzweise mit dem Webtool gearbeitet hat. Begleitpersonen stehen dem Webtool positiver gegenüber als Studierende. Die Rückmeldungen der Nutzerinnen und Nutzer weisen darauf hin, dass die Implementation eines digitalen Hilfsmittels mit verschiedenen Herausforderungen verbunden ist. Neben den technologischen Anforderungen scheinen für eine erfolgreiche Einführung vor allem methodisch-didaktische Aspekte entscheidend zu sein.
... Hascher & Moser, 1999) und die Arbeit an Zielen besitzt einen Einfl uss auf die Leistung, wobei der Rückmeldung eine Moderatorenfunktion zugesprochen wird (vgl. Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002 ...
... Zudem besitzt das zielorientierte Arbeiten motivationale Aspekte, die einer Person helfen können, eine bestimmte Leistung zu vollbringen (vgl.Spinath & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2003).Das Teilkonstrukt «Zielverbindlichkeit» ist ein weiterer wesentlicher Bestandteil des zielorientierten pädagogischen Coachings. NachLocke (1996) ist die Zielverbindlichkeit gewährleistet, wenn Ziele schwierig sowie spezifi sch sind und eine Person davon ausgeht, dass sie das Ziel erreichen kann. Somit reicht es nicht aus, einfach Ziele zu setzen, sondern es muss auch garantiert werden, dass daran gearbeitet wird. ...
Article
Full-text available
Die Sicherstellung der Qualität in der berufspraktischen Ausbildung angehender Lehrerinnen und Lehrer ist eine wichtige Aufgabe der Lehrpersonenbildungsinstitutionen. In der Praxis ist diese Anforderung nicht einfach umzusetzen. Sie wird durch die Aus- und Weiterbildung von Praxislehrpersonen angestrebt. Der Ansatz des zielorientierten pädagogischen Coachings, welcher auf der Gestaltung einer positiven Arbeitsatmosphäre, dem Erarbeiten von Zielen und dem verbindlichen Arbeiten an diesen Zielen basiert, wird in diesem Beitrag ins Zentrum gerückt. Dabei wird der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern ein zielorientiertes pädagogisches Coaching in der berufspraktischen Ausbildung aus der Perspektive angehender Lehrpersonen wirkt. 481 angehende Lehrpersonen schätzten qualitative Merkmale der Betreuung durch ihre Praxislehrpersonen retrospektiv per Fragebogen ein. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass ein zielorientiertes pädagogisches Coaching einen Einfluss auf die subjektiv wahrgenommene Qualität der Rückmeldung und die subjektiv eingeschätzte Erweiterung der Handlungskompetenz besitzt.
... Furthermore, a comprehensive budgeting system is a tool which sets goals across the organisational environment. According to goal-setting theory (Locke, 1996(Locke, , 2004, it is necessary to set high-quality goals before implementing rewards for performance. The implementation of budgets in operational management allows principals to introduce performance evaluation and rewarding based on objectives set by budgets. ...
... According to H1, the application of budgets for performance evaluation and the rewarding of operational managers is positively influenced by the extent to which the budget is used for operational management. Budgeting system is a tool which sets goals across the organisational environment and it is possible to claim that our results are in accordance with goal-setting theory (Locke, 1996(Locke, , 2004, according to which it is necessary to set highquality goals before implementing rewards for performance. According to H2, budget use for operational management has a positive effect on the participation of operational managers in budgeting. ...
... In addition, P-LCSs are also designed to foster the behavior of goal-pursuing (Chen et al., 2012). According to goal-setting theory (Locke, 1996), establishing goals for students will affect their direction of behavior, degree of effort, and persistence of action. It also implies that concrete, immediate, and clear goals could enhance students' motivation to accomplish their tasks. ...
Article
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The objective of this paper is to offer a design framework for pet-like learning companions (P-LCSs) whose concept extends from learning companion systems and integrates with pet-like characteristics, such as pet appearance, pet-owner relationship, and emotional support. Such a close relationship and deep emotions toward pets bring significant potential to benefit student learning in terms of social, cognitive, and affective aspects. After introducing some previous work on the P-LCSs, two further directions are proposed. One is linked to the research field of game-based and gamified design, while the other is connected to interest-driven creator (IDC) theory. Finally, a long-term goal of P-LCSs is discussed, and the reasons why P-LCSs might contribute to realizing the goal are also articulated in the paper.
... Hence, parental motivation and behavioral intentions are of crucial importance for the application of preventive measures [26][27][28]. The theoretical construct motivation describes cognitive processes that involve setting and appraising goals [29]. Motivation results from motives and can be understood as the willingness to act. ...
Article
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Background Allergic diseases are among the most common chronic diseases in childhood. Early childhood allergy prevention (ECAP) behaviors of those caring for the infant during pregnancy and the first months of life may influence the risk of allergy development over the life course. Motivation and intention to use appropriate primary ECAP measures are thus of critical importance. Aims To characterize parental ECAP motivation, (a) valid indicators will be developed and (b) typical parental characteristics will be identified. (c) According to socio-cognitive models, the predictive value of parental risk perception, control belief and self-efficacy for parental ECAP motivation shall be determined. Method A sample of N = 343 (expectant) mothers of infants completed a questionnaire on self-reported ECAP motivation, risk perception, control belief, and self-efficacy. The cross-sectional data were analyzed using latent class analysis and structural equation modelling including nominal regression models. Results Four typical maternal response profiles (motivated to a customary degree, 70%; motivated to use primary preventive measures, 17.8%; reluctant towards new prevention measures, 6.4%; highly motivated to apply preventive measures in case of an existing allergy, 5.8%) could be identified for the items on ECAP motivation. After splitting the model variables “risk perception” (allergy vs. allergy-associated general health problems) and “self-efficacy” (trust vs. insecurity) a satisfactory model-fit was achieved (CFI = .939; RMSEA = .064). Particularly, increased “risk perception-allergy” (OR = 1.655) and “self-efficacy-insecurity” (OR = 2.013) as well as lower “risk perception-general health” (OR = 0.555) and “control belief” (OR = 0.217), respectively, are associated with higher ECAP motivation. Conclusion The use of ECAP-measures by parents to protect their newborns from allergies is important, but there are deficiencies in their implementation. Based on a social cognitive model approach, predictive characteristics could be identified, which are associated with increased motivation to implement ECAP-measures. For public health our findings provide a promising basis for conception of behavioral and environmental ECAP prevention measures and their motivated implementation by parents.
... While an e-BEP provides a concrete goal for consumers to strive for and is likely to influence intention to reuse an RPS, we propose that this effect varies depending on the communicated e-BEP level. Prior research has shown that while difficult goals can lead to greater achievement, goals set at too high a level may deter individuals from initial action [26]. Goals are more likely to be effective motivators when perceived as attainable [27]. ...
Article
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With growing awareness of packaging waste and pollution, reusable packaging systems (RPSs) appear to be a solution to mitigate the environmental impact of single-use packaging. Nevertheless, RPSs only become less environmentally harmful than single-use after each packaging is reused a minimum number of times, which is defined as the environmental break-even point (e-BEP). A lack of knowledge regarding this critical threshold may lead consumers to be overly optimistic about their reuse behaviour, resulting in insufficient reuse. Communicating e-BEPs can motivate conscious reuse but may also have drawbacks. We used a mixed-method approach consisting of an experiment (N = 276) with four e-BEP conditions (absent, low, medium and high) followed by open-ended questions. The quantitative findings showed that regardless of the e-BEP level, consumers neglected the efforts it implied and consistently exhibited positive perceptions. Nevertheless, the qualitative findings revealed several misperceptions of e-BEPs due to limited understanding. In a subsequent post-test (N = 208), we uncovered the role of consumers’ prior experience with reusable packaging on their evaluations and behavioural intentions. Experienced consumers who have used reusable packaging seem to be more aware of specific challenges in reuse. They exhibited heightened green scepticism and reduced perceived consumer effectiveness in response to high (versus low) e-BEPs. Conversely, inexperienced consumers appeared unaffected by e-BEP conditions. Based on these results, we proposed the potential effect of e-BEPs on consumer evaluations and derived theoretical and practical implications to encourage sustained reuse behaviour in the long run.
... When an individual is mindful, the experience can be intensified in regulating the individual's behavior (MacDonald, 2021). In the context of green mindfulness, it influences consumers' green behaviors by shaping their decision-making processes i.e. environmentally friendly actions (Yılmaz and Anasori, 2022 Goal difficulty One's perception of how hard a goal is to achieve (Locke, 1996) Students' perception on the challenges in achieving environmental goals may impact their motivation and commitment to developing a green mindset. If the goals seem unrealistically difficult, students may be discouraged from engaging fully (Buerkle et al., 2023) Knowledge and awareness General information and perceptions that people possess and exhibit (Trevethan, 2017) Having a thorough comprehension of environmental issues, sustainable practices and the importance of eco-friendly behaviors is substantial for encouraging green mindfulness. ...
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the determinants influencing green mindfulness among university students in Malaysia within the context of the Malaysia 2030 Agenda, focusing on Sustainable Development Goal 17 attainment. Design/methodology/approach The research uses a quantitative approach with a sample of 203 young adults. It explores the factors of goal difficulty, knowledge and awareness, spirituality, values and perceived university environmental responsibility (PUER), using a novel theoretical framework termed universal identity theory (IT). Findings Values, knowledge and awareness and PUER significantly contribute to green mindfulness, whereas spirituality and goal difficulty did not exhibit a substantial relationship to green mindfulness. Research limitations/implications Limited representation of diverse age groups and the potential influence of seniority on spirituality. Future research should expand the framework to include green behavior and performance, increase the sample size and consider a broader age demographic. Practical implications Universities play a crucial role in promoting green mindfulness through the establishment of rules, regulations, environmental initiatives, incentive systems and the introduction of a green mindfulness course. Clear communication channels and top-down approaches are recommended. Social implications This research contributes to understanding the mechanisms that induce green mindfulness among university students in Malaysia, aligning with national and global sustainability goals. Originality/value The universal IT provides a comprehensive understanding of how personal, social and community-based identities collectively influence green mindfulness. This theoretical perspective contributes to the environmental psychology and sustainability studies field, offering a culturally sensitive approach.
... (Covington,1992) . (Maslow,1970) I (Locke, 1996) . (Ames, 1992) . ...
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هدف هذه الدراسة هو بحث دافعية تعلم اللغات الأجنبية غير الإنجليزية لدى طلاب الجامعة السعوديين. ولتحقيق هذا الهدف، استخدمت الدراسة استبانة صممت خصيصاً لها، ووزعت على عينة عشوائية مكونة من 121 طالباً سعودياً يدرسون ثلاث لغات آسيوية (التركية والفارسية واليابانية) وثلاث لغات أوروبية (الإيطالية والأسبانية والألمانية) . أظهرت الدراسة نتائج مختلفة من أهمها أن هؤلاء الطلاب يعون أهمية دراسة اللغات الأجنبية عامة. ورغم أن إجابات الطلاب كشفت عن تفاوت في درجات أهمية تعلم اللغات التي شملتها الدراسة إلا أن تلك الدرجات كانت تقريبا ضمن نطاق متوسطة القدر، وأن هؤلاء الطلاب يربطون في الغالب تلك الأهمية بالمكانة الاقتصادية والصناعية للبلدان التي تتحدث بتلك اللغاتـ ووجد أيضا أن دافعيتهم لدراسة تلك اللغات الأجنبية مرتفعة نسبياً داخل الصف الدراسي. أما من حيث تقييم هؤلاء الطلاب لأهمية الدوافع المحتملة لتعلم تلك اللغات الأجنبية فقد احتلت الدوافع الدينية المرتبة الأولى، والدوافع المهنية» الاقتصادية المرتبة الثانية، والدوافع التعليمية» الثقافية المرتبة الثالثة، وأخيراً جاءت الدوافع الشخصية الاجتماعية في المرتبة الرابعة.
... In this context, the concept of goal-setting emerges as a valuable management tool to address greenhouse gas emissions. At the individual level, research has established a strong correlation between self-set goals and personal performance, spanning work-related achievements and academic grades [15][16][17][18] . Such goal-setting impacts also extend to organizational performance enhancement 19,20 . ...
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In response to the Paris Agreement, a growing number of countries, 123 in total, have committed to carbon reduction targets. While existing research has assessed various policies’ effectiveness in achieving these targets, the potential of the act of goal-setting itself as a policy instrument has been underexplored. Here we leveraged a comprehensive panel dataset spanning 163 countries from 2011 to 2022 and employed a rigorous difference-in-difference model. Empirical findings reveal that both proposing carbon reduction targets and setting higher targets effectively reduce emissions intensity. The mechanism driving the impact of carbon reduction targets on CO2 emissions centers on the level of education, rather than renewable energy capacity, requiring further investigation to the mechanism. Subsequent analysis establishes connections between target levels and renewable energy capacity. Our results advocate for dynamic updates of carbon reduction targets aligned with renewable energy capacity when formulating climate objectives.
... Students with a high level of autonomous implementation competency, characterized by autonomy and self-determination, are proactive in career preparation and possess intrinsic, future-oriented goals. These goals provide motivation, encouraging continuous action, attention, effort, and effective achievement [65]. Intrinsic motivation, driven by self-determination [66], arises from internal factors such as personal values, fulfillment, mission, and meaning. ...
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Deciding on a career and securing employment at an ideal company represent significant challenges for students. Employment is not only a personal achievement but also a measure of success for universities and governments. To transform students into competitive applicants, various activities are provided by universities, governments, and companies. These activities may leave students either excited about the prospects or overwhelmed by the experience. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between college experiences and post-graduation employment through an analysis of a five-year activity log. Specifically, students' diverse activities were categorized into six core competencies: skill reinforcement, leadership and teamwork, globalization, organizational commitment, job exploration, and autonomous implementation. We used logistic regression to examine how these competencies relate to employment status, and ANOVA analysis to assess their impact on initial salaries. The findings reveal that while competencies in skill improvement, job exploration, and organizational commitment were not statistically significant, those in leadership and teamwork, globalization, and autonomous implementation were crucial for securing employment. Additionally, globalization, job exploration, and autonomous implementation competencies influenced annual salary levels. Furthermore, a comparison of students completing either a single major or a convergent major revealed that job exploration competency significantly impacts the annual salary level.
... Вирішальну роль у введені в обіг поняття та концептуалізації теорії цілепокладання відіграв американський психолог Едвін Локк (Locke, 1996). У середині 1960-х він висунув ідею відмови від традиційного пояснення взаємозв'язків між здатністю до постановки цілей і зовнішніми чи підсвідомими причинами дій. ...
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Посібник пропонує огляд ключових елементів підходу, орієнтованого на сильні сторони клієнтів, а також дає змогу ознайомитися із деякими практичними методиками, які використовуються у межах цього підходу під час експериментальної роботи. Посібник може бути використано в освітньому процесі – для підготовки здобувачів за спеціальністю 231 «Соціальна робота» та для підвищення кваліфікації фахівців соціальної роботи. Він також може бути корисний практикам при плануванні та впровадженні короткострокових структурованих інтервенцій.
... Metacognitive strategy is considered the most prominent attribute of SRL that is closely related to learning performance (Dent & Koenka, 2016). For example, prior research found that goal setting is highly correlated with learning performance moderated by ability, goal specificity, task complexity, goal commitment, and feedback (Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 2006, 2019Locke et al., 1988). In addition, the correlation between behavioral SRL strategies and online academic performance was the strongest among all five categories (r = .23, ...
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Research on academic performance in online education proliferated in the last decade; however, our current understanding of the relationship between self-regulated learning and academic performance in online learning environments remains scattered. This meta-analysis provides a holistic view of the relationship between learners’ use of self-regulated learning strategies and their online academic performance in higher education. We investigated the conditions that moderate the strength of the correlations. Results revealed (1) a small positive correlation between overall self-regulated learning strategy and online academic performance (r = .21); (2) small positive correlations between online academic performance and metacognitive, behavioral, and environmental self-regulated learning strategies (r = .07; r = .23; r = .14, respectively); and (3) three conditions that moderate the correlation between self-regulated learning strategy and online academic performance (i.e., participant, self-regulated learning measurement, and academic performance measurement). Taken together, this updated holistic review will deepen our understanding of the relationship between SRL and online academic performance, enhancing teaching and learning practices in online education.
... Hence, the decision of researchers is one about their commitment to each goal (Heslin and Wang, 2013). By using legitimate authority, the supervisor can get initial commitment (Locke, 1996). Then, commitment is enhanced or weakened by what the individuals think can be achieved (expectancy) and what they would like to achieve or think should be achieved (desirability) (Heslin and Wang, 2013;Klein et al., 2013). ...
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This study investigates the effects of the organization of industrial Research & Development on industrial researchers’ knowledge acquisition behavior. Specifically, we test a model about how the fit of individuals with their research tasks affects whether industrial researchers acquire knowledge from outside their assigned projects. Empirical analyses from the R&D laboratory of a global pharmaceutical company show that person-task-fit has a non-linear effect on the knowledge content exchanged through interpersonal interactions. Implications for the management and organization of R&D activities are discussed.
... From the side of fellow students, student's satisfaction can also be supported by encouragement and group interaction [69]. Jika ditarik lebih lanjut, teachers dapat mendukung student's need atas kompetensi dengan memberikan goal yang menantang, namun dapat dicapai, memberikan umpan balik positif agar proses pencapaian goals dapat terlihat, dan memberikan dukungan nyata [58], [70]. The need for relatedness can be met by showing acceptance, as well as showing understanding and wise consideration of students. ...
... Few studies capture internal objective-oriented factors like visions or desired futures, albeit formulating backcasting visions in participatory processes was used in Sweden by Sandström et al. (2016) and Lilli et al. (2020). Motivational theories such as goal setting by Locke (1996) are more individual and precise but even rarer. ...
... The causal bases of these goal-directed, intentional behaviors have been a subject of debate. For example, some behaviorists have implicated physiological drives rooted in hormonal and autonomic processes (Reeve, 2018), while some cognitivists have suggested that inner desires, self-chosen goals and values underlie these behaviors (Deci & Ryan, 1991;Locke, 1996;Locke & Latham, 2002). Gibson, however, opposed a dualistic stance in which the (objective) physical world is devoid of meanings and the (subjective) mental world is replete with meanings. ...
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Agency, the ability to negotiate one’s surroundings to bring about changes, is the defining feature of animacy. Because agency is embodied in each individual’s self, inquiry into agency is necessarily an inquiry into selfhood. William James divided selfhood into the self as “I” and the self as “me” with the I self being, in essence, an active agent responsible for thoughts and actions. In Gibson’s ecological paradigm, self plays a central role, being co-perceived with the environment. Neisser (1988 Neisser, U. (1988). Five kinds of self-knowledge. Philosophical Psychology, 1(1), 35–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515088808572924[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]), an advocate of Gibson, classified self via 5 different forms of self–knowledge, each portraying a different aspect of self. Of these, the ecological self is an agent that regulates its encounters with the surroundings based on affordances the environment offers, whereas the interpersonal self is an agent that interacts with conspecifics based on the mutual affordances their interactions offer. For interpersonal selves to interact effectively with each other necessitates that their shared environment becomes common knowledge to all participants, based on information determined in accordance with the principle of ecological optics (in particular, information about occluding edges, reversible occlusion, and opaque and non-opaque substances). We suggest that Gibson’s principles of ecological optics be extended to the social domain, as he envisioned.
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Öz: Bu araştırma sporcu öz yeterliğinin psikolojik sağlamlık ve hedef bağlılığı üzerindeki yordayıcı etkisini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Çalışma nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan korelasyonel araştırma modeli benimsenerek tasarlanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında sporcu öz yeterlik ölçeği, kısa psikolojik sağlamlık ölçeği ile hedef bağlılığı ölçeği veri toplama aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunu 168’i erkek ve 128’i kadın olmak üzere toplam 296 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada cinsiyet değişkeni ile psikolojik sağlamlık, hedef bağlılığı ve sporcu öz yeterliği arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilememiştir. Diğer yandan sporcuların ilgilendikleri spor türü değişkeni ile sporcu öz yeterlik ölçeği alt boyutlarında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilmiştir. Sporcu öz yeterliğinin hedef bağlılığı ve psikolojik sağlamlık üzerinde önemli ve anlamlı bir yordayıcı etkisinin olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
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This study explores the impact of employee ranking on the correlation between attitudes, motivation, and performance in the Bandung City Government using a quantitative approach through a single case study. From 106 respondents surveyed through a questionnaire, the results show that employee ranking does not affect the relationship between attitudes, motivation, and performance. Factors such as work ethic, supervisor support, compensation satisfaction, and participation in setting performance standards play a more significant role in motivating employees. Feedback and involvement in setting performance standards are also more motivating than ranking. Fair compensation and transparency of information are crucial in enhancing motivation and performance. The study's limitations include a limited number of respondents and difficulty reaching respondents with high employment status. Future research is recommended to increase the number of respondents, develop hypotheses suited to the study environment, and use other moderating variables. Management needs to provide opportunities for skill enhancement and conduct regular evaluations of the ranking system to create a productive work environment.
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The current research evaluated the influences of leaders' emotional intelligence on workplace harmony of printing companies in Port Harcourt Rivers State, Nigeria. The design of the study was cross sectional survey study. The population was sixty two (62) staff of 19 printing press companies in Port Harcourt. Copies of questionnaire were distributed to the sixty two (62) respondents of the printing press companies under study since there was no need for sampling. However, after distribution fifty seven (57) copies were retrieved. Questionnaire was the major instrument for data collection. Cronbach's alpha test was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Responses obtain was recorded on a five-point Likert's scale, varying from "very great extent", to "very low extent. The Pearson Product moment Correlation with the aid of statistical package for social science was used to test proposed hypotheses. The study indicated that emotional intelligence significantly influence cohesiveness of printing press companies in Port Harcourt based on the result gotten from our findings. Emotional intelligence also significantly influences goal attainment printing press companies in Port Harcourt. The researcher recommended that leaders in various printing and other business organizations ought to be emotionally intelligent in dealing with their subordinates in order attain cohesiveness and overall business goal.
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Processes encapsulate the way organizations are doing business. However, in many cases organization processes are not well defined, which leads to poor and unsystematic implementation. An organization that uses weak or misdirected processes will have weak products or services, and unpredictable outcomes of business activities. Process assessment can help software organizations to improve themselves through identification of critical problems and establishment of improvement priorities. Software process assessment includes feedback as a core activity that aims at feeding data back to relevant individuals or groups in an organization. Feedback is also used as a method for learning in software organizations based on the previous experience and identified issues in the assessment process. In addition, information included in the feedback can be used as the basis for decision making related to revealing the next activities in assessment and improvement project.
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Purpose This study aims to determine whether and how objectives and key results (OKRs) help employees collaborate and innovate. Design/methodology/approach A total of 295 executives and operational staff from two types of organizations – large corporations and start-ups – that have adopted OKRs were interviewed. Content analysis was performed. Findings Based on the opinions of executives and operational staff from both large organizations and start-ups, OKRs encouraged employee collaboration and innovation. Research limitations/implications This study adopted a qualitative method; thus, the generalizability of the results might be limited. Therefore, more samples are required for statistical testing in future studies. Practical implications Managers can adopt OKRs and use them to encourage employee collaboration and innovation. OKRs should not be linked to employee compensation and clear and challenging goals should be set. Originality/value This study enhances the existing knowledge boundary, as to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study has investigated the effect of OKRs on employee collaboration and innovation in two different types of organizations: large organizations and start-ups.
Article
Objectives: Cognitive behavioural techniques have been the mainstay of psychological treatment for many psychologists in clinical practice. However, there is little known in relation to the efficacy of cognitive behavioural techniques for performance enhancement within a non-clinical setting, such as those found in organisational environments. The present study examined the effects of a cognitive behavioural based executive coaching intervention for a finance sales executive. Design: A within subject, ABAB single case design was utilised in this study. Methods: The participant was a 30-year-old Australian male, employed as a full-time finance sales executive. Each phase of the single case design had a duration of three weeks. Follow-up measures were taken at six months (week 36) and at 18 months (week 88) after the conclusion of the intervention. Results: It was shown that a cognitive behavioural executive coaching programme enhanced a 30-year-old Australian male finance executive’s sales performance, core self-evaluation, and global self-ratings of performance following his participation in an executive coaching intervention. Conclusions: The present study suggests that executive coaches should consider incorporating cognitive behavioural techniques into their coaching programmes. Further research into executive coaching models, approaches and outcomes, is needed, particularly by academics within the field of organisational psychology.
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Universities have a very valuable place in helping students build their future goals. Students compete with many factors in their educational activities. In the study, five different variables are created to measure the academic competition and goal-setting approaches of university students, which are very limited in the literature. One of these variables, which is effective in students' goal setting; their commitment to their goals and academic efforts are examined. On the other hand, the academic competition levels of the students; positive academic competition, personal development competition, and academic jealousy competition scales are created. The research sample consists of 391 students studying at different levels at Bayburt University. In the general model of the study, positive academic competition levels of students; commitment to their goals, personal development rivalries, and academic jealousy rivalries affect positively. Students' academic jealousy rivalries negatively affect their commitment to their goals, and their commitment to their goals positively affect their academic efforts. In specific models, students' academic effort, academic jealousy competition, grade point average, number of goals, education level, and monthly incomes are the moderators, while personal development competition has mediator effects.
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This article provides leaders with a practical framework to diagnose psychological dynamics that may hinder either the recognition of or effective response to a crisis. Leaders are often overwhelmed by the degree of complexity, ambiguity, and immediate pressure to make decisions in the face of emerging crises, leading to less-than-optimal outcomes. The authors contend that by using the proposed framework, leaders can diagnose the external and internal organizational environment, foresee and prevent several dysfunctions within their team or organization, and proactively prepare themselves to react as effectively as possible in the midst of a crisis.
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The purpose of this chapter is to examine Samuel’s calling and the impact of that calling on Samuel’s life. This study used phenomenological research to investigate the phenomenon of calling. 1 Samuel 1–28 was used as the data source via bracketing. The themes were combined to create superordinate themes, which were applied to modern relevance to understand calling. This study found that calling is a process rather than a singular event. As a process, calling evolves over time and leads to action behaviors. A person’s calling is influenced by others and can result in negative emotional outcomes. This research is unique as it studies 1 Samuel 1–28 in light of phenomenological research to study calling.
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The main emphasis of this chapter is to identify the effect of motivation on variables of employee job performance in people analytics, which is seen as one of the major initiatives in human resources. The secondary sources have been utilised to identify the sources of the thematic approach. Considering this, the study explains how to determine the moderating factors in people analytics. The chapter offers an introduction to problem identification and focuses on detailed literature that helps in finding factors relevant according to the theme that has been elaborated in a thematic approach. A part of the Prisma model has been used to explain the four stages of literature identification. The moderating factors have been better explained through the case studies, and one case study has been explained in the context of an Indian scenario. While explaining the moderating factors, thematic methods have been used using manual screening. The major highlights have been reviewed, discussed, and summarised.
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This study bridges a gap in the current research on motivation and demotivation learning a second language (L2). It is meant to provide an overview of students’ goal setting when they start to learn an L2 at university level in Australia. Drawing on goal-setting and learning goal orientation constructs (cf. Miller, 2020 ), goal formation is deconstructed and analysed to throw new light on students’ psychological processes identified at the micro level and the influences on goal setting stemming from the social context at the macro level in which students operate. The interaction between the two levels is explored in order to understand which dynamics lie behind research participants’ desire of gaining proficiency in French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Qualitative data analysis outcomes are shown in an attempt to provide clear and applicable pedagogical suggestions for L2 practitioners (see, e.g., Al-Hoorie et al., 2021 ).
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A goal-setting technique could be considered as one of the modern tools of client-centered social work. Such techniques are designed to motivate and direct the client to achieve a specific goal and result. The paper systematizes academic approaches to understanding the theory of goal setting, defines the specifics of its practical use in social work, and presents specific goal setting techniques that have been tested as part of structured interventions for clients who are in difficult life circumstances and are motivated to change them.The elaboration of social work interventions must be based on the understanding that goals, by their very nature, are more attainable and accessible than wishes, intentions or dreams. Their formulation by social work clients who are in difficult life circumstances and may have a reduced social perspective cannot be considered a simple process, since it requires the use of specific techniques such as setting goals and tasks («Wheel of life balance», various visualizations and discussions; «Map achievement of goals», «Suitcase of goals»), as well as the implementation of steps to achieve them (diaries, weekly goal achievement maps, skill trackers, coaching, etc.).As evidenced by the literature review, the authors’ own experience, as well as the results of other applied studies, the goal-setting theory contains ideas and concepts that are consistent with the basic principles of professional social work. It suggests that the client and the social worker work together to find differences in the client's current state of life and the outcome he or she is striving for. The paper reveals that goal setting stimulates activity, initiative and motivation of clients, encourages choice and forms a sense of responsibility for this choice, and thus strengthens the client-centeredness of social work.
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Biodiversity and human well‐being strategies are only as good as the set of ideas people think about. We evaluated value‐focused thinking (VFT), a framework that emphasizes creating objectives and strategies that are responsive to the objectives. We performed a proof‐of‐concept study of VFT with 6 conservation planning teams at a global conservation organization. We developed a package of materials related to VFT, including meeting–session agendas, a virtual facilitation template, facilitator's guide, and evaluation questionnaires. We used these materials to test whether VFT applied in a group setting resulted in high‐quality conservation strategies and participant satisfaction and whether our materials were scalable, meaning that someone newly trained in VFT could facilitate planning meetings that resulted in high‐quality strategies and participant satisfaction, as compared with an experienced VFT facilitator. Net response indicated positive compelling, feasible, creative, and representative ratings for the conservation strategies per team. Participants indicated satisfaction overall, although satisfaction was greater for objectives than for strategies. Among the participants with previous conservation planning experience, all were at least as satisfied with their VFT strategies compared with previously developed strategies, and none were less satisfied (p = 0.001). Changes in participant satisfaction were not related to facilitator type (experienced or inexperienced with VFT) (p > 0.10). Some participants had a preconceived sense of shared understanding of important values and interests before participating in the study, which VFT strengthened. Our results highlight the advantages of structuring the development and evaluation of conservation planning frameworks around VFT.
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There is a considerable body of literature on goals and goal setting in the psychological literature, but little of this has found its way into the scholarly coaching literature. This article draws on the goal-setting literature from the behavioural sciences. It discusses a range of approaches to understanding the goal construct, presents a definition of goals relevant to coaching, and details a new and comprehensive model of goal-focused coaching that can be helpful both in teaching and in applied coaching practice. It also outlines new empirical research that highlights the vital role that coaches’ goal-focused coaching skills play in determining successful coaching outcomes. This preliminary research suggests that the use of a goal-focused coaching style is more effective than a ‘common factors’ or person-centred coaching style in facilitating goal attainment in coaching. It is argued that, by understanding the different types of goals and their relationship to the process of change, professional coaches can work more efficiently with their clients, helping them to achieve insight and behavioural change that enhances their workplace performance, their professional working lives and, most importantly, their personal well-being and sense of self.
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Learning difficulties have always been experienced by every student. There are many obstacles so that a person falls into long learning difficulties, whether he realizes it or not. The problem is how to change students from being unconscious in their learning difficulties to becoming conscious, skilled and even professional based on the Conscious Competence Learning Model (CCL) according to Abraham Maslow as Four Stage of Learning? The objective is to answer the following questions: What is the CCL Model? How is the analysis of the unconscious according to the CCL Model? How are the possibilities for developing the unconscious to become a conscious and even increasing the potential in him? Results The CCL model can be used to solve students' unconscious problems in facing learning difficulties. The progress of the CCL model can be seen is: he is unconscious (stage 1) turns into a conscious position to realize his weaknesses and wants to rise above learning difficulties (stage 2), then he has learning competence (in stage 3) and continues learning to become a profession (stage 4). Abstrak: Kesulitan belajar selalu pernah dialami oleh setiap peserta didik. Banyak kendala sehingga seseorang jatuh dalam kesulitan belajaran yang panjang baik disadari maupun tidak disadarinya. Masalah adalah bagaimanakah merubah siswa dari keadaan Unconscious (keadaan tak sadar) dalam kesulitan belajarnya menjadi conscious (sadar), terampil bahkan profesional berdasarkan Model Conscious Competence Learning (CCL) menurut Abraham Maslow sebagai Four Stage of Learning? Tujuan adalah menjawab beberapa pertanyaan sebagai berikut: Apakah yang dimaksud dengan Model CCL? Bagaimana analisis keadaan unconscious menurut Model CCL? Bagaimanakah kemungkin-kemungkinan mengembangkan unconscious menjadi conscious bahkan dapat meningkatkan potensi dalam dirinya? Hasil Model CCL adalah dapat digunakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah unconscious siswa dalam menghadapi kesulitan belajar. Progress model CCL dapat dilihat adalah: ia unconscious (tahap 1) berubah menjadi conscious dalam posisi menyadari kelemahannya dan mau bangkit menerobos kesulitan belajar (tahap 2), kemudian ia mempunyai kompeten belajar (tahap 3) dan berlanjut belajar menjadi profesi (tahap 4).
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Jedan od osnovnih ciljeva psihologije rada i organizacije jeste da pomogne u usklađivanju karakteristika pojedinaca sa karakteristikama radnog mesta, kako bi se obezbedio što veći uspeh organizacije i očuvalo mentalno zdravlje zaposlenih. Shodno tome, reklo bi se da su psihologija ličnosti i psihologija rada, prirodno, od samog početka išle zajedno, ruku pod ruku, te da su kroz istoriju jedna drugoj pružale veliki doprinos u utemeljenju i razvoju. Međutim, to baš i nije uvek bilo tako. Iako je psihologija rada od svog nastanka na ovamo tražila pomoć psihologije ličnosti, posebno kada je u pitanju selekcija radnika, bilo je perioda kada ju je skoro u potpunosti odbacivala, naročito akademska psihologija. Pritom, i dan-danas je malo onih koji sebe smatraju psiholozima „rada“ a da temeljno izučavaju sve mogućnosti i ograničenja merenja i razumevanja ličnosti u poslovnom i organizacionom okruženju. Isto tako, nema mnogo ni onih autora koji se primarno bave analizom ličnosti, a da imaju izgrađenu osetljivost za kontekst rada. Može se slobodno reći da i danas postoji izvestan jaz između ove dve discipline. Razloga za to ima više i oni potiču iz istorijskih, konceptualno-metodoloških razlika, a ponegde još uvek opstaju zahvaljujući doslednim rezultatima o tome da su osobine ličnosti nisko do umereno povezane s radnim performansama i ponašanjem. Predmet ove knjige jeste identifikacija i obrazloženje tih razloga, na bazi čega su definisani saveti o tome kako da se pomenuti jaz u određenoj meri i prevaziđe. Takođe, sadržaj knjige ukazuje na nekoliko aspekata koji se u teorijskoj i empirijskoj građi neretko previđaju, zbog čega očekivanja od uloge i značaja procene ličnosti u radnom okruženju neretko ostaju nerealistična. U prvom poglavlju knjige prikazani su rezultati višedecenijskih istraživanja o povezanosti različitih osobina ličnosti s radnim performansama i stavovima prema poslu. Cilj ovog poglavlja jeste da se ukaže, kroz prikaze najrelevantnijih metaanalitičkih i originalnih studija, kolike koeficijente možemo očekivati i koje osobine se pokazuju kao najznačajnije. Nakon toga, drugo poglavlje se u kraćim crtama bavi istorijskim kontekstom nastanka i razvoja psihologije ličnosti i njenim preklapanjem i „ulaskom“ u oblast rada i organizacionog ponašanja. Posebno je obrađena kriza u kojoj se psihologija ličnosti našla nakon Drugog svetskog rata, koja je bila na vrhuncu 60-ih i 70-ih godina XX veka i koja se osetila i odrazila na oblast rada. Tih decenija je, zbog koalicije napada bihejviorizma i socijalne psihologije, opstanak čitave discipline, a posebno koncepta crte, bio ozbiljno doveden u pitanje. Tada je dominantno mišljenje bilo da situacija skoro u potpunosti objašnjava ponašanje, te u najboljem slučaju to čini u daleko većoj meri nego ličnost. Dakle, u ovom poglavlju su obrađene tačke na kojima se zasnivao napad na ličnost tokom debate, zatim kako se debata ispoljila u oblasti rada i organizacionog ponašanja, te koje su lekcije naučene iz te debate. Treće poglavlje se bavi određenjem pojma crte i njenim položajem u hijerarhijskoj strukturi ličnosti. Otvoreno je pitanje i date su smernice o tome na kom nivou hijerarhije crta ličnost najbolje predviđa i kakve ishode u oblasti rada, tj. ukazano je na to kada prednost ima analiza osobina na višem i opštijem nivou, a kada je možda bolje rešenje krenuti od specifičnijih i užih crta. U četvrtom poglavlju je, kroz prikaz više modela i pristupa, ličnost stavljena u kontekst, kako unutrašnji (dinamički procesi), tako i spoljašnji (radno okruženje). Na kraju su prikazana dva integrativna modela konceptualizovana baš u radnom kontekstu, koja objašnjavaju kako ličnost određuje radno ponašanje. Cilj ovog poglavlja jeste da ukaže na koje sve posredne, „male“, ponekad i neobične načine ličnost može uticati na radne performanse, te u kojim se uslovima njen uticaj povećava ili smanjuje. Na bazi toga će čitaoci možda bolje moći da razumeju zašto su korelacije nultog reda između osobina ličnosti i radnih ishoda niske i kako se može iskoristiti veći potencijal procene ličnosti u okviru radnog procesa. Poslednje – peto poglavlje predstavlja integraciju svih ključnih aspekata prethodnih delova knjige, a sa ciljem da se postave realistična očekivanja od ličnosti i da se iskoristi njen što veći potencijal u determinaciji i predviđanju radnih performansi i radnog ponašanja uopšte. Dakle, cilj petog poglavlja jeste da objasni zašto su koeficijenti toliki koliki su i da li su oni uopšte mali kada se uzme u obzir čitava složenost odnosa trijade ličnosti, situacije i ponašanja. Takođe, ovo poglavlje može pružiti bolji okvir za razumevanje načina na koji treba pristupiti ličnosti kako bi se njene mogućnosti i značaj u što većoj meri iskoristio u obezbeđenju što boljih performansi radnika. Na samom kraju knjige, taksativno su date smernice, bazirane na celokupnom sadržaju knjige, posebno za istraživače i posebno za praktičare. Istraživačima su date sugestije o aspektima i prostoru koji tek traži empirijsko potkrepljenje i teorijsko utemeljenje, kao i predlozi kako bi trebalo dizajnirati studije. Nakon toga je i praktičarima skrenuta pažnja na to zbog čega je sve važno procenjivati ličnosti zaposlenih, koje podatke je potrebno prikupljati i kako sve to može da se iskoristi sa ciljem optimizacije radnih performansi i ostvarivanja što većeg uspeha organizacije. Ova knjiga je prvenstveno namenjena istraživačima, koji u svojim nacrtima uzimaju u obzir i promenljive iz domena ličnosti zaposlenih u predviđanju uspeha na poslu, stavova prema organizaciji, te aspekata očuvanja mentalnog zdravlja i blagostanja. Takođe, knjiga može biti korisna i studentima koji žele da unaprede i prošire stečeno znanje o značaju i izazovima procene ličnosti u specifičnoj primenjenoj oblasti psihologije i procesima upravljanja ljudskim resursima. I, naravno, knjiga pruža dosta korisnih informacija praktičarima koji se bave poslovnom psihologijom i različitim aktivnostima u domenu upravljanja ljudima u poslovnim organizacijama. Može im biti korisna da prodube i osveže svoja teorijska znanja, da otvore možda neke nove vidike o tome šta im sve može doneti sistematska i redovna procena ličnosti zaposlenih, te kako sva ta znanja iskoristiti da se obezbede što bolje performanse zaposlenih, a samim tim i čitave organizacije. Naravno, treba napomenuti da se u ovoj knjizi razmatra ličnost, u užem smislu, bez domena kognitivnih sposobnosti i interesovanja. Dakle, o ličnosti se u ovoj knjizi prvenstveno govori kroz okvire diferencijalne psihologije i to u domenu karakternih i temperamentalnih crta.
Technical Report
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The objective of this systematic review (SR) is to identify, assess and synthesize evidence on the effectiveness of feedback, reminders, salience (communication), salience (experience design), and goal-setting interventions conducted in developing countries on environmental/climate and development outcomes. We conducted 12 meta-analyses. The most effective intervention type is feedback, particularly in relation to electricity and water consumption. We identified an overall pooled effect estimate of 0.26 (CI: 0.13 to 0.39). A similar pattern emerges for reminders, specifically on acquisition of knowledge, where we identify an overall pooled effect estimate of 0.87 (CI: 0.34 to 1.41). We find no significant effects on goal-setting interventions based on a limited number of meta-analyses. For salience (experience design) and salience (communication) interventions identified in this SR, the heterogeneity in interventions and outcomes does not allow for a meta-analysis and rigorous synthesis of effects. The SR aims to facilitate the use of evidence in informing policy and practice decisions within the environmental/climate and development fields, particularly in the GCF and IFAD.
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The objective of this article is to study the peculiarities of the motivation of the personnel of an industrial enterprise in crisis conditions. To achieve the objective, the synthesis method, the theopetic-analytical method, the analysis method, horizontal analysis, vertical analysis, the method of statistical analysis, the generalization method, the methods of induction and deduction, and the method of graphic analysis were used. A theoretical study of the system of motivation of the organization’s personnel in crisis conditions was conducted; the importance of the motivational aspect of anti-crisis personnel management is proven; analyzed the existing system of material support of the top management of ArcelorMittal for the period 2019–2021; As a result of the conducted research, it was recognized that there is a well-founded motivation system at ArcelorMittal, with established principles, philosophy, organizational and regulatory support. With this system, material incentives are implemented by management by goals with gradation by positions and by elements of material incentives. A feature of the motivation system’s adaptability to crisis conditions is the reduction of the rates of elements of remuneration of top management and, in addition, crisis phenomena can negatively affect the level of achievement of defined goals and thereby reduce the amount of remuneration. The system of intangible support is also characterized by diversity and systematicity, in which all employees are involved and which is aimed at: communication (support in difficult hours), identifying the needs of employees and their professional growth. The principles and philosophy of the ArcelorMittal motivation system were also reflected in the ArcelorMittal Kryvyi Rih personnel management system.
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Two studies are reported on an aspect of goal setting that has not been explicitly researched to date, namely, intra-individual goal conflict. The first study utilized an experimental, laboratory design using student teams in which conflicting goals (quantity vs. quality) were assigned. The second study was a correlational, field study of college professors which measured conflict between teaching and research. In both studies conflict was negatively related to at least one performance outcome. This negative association was not mediated by goal commitment, goal priority, goal level or task strategies in either study. In both cases, the main source of the conflict was pressure.
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On the basis of 7 charismatic and transformational leadership theories, 3 core components (vision, vision implementation through task cues, and communication style) were identified. A laboratory simulation manipulated the 3 components in a completely crossed experimental design, where 2 trained actors portrayed the leader. Participants were 282 students in upper level business classes who performed a simulated production task. The vision of high quality weakly affected performance quality but significantly affected many attitudes. Vision implementation, in the form of task cues, affected performance quality and quantity. Charismatic communication style affected only the perception of charisma. Mediation was not found; rather, an exploratory path analysis found a 2-part causal sequence, where the vision of quality and vision implementation each affected self-set goals and self-efficacy, which, in turn, affected performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In this monograph we describe a unique method for resolving scientific disputes: the joint design of crucial experiments by the antagonists themselves with the help of a mediator. This method was applied to the issue of the effect of participation on goal commitment and performance. In research on this topic, Latham and his colleagues had obtained markedly different results from those obtained by Erez and her colleagues. With Locke serving as a third party mediator, Latham and Erez designed four experiments to resolve the discrepancies. The experiments were conducted at the University of Washington and the University of Maryland. The results revealed that the major reason for the difference was that Erez gave very brief tell instructions to her assigned goal subjects, whereas Latham used a tell and sell approach. Four additional factors also contributed to the earlier difference in findings: goal difficulty, setting personal goals before goal treatments were introduced, self-efficacy-inducing instructions, and instructions to reject disliked goals. It was concluded that (a) the differences between Latham and Erez can be explained on the basis of differences in specific procedures, and (b) the method used to resolve this dispute should be used by other investigators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Used 91 sales representatives to test a process model that assessed the relationship of conscientiousness to job performance through mediating motivational (goal-setting) variables. Linear structural equation modeling showed that sales representatives high in conscientiousness are more likely to set goals and are more likely to be committed to goals, which in turn is associated with greater sales volume and higher supervisory ratings of job performance. Results also showed that conscientiousness is directly related to supervisory ratings. Consistent with previous research, results showed that ability was also related to supervisory ratings of job performance and, to a lesser extent, sales volume. Contrary to expectations, 1 other personality construct, extraversion, was not related to sales volume or to supervisory ratings of job performance. Implications and future research needs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Determined the long-term effects of self-management training given to 20 unionized state government employees to increase their job attendance in a 6-month follow-up study. A repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that enhanced self-efficacy and increased job attendance were effectively maintained over time. Perceived self-efficacy at the end of training predicted subsequent job attendance. The control group ( n = 20) was then given the same training in self-management by a different trainer. Three months later, this group showed the same positive improvement as the original training group with regard to increased self-efficacy and job attendance. These findings lend support to a self-efficacy based theory of job attendance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Whether you're a manager, company psychologist, quality control specialist, or involved with motivating people to work harder in any capacity—Locke and Latham's guide will hand you the keen insight and practical advice you need to reach even your toughest cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Training in self-management was given to 20 unionized state government employees to increase their attendance at the work site. Analyses of variance revealed that compared to a control condition ( n = 20), training in self-regulatory skills taught employees how to manage personal and social obstacles to job attendance, and it raised their perceived self-efficacy that they could exercise influence over their behavior. Consequently, employee attendance was significantly higher in the training than in the control group. The higher the perceived self-efficacy, the better the subsequent job attendance. These data were significant at the .05 level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Eight experiments were conducted to explore the relationships between goal level, valence, and instrumentality. Valence, measured in terms of anticipated satisfaction across a range of performance levels, was strongly but negatively related to goal level. This finding was explained by showing that low goals entail using less stringent standards for self-evaluation than do high goals. Instrumentality was positively associated with goal level. Ss believed that trying for hard goals would be more likely to give them a sense of achievement, develop their skills, and prove them competent than would trying for easy goals. Ss also believed that high goals would lead to more practical (job and life) benefits, as well as more pride and self-respect, than would low goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Control theory has been propounded as an original and useful paradigm for integrating a number of theories of human (especially work) motivation. This paper challenges that claim. First, it is shown that the original, mechanical control theory model is not applicable to human beings. Second, it is shown that the two approaches used by control theorists to remedy its limitations did not succeed. One approach involved incorporating propositions drawn from other theories with the result that there was nothing distinctive left that was unique to control theory. The other approach involved broadening the scope of control theory by adding deduced propositions; however, these propositions were inconsistent with what was already known about the phenomena in question based on empirical research. The control theory approach to theory building is contrasted with that of goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goal-setting theory is a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) which evolved from research findings over a 25-year period. Goal theory developed in five directions simultaneously: validation of the core premises; demonstrations of generality; identification of moderators; conceptual refinement and elaboration; and integration with other theories. It is hypothesized that the grounded theory approach is a more fruitful one than the approaches used by control theory.
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3 laboratory experiments are reported which stem from Ryan's approach to motivation. The fundamental unit is the "intention." The experiments examined the relationship between intended level of achievement and actual level of performance. A significant linear relationship was obtained in all 3 experiments; the higher the level of intention, the higher the level of performance. The findings held both between and within Ss and across different tasks. The implications for the explanation of behavior are discussed. (19 ref.)
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In order to investigate what makes people feel closer to making a change decision, female undergraduates were asked to employ mental exercises on two unresolved personal problems, one being easy to implement (e.g., subscribing to a newspaper) and one being difficult to implement (e.g., breaking up with a boyfriend). In an exhaustive predecisional exercise subjects deliberated on the expectancies and values of making a change decision. Two less exhaustive predecisional exercises required that subjects imagine enjoying the incentives of having made a change decision either in a realistic or fantasy-like manner. In an exhaustive postdecisional exercise subjects had to come up with a plan on how to implement the decision not yet made and were to imagine themselves executing it. Two less exhaustive postdecisional exercises required subjects either to imagine the execution of one single implemental action, or to deliberate solely on various possible action steps. Both the exhaustive pre- and postdecisional exercises were found to be more effective in increasing subjects' perceived proximity to the act of a change decision than the respective nonexhaustive exercises. This effect was not less pronounced for difficult-to-implement problems than for easy-to-implement problems. In both exhaustive cases, the facilitative effect was not mediated by increases in outcome value or outcome expectancy. For the exhaustive postdecisional exercise, however, the effect was mediated by the formation of implemental intents. Results are interpreted in terms of a phase model of action which conceives of decisions as volitional acts that propel the individual from a deliberative state of mind (weighing) to an implemental state of mind (willing).
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The authors used 91 sales representatives to test a process model that assessed the relationship of conscientiousness to job performance through mediating motivational (goal-setting) variables. Linear structural equation modeling showed that sales representatives high in conscientiousness are more likely to set goals and are more likely to be committed to goals, which in turn is associated with greater sales volume and higher supervisory ratings of job performance. Results also showed that conscientiousness is directly related to supervisory ratings. Consistent with previous research, results showed that ability was also related to supervisory ratings of job performance and, to a lesser extent, sales volume. Contrary to expectations, 1 other personality construct, extraversion, was not related to sales volume or to supervisory ratings of job performance. Implications and future research needs are discussed.
Article
Training in self-management was given to 20 unionized state government employees to increase their attendance at the work site. Analyses of variance revealed that compared to a control condition (n = 20), training in self-regulatory skills taught employees how to manage personal and social obstacles to job attendance, and it raised their perceived self-efficacy that they could exercise influence over their behavior. Consequently, employee attendance was significantly higher in the training than in the control group. The higher the perceived self-efficacy, the better the subsequent job attendance. These data were significant at the .05 level.
Article
Eight experiments were conducted to explore the relationships between goal level, valence, and instrumentality. Valence, measured in terms of anticipated satisfaction across a range of performance levels, was strongly but negatively related to goal level. This finding was explained by showing that low goals entail using less stringent standards for self-evaluation than do high goals. Instrumentality was positively associated with goal level. Subjects believed that trying for hard goals would be more likely to give them a sense of achievement, develop their skills, and prove them competent than would trying for easy goals. Subjects also believed that high goals would lead to more practical (job and life) benefits, as well as more pride and self-respect, than would low goals.
Article
This study was designed to replicate conceptually and to explain the goal-level vs. incentive-type interaction reported by Mowen, Middlemist, and Luther (1981) based on goal setting and social cognitive theories. Mowen et al. found that subjects performed more poorly with hard goals than medium goals under a bonus pay system, the opposite of what was found for a piece-rate system. In the present study, an hourly pay condition was added. Mowen et al.'s interaction was replicated using a two-trial design in which subjects could obtain feedback about their ability to attain the incentive bonuses between trials. The experimental effects were completely mediated by personal goals and self-efficacy. Goal commitment was related to performance, but did not mediate the experimental conditions. The implications for the design of incentive systems are discussed.
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This paper summarizes and integrates research concerned with a long-neglected topic in psychology: the relationship between conscious goals and intentions and task performance. The basic promise of this research is that an individual's conscious ideas regulate his actions. Studies are cited demonstrating that: (1) hard goals produce a higher level of performance (output) than easy goals; (2) specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than a goal of “do your best”; and (3) behavioral intentions regulate choice behavior. The theory also views goals and intentions as mediators of the effects of incentives on task performance. Evidence is presented supporting the view that monetary incentives, time limits, and knowledge of results do not affect performance level independently of the individual's goals and intentions. A theoretical analysis supports the same view with respect to three other incentives: participation, competition, and praise and reproof. Finally, behavioral intentions were found to mediate the effects of money and “verbal reinforcement” on choice behavior. It is concluded that any adequate theory of task motivation must take account of the individual's conscious goals and intentions. The applied implications of the theory are discussed.
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Previous experimental studies of participation have typically examined its motivational (especially commitment) benefits. These studies showed that these benefits are neither large nor consistent. The present study focused on the cognitive benefits of participation in decision making (pdm) and on the role of a different motivational mediator, self-efficacy. Unlike previous research which claimed to study the cognitive (informational) effects of participation, the present experiment: (a) allowed the information concerning task strategies to emerge from group discussion rather than being manipulated by the experimenter; (b) measured the actual strategies that were developed and used by subjects in the pdm condition; and (c) measured self-efficacy which was associated with the discovery and use of these strategies. It was found that the strategies developed by the subjects and their self-efficacy completely mediated the effect of participation on performance. Further, participation in setting goals, consistent with previous studies, did not affect performance but did affect self-efficacy.
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In 1956 AT&T decided to undertake a study of managerial lives unparalleled in its comprehensiveness and duration. This ambitious and unique research was not limited to studying the participants as managers, but examined the totality of their adult lives. In time, a second study was designed that addressed the abilities and motivations of a new generation of managers. This parallel longitudinal study provided another group, separated by twenty years from the subjects of the first study, so that individual development could be distinguished from societal change. This book is an account and evaluation of AT&T's monumental thirty years of research written by the studies' current director and her predecessor. As comprehensive and ambitious as the studies with which it is concerned, "Managerial Lives in Transition" includes social and cultural analyses as well as substantial statistical data. The authors examine the impact of recent history on management, from the dominance of white males to the emergence of women, and the growing representation of racial and ethnic minorities. Concerned with issues such as the nature of management potential, the course of adult life, and the young managers of today, this book will be of interest to psychologists, business readers, human resource managers, and students of corporate culture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Comments on the book by K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon (see record 1980-24435-001) concerning verbal reports as data. The current status of verbal report methodologies in psychological research, and improvements in the methods for collecting and interpreting verbal report data, are discussed. The use of concurrent and retrospective verbal report procedures in conjunction with improved collecting and encoding procedures will continue to yield important data for improving psychological models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Investigated the effects of goal setting, self-efficacy, competition, and personality on the performance of a sit-up task. Prior to testing, Ss were administered the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ). 60 participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: competition, medium goal; competition, high goal; no competition, medium goal; and no competition, high goal. A 5th group from the same population was added and served as the do-best comparison group. The main effect of goal level was borderline significant, and this effect was fully mediated by personal goal level and self-efficacy. Both the medium and hard goal groups significantly outperformed the do-best group. Competition did not affect performance, personal goals, commitment, or self-efficacy. The SOQ was significantly related to performance, but its effects were fully mediated by personal goals and self-efficacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
This study contrasted goal setting and self-management training designs for their effectiveness in facilitating transfer of training to a novel task. Behavioral measures of performance were used to assess transfer in terms of skill generalization, skill repetition and overall performance level. Skill generalization was more limited among the goal-setting trainees as compared to the self-management trainees. While goal-setting trainees generalized fewer skills to the novel task context, these skills tended to be used more repeatedly. In contrast, self-management trainees exhibited higher rates of skill generalization and higher overall performance levels on the transfer task, even after the effects of outcome goal level were controlled. Implications are discussed for future research on training transfer.
Article
The present experiment tested the hypothesis that self-regulation of refractory behavior varies as a function of goal proximity. Obese subjects were assigned to conditions in which they either monitored their eating behavior, monitored their eating behavior and set subgoals for reducing the amount of food consumed, or received no treatment. Within the goal-setting conditions, subjects adopted either distal goals defined in terms of weekly goal limits or proximal goals specifying the goal limits for each of four time periods during each day. Goal setting enhanced self-directed change as measured by reductions in both eating behavior and weight. The higher the goal attainments, the greater were the losses in weight. Proximal and distal goal setting yielded comparable overall results because the majority of subjects assigned remote goals altered this condition by adopting proximal goals to augment control over their own behavior. Within the distal goal-setting condition, the adherents to distal goals achieved relatively small changes, whereas those who improvised proximal subgoals for themselves attained substantial reductions on the multifaceted measures of self-directed change. The combined evidence lends support to the motivational and regulative functions of proximal intentions and highlights the reciprocal influence processes that operate in self-directed change.
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This study investigated the relationship between Type A behavior and the research productivity of university faculty. The research also examined the roles played by various Type A subfactors (job involvement, competitiveness, and impatience) and by three hypothesized intervening variables (self-efficacy, performance goals, and working on multiple projects) in the Type A—productivity relationship. Results showed a direct relationship between Type A behavior and both quantity and quality indices of faculty research productivity. Findings also supported self-efficacy, goals, and working on multiple projects as variables intervening between the display of Type A behavior and performance. Job involvement was found to be the only Type A subfactor related to productivity.
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Living organisms exhibit various levels of self-regulation, the highest of which is man's ability to regulate the operation of his conceptual faculty. Ayn Rand's theory of free will, the basis of this article, identifies this level of self-regulation with volition. The locus of direct volitional choice is placed in the choice “to think or not to think,” where thinking is understood as rational, purposefully directed cognition. The nature of this choice is analyzed in detail, with special emphasis on Rand's concept of mental “focus.” The epistemological status of the theory is discussed, including the role of introspective evidence in its behalf. It is argued that one's volitional control over one's own thinking has the status of an axiom, and that any attempted denial of this control is self-refuting.
Article
Examines the motivation for achievement as a psychological factor that shapes economic development. Refuting arguments based on race, climate, or population growth, the book instead argues for cultural customs and motivations - especially the motivation for achievement - as the major catalysts of economic growth. Considering the Protestant Reformation, the rise of capitalism, parents' influences on sons, and folklore and children's stories as shaping cultural motivations for achievement, the book hypothesizes that a high level of achievement motivation precedes economic growth. This is supported through qualitative analysis of the achievement motive, as well as of other psychological factors - including entrepreneurial behavior and characteristics, and available sources of achievement in past and present highly achieving societies. It is the achievement motive - and not merely the profit motive or the desire for material gain - that has advanced societies economically. Consequently, individuals are not merely products of their environment, as many social scientists have asserted, but also creators of the environment, as they manipulate it in various ways in the search for achievement. Finally, a plan is hypothesized to accelerate economic growth in developing countries, by encouraging and supplementing their achievement motives through mobilizing the greater achievement resources of developed countries. The conclusion is not just that motivations shape economic progress, but that current influences on future people's motivations and values will determine economic growth in the long run. Thus, it is most beneficial for a society to concentrate its resources on creating an environment conducive to entrepreneurship and a strong ideological base for achievement. (CJC)
Article
This essay argues: (1) that the fundamental conflict between the behaviorist and cognitive approaches to psychology are philosophical, not scientific; (2) that the philosophical premises underlying behaviorism (materialism, epiphenomenalism, functional model of causality, and the rejection of concepts referring to conscious states and processes) are false; and (3) that an objective, scientific approach to psychology must take consciousness and volition as axiomatic starting points.
Article
Participation has been a concern of both theorists and practitioners for many decades, but sophisticated analyses of the literature have been inconclusive with respect to its performance and affective benefits (Wagner & Gooding, 1987). The present study used an experimental design to test the hypothesis that the effectiveness of participation in promoting high performance would depend upon the locus of knowledge. Thus, high performance would result if (a) there was no participation and the supervisor had correct information, and if (b) there was participation and at least one party had correct information and neither had incorrect (i.e., conflicting) information. Lower performance would result under other conditions. We also tested the hypothesis that supervisors and subordinates under participation would have more positive affect than those who did not. These hypotheses were supported in a 2 × 3 × 3 experiment varying participation (Participation and No Participation), supervisor information (Correct, Incorrect, and No Information), and subordinate information (Correct, Incorrect, and No Information). Both supervisors and subordinates reported more positive affect and perceptions under Participation (versus No Participation) regardless of their degree of correct knowledge.
Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies and incentives Motives in fantasy, action & society Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive view The role of proximal inten-tions in self-regulation of refractory behavior
  • J W Atkinson
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Intentional behavior Knowledge as a determinant of the effects of participation on performance and attitudes. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Pro-cesses
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The biological basis of teleological con-cepts Volition as cognitive self-regulation. Orga-nizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
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Introduction to Objectivist epistemology
  • A Rand
Rand, A. (1990). Introduction to Objectivist epistemology. New York: NAL Books.
Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies and incentives
  • Atkinson
Atkinson, J. W. (1958). Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies and incentives. In J. W. Atkinson (Ed.), Motives in fantasy, action & society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
The biological basis of teleological concepts
  • H Binswanger
Binswanger, H. (1990). The biological basis of teleological concepts. Los Angeles: Ayn Rand Institute Press.
The essence of leadership
  • E A Locke
  • Associates
Locke, E. A. & associates (1991). The essence of leadership. New York: Lexington (Macmillan).
Type A behavior and faculty research productivity: What are the mechanisms?
  • Taylor