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Allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: A review
Abstract
We review 72 published articles to elucidate characteristics of biomass allocation and productivity of mangrove forests and also introduce recent progress on the study of mangrove allometry to solve the site- and species-specific problems. This includes the testing of a common allometric equation, which may be applicable to mangroves worldwide. The biomass of mangrove forests varies with age, dominant species, and locality. In primary mangrove forests, the above-ground biomass tends to be relatively low near the sea and increases inland. On a global scale, mangrove forests in the tropics have much higher above-ground biomass than those in temperate areas. Mangroves often accumulate large amounts of biomass in their roots, and the above-ground biomass to below-ground biomass ratio of mangrove forests is significantly low compared to that of upland forests (ANCOVA, P < 0.01). Several studies have reported on the growth increment of biomass and litter production in mangrove forests. We introduce some recent studies using the so-called “summation method” and investigate the trends in net primary production (NPP). For crown heights below 10 m, the above-ground NPP of mangrove forests is significantly higher (ANOVA, P < 0.01) than in those of tropical upland forests. The above-ground litter production is generally high in mangrove forests. Moreover, in many mangrove forests, the rate of soil respiration is low, possibly because of anaerobic soil conditions. These trends in biomass allocation, NPP, and soil respiration will result in high net ecosystem production, making mangrove forests highly efficient carbon sinks in the tropics.
... Numerous studies have formulated allometric equations relating DBH to biomass for the three mangrove species found in our studies sites (Soares and Schaeffer-Novelli 2005;Fromard et al. 1998;Imbert and Rollet 1989;Smith III and Whelan 2006) and it has been shown that allometric equations tend to be exhibit far less variation by site than they do by species (Ong 2002;Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn 2008). For each survey plot, DBH was used to determine average tree biomass for each species present. ...
... Combining these two measures, we determined per hectare aboveground biomass estimates for each survey plot. Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn (2008) found that the aboveground biomass to belowground biomass ratio averages 1:0.52. We utilized this ratio to calculate approximate belowground biomass storage, and therefore total living biomass, for all mangrove trees and stands. ...
... The latitudinal models were built specifically for this paper and utilize mangrove equations from the mangrove literature to calculate mangrove carbon holdings. The equations are derived from Saenger and Snedaker (1993), , and Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn (2008). Slight modifications of the equations were necessary to adjust for our 1 ha grid size. ...
Within a GIS environment, we combine field measures of mangrove diameter, mangrove species distribution, and mangrove density with remotely sensed measures of mangrove location and mangrove canopy cover to estimate the mangrove carbon holdings of northern Ecuador. We find that the four northern estuaries of Ecuador contain approximately 7,742,999 t (plus or minus 15.47 percent) of standing carbon. Of particular high carbon holdings are the Rhizophora mangle dominated mangrove stands found in-and-around the Cayapas-Mataje Ecological Reserve in northern Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador and certain stands of Rhizophora mangle in-and-around the Isla Corazon y Fragata Wildlife Refuge in central Manabi Province, Ecuador. Our field driven mangrove carbon estimate is higher than all but one of the comparison models evaluated. We find that basic latitudinal mangrove carbon models performed at least as well, if not better, than the more complex species based allometric models in predicting standing carbon levels. In addition, we find that improved results occur when multiple models are combined as opposed to relying any one single model for mangrove carbon estimates. The high level of carbon contained in these mangrove forests, combined with the future atmospheric carbon sequestration potential they offer, makes it a necessity that they are included in any future payment for ecosystem services strategy aimed at utilizing forest systems to reduce CO2 emissions and mitigate predicted CO2 driven temperature increases.
... The biomass of the underground roots of the trees within the plot was quantified using allometric root equations, as established by [21,22] used in [19,23]. This estimation was based on the measurement of tree diameters and wood density for each individual tree within the subplot. ...
... Both soil and herbaceous sampling were carried out at random locations within the main plot, as established by [20]. The biomass of the underground roots of the trees within the plot was quantified using allometric root equations, as established by [21,22] used in [19,23]. This estimation was based on the measurement of tree diameters and wood density for each individual tree within the subplot. ...
... The belowground biomass of the trees present in the plot was estimated through root allometric equations [21,22]. For this, the diameters and density of the wood of each of the trees within the subplot were used. ...
Wetlands are critical ecosystems globally, boasting significant ecological and economic value. They play a crucial role in the hydrological cycle by storing water and carbon, thereby helping to mitigate climate variability. But in Panama, little is known about the carbon stored in freshwater wetlands. This research presents the estimation of the carbon stocks of two freshwater wetlands in Panama, located on both sides of the Caribbean (Portobelo) and Pacific (Tonosi) coasts. The methodology consisted of transects of 125 m and 40 m wide, with six circular plots every 25 m; in each transect, the diameter of the tree trunk was measured at breast height (1.3 m) and the species was recorded, and in the same plots, soil samples were collected in triplicate by depth intervals. The average total ecosystem carbon storage (TECS) for the aquatic wetlands of Tonosí was 106.26 ± 18.3 Mg C ha −1 , and for Portobelo, it was 355.09 ± 70.02 Mg C ha −1. These recorded values can contribute to the conservation of wetlands, supporting Panama's nationally determined NDC contributions. However, despite the acceptance that wetlands are important nature-based solutions, national data on soil carbon stocks in freshwater wetlands are still scarce and their protection should be increased.
... Sampling Design Sampling stations were selected using purposive sampling based on the presence of Kandelia candel trees with stem diameters ≥5 cm (Komiyama et al., 2008). Two sampling stations were designated as Station I and Station II with the following coordinates: Station I is located at S 02°21'52.41" ...
... The data on Kandelia candel stands were obtained through non-destructive sampling methods (Sutaryo, 2009). Within each plot, the following measurements and observations were recorded: the stem circumference was measured at breast height (1.3 m above ground or highest prop root) using a flexible measuring tape (Komiyama et al., 2008), the total number of K. candel individuals with stem diameters ≥5 cm was counted, and the presence and abundance of other mangrove species within the plots were noted. Additionally, the following environmental parameters were measured at each station using appropriate instruments: water salinity (‰) using a hand refractometer, sediment pH using a pH meter, air temperature (°C) and humidity (%) using a multifunction environment meter, light intensity (lux) using a multifunction environment meter, and the substrate type, for which sediment samples were collected for laboratory analysis. ...
... Aboveground biomass (AGB) and belowground biomass (BGB) were estimated using allometric equations specifically developed for the Kandelia candel species by Komiyama et al. (2008), as presented in Table 1. In this study, AGB is defined as aboveground biomass, measured in kilograms, while BGB is belowground biomass, also measured in kilograms. ...
Background: Mangrove ecosystems play a crucial role in mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration. This study aimed to quantify the biomass, carbon stock, and carbon dioxide uptake of Kandelia candel stands on Payung Island, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Methods: Non-destructive sampling was conducted at two stations using 10x10 m plots along 50 m transects. Tree diameter was measured and allometric equations were used to estimate biomass and carbon stocks. Environmental parameters were also recorded. Finding: The highest biomass (193.69 ton/ha), carbon stock (89.11 ton C/ha), and CO2 uptake (320.04 ton CO2/ha) were found at Station II, correlating with larger average tree diameters. Environmental conditions, including salinity (0‰), pH (7.0), temperature (24-28°C), and humidity (90-91%), were favorable for K. candel growth. The substantial carbon storage demonstrates the importance of these stands for climate change mitigation. Conclusion: This study provides valuable data on the carbon sequestration potential of K. candel in a unique estuarine setting, contributing to our understanding of mangrove ecosystems' role in global carbon cycles and informing conservation strategies. Novelty/Originality of this Study: This study focuses on quantifying the biomass, carbon stocks, and CO₂ uptake of Kandelia candel stands within the unique estuarine ecosystem of Payung Island, South Sumatra. By providing species-specific data on K. candel—a mangrove species that has been relatively underexplored—this research addresses a significant knowledge gap and enhances our understanding of its role in carbon sequestration.
... The belowground biomass is regarded as an important component of mangroves as it comprises a relatively high proportion of the mangrove ecosystem than the terrestrial forest ecosystems (Komiyama et al 2008). For root carbon stocks, no significant differences were observed either between mangrove forest types or zones ( Figure 5A, Table 2). ...
... likely experience Here soils are to lower decomposition rates, with less nutrients being available for tree growth (Komiyama et al 2008), and anoxic soil conditions that would facilitate carbon accumulation (Schmidt et al 2011 riverine or estuarine mangroves have higher soil carbon stocks as they are typically supported by extensive allochthonous sediment supply and resulting accommodation space (Sasmito et al 2020b). Additionally, Iimura et al (2019) have found that soil carbon stocks in estuarine subtropical mangroves are positively associated with dead fine roots. ...
Mangrove forest ecosystems are known to sequester large quantities of carbon, becoming a significant carbon source when disturbed. This paper presents a quantification in aboveground (standing trees, palm, shrub, standing dead trees, downed wood and litter), belowground (root and soil) and ecosystem carbon stocks in mangrove forests along the Carigara Bay in Leyte, Philippines. The carbon stocks in the different mangrove forest types (fringe and riverine) and zones (landward, middleward, and seaward/along water) were compared. Further, the relationship between environmental factors (eg, interstitial soil salinity, soil water content and soil depth) and ecosystem carbon stocks was examined. The study yielded an ecosystem carbon stock of 558.02±51.13Mg ha-1, partitioned into aboveground and belowground carbon stocks of 251.96±31.08 and 306.06±28.50Mg ha-1, respectively. The ecosystem carbon stocks of the riverine (805.89±80.57Mg ha-1) greatly exceeded that of the fringe mangrove forests (310.15±24.59Mg ha-1). In general, biomass and soil both store a similar proportion of carbon, corresponding to 57% and 43%, respectively. In addition, regression analysis revealed that soil depth was a reasonable predictor of ecosystem carbon stocks, whereby increasing ecosystem carbon stocks were associated with deeper soil deposits. Overall, the study’s results highlight the exceptionally high amount of carbon stored in the mangrove ecosystems, indicating their potential role in climate change mitigation.
... First, mangroves serve as nurseries for a plethora of marine species due to the complex structure of their root systems which provide shelter during early vulnerable life stages (Nagelkerken et al. 2008;Laegdsgaard and Johnson 2001;Mumby et al. 2004). Second, organic decay rates are low in the anoxic soils, allowing mangrove forests to sequester carbon (Alongi 2012;Lee et al. 2014), with soil carbon levels among the highest in the tropics (Alongi 2012;Donato et al. 2011;Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn 2008). Finally, mangroves provide a buffer against strong waves and storm surges associated with thunderstorms and hurricanes, protecting coastal areas from erosion and damage (Alongi 2008;Vizcaya-Martínez et al. 2022;Zhang et al. 2012). ...
... Our approach leverages richer geometric information than these previous studies by examining more of the 3-dimensional canopy structure. To determine the correlation between the geometric shapes and the underlying biomass, one could measure the dimensions of trees (diameter at breast height, tree height), within and across islands, and leverage established allometric relationships (Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn 2008;Rovai et al. 2021;Smith and Whelan 2006) for the species in these communities to estimate biomass. Combined with area and volume estimates from remotely collected data, one could test the strength of the association between these two approaches. ...
... A non-destructive sampling method utilizing allometric equations was used to determine the aboveground and belowground biomass of Rhizopora stylosa Griffith. Mangrove stand biomass was determined using Komiyama's et al. (2007) allometric equation, which is Btop = 0.251 DBH 2.46 . Below-ground biomass is calculated as B = DBH2,22 × 0,199 × p0,899, where B stand for Biomass, p is the wood-specific weight and DBH is the diameter at breast height (Komiyama et al. 2007). ...
... Mangrove stand biomass was determined using Komiyama's et al. (2007) allometric equation, which is Btop = 0.251 DBH 2.46 . Below-ground biomass is calculated as B = DBH2,22 × 0,199 × p0,899, where B stand for Biomass, p is the wood-specific weight and DBH is the diameter at breast height (Komiyama et al. 2007). Following SNI 7724, 2011, the carbon value is transformed to represent 47% of the biomass. ...
Astiani D, Roslinda E, Widiastuti T, Ekamawanti HA, Ekyastuti W, Dwianto W, Alfikri F, Ngidu EY. 2024. Stand growth and carbon stocks of community-based mangrove rehabilitation in Singkawang City, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 2799-2805. The ability of tropical mangrove ecosystems to store carbon in the form of biomass is well-founded. The mangrove forest in Setapuk Besar Village, Singkawang City, West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia has been managed by community members in response to the development of alluvial sediment land in recent years. The community's efforts in Setapuk Besar Village to rehabilitate and manage mangrove forests illustrate how essential mangrove forests are to the local ecology and should be applauded for their success. This study aims to investigate the growth and development, carbon stored and sequestered in mangrove forests planted by community in Setapuk Besar between 2015 and 2020. Field survey was conducted from July to November 2022 by mapping the sediment land that had expanded since 2015 and continued with the measurement of density and diameter of mangrove stands that were systematically planted in each planting year using sampling plot method. In addition, site factors such as pH, carbon content, nitrogen, phosphorus, CEC, and soil solution salinity were investigated. Our findings indicate that due to alluvial sedimentation, the coastline in Setapuk village is expanding by 3.3 to 4.6 ha annually, accumulating 24 ha throughout a six-year period. The mangroves planted in 2015-2016 are now thriving on the new land. The six-year-old trees diameter achieved an average of 6.80±0.13 cm, averaged 5.1 m in height, and increased from 0.45 to 2.2 cm in diameter. The total biomass (above and below-ground) of plants aged 4, 5 and 6 years was 250, 303 and 430 tons ha-1, with a potential to absorb carbon of 28-33 tons ha-1 year-1, correspondingly. Given that this mangrove area plays a crucial role in CO2 capture in nature and has a relatively high ability to absorb and store carbon, conservation efforts and best practices are necessary for this forest.
... Clough and Scott (1989) and Ong et al. (2004) have also developed allometric equations for this purpose. However, Komiyama et al. (2008) noted that their equations have a relative error of -9.84 to +10.3% and +6.81 to -10.8%, respectively, compared with Fromard et al. (1998), which has a relative error of -8.44 to +6.81%. The aboveground carbon was then estimated to be 50% of biomass (Khokher et al., 2023). ...
... Journal of Sustainability Science and Management Volume 19 Number 7, July 2024: 202-214 et al. (2015) also mentioned that the tree's distance from the sea impacts tree biomass. Trees growing near the landward area have higher aboveground biomass values than those more exposed to seawater due to the high salinity levels that can stunt tree growth (Komiyama et al., 2008). ...
Mangrove forests are capable of storing vast amounts of carbon and are recognised as one of the highest carbon densities in the world. This research examines the mangrove forest in Kota Marudu, Sabah, Malaysia, specifically its soil’s physico-chemical properties and total carbon stock. Using two 100-metre-long transect lines with seven-metre diameter circle subplots established at every 25 metres, a forest inventory and an allometric equation were used to determine the aboveground and belowground biomass. The carbon content was estimated to be 50% of biomass. Simultaneously, soil samples were collected at depths of 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-50 cm, and 50-100 cm for soil analysis and bulk density. A CHNS elemental analyser was used to determine the carbon content in the soil. The results showed that the Kota Marudu mangrove forest has a total carbon stock of 1,010.65 Mg C ha-1, where around 80% of it was contributed by the soil carbon pool at 876.16 Mg C ha-1. The results also revealed that the living tree and roots carbon pool were measured at 100.87 Mg C ha-1 and 33.62 Mg C ha-1, respectively. These findings highlight the crucial role of mangrove forests in carbon sequestering and mitigating climate change.
... Mangroves are considered one of the most reliable blue carbon ecosystems [1,2]. The biomass of mangrove plants is closely linked to their carbon sink function, reflecting not only the growth status of mangroves but also the strength of their blue carbon capabilities [3][4][5]. ...
... There were six types of data in this study: (1) Soil and water environment data. Soil factors included organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, and particle size, while water environment factors included pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. ...
In the Bamen Bay area of the Qinglan Harbor Mangrove Provincial Nature Reserve in Wenchang, Hainan Province, China, mangrove aboveground biomass (AGB) was estimated using high-resolution UAV ortho-imagery and UAV LiDAR data. The spatial distribution characteristics of AGB were studied using global Moran’s I index and hotspot analysis. Optimal geographic detectors and regression models were employed to analyze the relationship between AGB and key environmental factors. The results indicate that (1) the average AGB in the study area was 141.22 Mg/ha, with significant spatial variation. High AGB values were concentrated in the southwestern and northeastern regions, while low values were mainly found in the central and southeastern regions. (2) Plant species, water pH, soil total potassium, salinity, dissolved oxygen, elevation, soil organic matter, soil total phosphorus, and soil total nitrogen were identified as major factors influencing the spatial distribution of AGB. The interaction results indicate either bifactor enhancement or nonlinear enhancement, showing a significantly higher impact compared with single factors. (3) Comprehensive regression model results reveal that soil total nitrogen was the primary factor affecting AGB, followed by soil total potassium, with water pH having the least impact. Factors positively correlated with AGB promoted biomass growth, while elevation negatively affected AGB, inhibiting biomass accumulation. The findings provide critical insights that can guide targeted conservation efforts and management strategies aimed at enhancing mangrove ecosystem health and resilience, particularly by focusing on key areas identified for potential improvement and by addressing the complex interactions among environmental factors.
... Kedua spesies ini memainkan peran penting dalam ekosistem mangrove, termasuk dalam stabilisasi tanah, penyediaan habitat bagi berbagai spesies, dan kontribusi terhadap penyimpanan karbon. Hutan mangrove Bruguiera memiliki kapasitas penyimpanan karbon yang signifikan dan penting untuk konservasi serta mitigasi perubahan iklim (Clough, 1998;Komiyama et al., 2008). ...
... Kedua spesies ini berperan penting dalam ekosistem mangrove, membantu dalam pencegahan erosi pantai, menyediakan habitat bagi berbagai spesies, dan berkontribusi terhadap penyimpanan karbon yang signifikan. Studi menunjukkan bahwa hutan mangrove Xylocarpus memiliki kapasitas penyimpanan karbon yang tinggi dan penting untuk konservasi serta mitigasi perubahan iklim (Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001;Komiyama et al., 2008). ...
... Kedua spesies ini memainkan peran penting dalam ekosistem mangrove, termasuk dalam stabilisasi tanah, penyediaan habitat bagi berbagai spesies, dan kontribusi terhadap penyimpanan karbon. Hutan mangrove Bruguiera memiliki kapasitas penyimpanan karbon yang signifikan dan penting untuk konservasi serta mitigasi perubahan iklim (Clough, 1998;Komiyama et al., 2008). ...
... Kedua spesies ini berperan penting dalam ekosistem mangrove, membantu dalam pencegahan erosi pantai, menyediakan habitat bagi berbagai spesies, dan berkontribusi terhadap penyimpanan karbon yang signifikan. Studi menunjukkan bahwa hutan mangrove Xylocarpus memiliki kapasitas penyimpanan karbon yang tinggi dan penting untuk konservasi serta mitigasi perubahan iklim (Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001;Komiyama et al., 2008). ...
Buku ini merupakan panduan komprehensif yang membahas teknik restorasi sumberdaya ekosistem pesisir, sebuah upaya penting dalam menjaga keberlanjutan lingkungan di wilayah-wilayah pesisir yang rentan. Di dalamnya, pembaca akan diajak untuk memahami secara mendalam pengenalan teknik restorasi ekosistem pesisir, termasuk dasar teori yang mendasarinya.
Buku ini mengidentifikasi masalah yang umum terjadi pada ekosistem pesisir, dan menjelaskan langkah-langkah perencanaan yang sistematis untuk melaksanakan restorasi. Teknik restorasi dengan menggunakan tanaman mangrove, pembangunan terumbu karang buatan, serta rehabilitasi padang lamun menjadi fokus utama dalam buku ini, dilengkapi dengan strategi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang krusial dalam mendukung keberhasilan restorasi.
Interaksi kompleks antara manusia dan lingkungan di kawasan pesisir menjadi topik penting yang kami eksplorasi, sambil menyoroti tantangan dan hambatan yang sering kali dihadapi dalam implementasi proyek restorasi. Inovasi dan pengembangan teknik baru, serta peran kunci perempuan nelayan dalam menjaga dan memulihkan hutan bakau, juga menjadi bagian integral dari diskusi kami.
Buku ini diharapkan dapat memberikan panduan yang praktis dan inspiratif bagi para praktisi, peneliti, serta pemerhati lingkungan yang peduli terhadap kelestarian ekosistem pesisir. Semoga informasi yang disajikan dapat mendorong upaya kolaboratif yang lebih luas dalam menjaga dan mengembalikan keindahan serta keberlanjutan ekosistem pesisir.
... The generalized allometric equation by Komiyama et al. (2008) was used to compute the AGB and BGB (root). The stem DBH and specific density of the wood (ρ) of each species acquired from worldagroforestry.org were the dependent variables in the allometric equation. ...
... The stem DBH and specific density of the wood (ρ) of each species acquired from worldagroforestry.org were the dependent variables in the allometric equation. The total biomass of vegetation was then computed by aggregating the AGB and BGB (root) using the formula provided by Komiyama et al. (2008): ...
Mangroves are an important coastal ecosystem in the global cycle of carbon and climate change mitigation. Unfortunately, a significant loss of mangrove forests has significantly increased carbon emissions over recent years. This research aims to measure the carbon stocks and potential carbon storage of the Tuntang Estuary mangrove forest. Sixteen quadrant plots at six sites were used to collect data on above- and below-ground carbon (roots and sediment). Several published allometric formulas were used for estimating the above and below-ground (root) carbon, while the Walkley and Black method was used to analyze sediment organic carbon. This study showed that the potential of total carbon stocks in this mangrove forest was approximately 0.08 × 10⁶ (± 0.02) Mg C or equivalent to 0.29 × 10⁶ (± 0.05) Mg CO2e. The largest average percentage of carbon stocks (62%) was stored in sediment, 24.57% in mangrove tree biomass, and 13.43% in root biomass. This study discovered that coastal abrasion has a natural effect on mangrove forests and that human activities, particularly aquacultures, also contribute to the low total stock of carbon. The ecotourism site had the highest overall stock of carbon due to the extensive conservation efforts of all stakeholders, including visitors. This study highlights the crucial role of conserving mangroves as a strategy for achieving sustainable development goals, particularly in the context of climate change mitigation.
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
Relationship between biomass and carbon sequestration in the Lower Gangetic Delta
... However, all forms of logging are banned in the Sundarbans. Consequently, we used the most cost-effective and widely accepted developed allometric equation to meet our objectives (Komiyama et al., 2008). At present, various researchers have established diverse allometric equations for the assessment of mangrove biomass (Chave et al., 2005;Kathiresan et al., 2013;Komiyama et al., 2005;Mahmood et al., 2019;Pitol and Hossain, 2023;Siddique et al., 2021). ...
Natural regeneration is critical for sustaining mangrove ecosystems, particularly the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest. This study assessed the impacts of biotic and abiotic factors on regeneration dynamics, examining spatial variations across salinity zones and temporal changes (2010-2020) using data from 30 permanent sample plots (PSPs) established by the Mangrove Silviculture Division, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute. We found that the biodiversity of the Sundarbans remained relatively stable over time, with a high Müeller-Dombois Similarity Index and low Bray-Curtis Dissimilarity Index across years and zones. However, salinity variations influenced species composition. The study also revealed a decline in the dominance of Heritiera fomes and an increase in the abundance of Excoecaria agallocha (showed habitat expansion) over time while both species maintained a high importance value. The total biomass growth from living (77.84 Mg/ha) and newly established trees (14.39 Mg/ha) was low, while the biomass loss (81.79 Mg/ha) from the dead trees was significant. Furthermore, our analysis indicated that abiotic factors, including salinity, siltation, and soil pH, had minimal influence on plant functional traits, but changes in basal area notably affected biomass dynamics. These findings provide insights into the regeneration trends of the Sundarbans and guide the formulation of policies to manage this unique ecosystem sustainably.
... Mangrove plants have high leaf nutrient resorption Chen et al. 2016a). They conserve nutrients in the nutrient-poor intertidal zone by reducing investment in their N-rich growth components , extending leaf lifespan and developing sclerophyllous leaves (Komiyama et al. 2008), as well as having high photosynthetic N-use efficiency (Feller et al. 2009). The effectiveness of these above-ground N-P conservation strategies depending on the inherent functional traits of mangrove plants and nutrient availability are discussed in the following subsections. ...
Background and scope
Mangroves distributed in intertidal zones along tropical and subtropical coastlines play key roles in nutrient cycling, energy transfer, and maintenance of ecosystem balance. The maintenance of mangroves’ high productivity and ecosystem functionality in nutrient-limited environmental conditions is very important. This paper comprehensively elucidates how mangroves sustain ecological balance and survive in nutrient-limited coastal environments.
Methods and results
The foliar nitrogen and phosphorus (N-P) concentrations and N:P ratios in different mangrove plant species and regions of the world are summarized, and results show that 73.7% and 16.4% of mangrove plants are N- and P-deficient, respectively. A comprehensive overview on the strategies employed by mangrove plants to conserve N-P in both above- and below-ground components is discussed. These strategies include N-P resorption efficiency, in short NRE and PRE, respectively, N-P use efficiency, litter quality, soil microbial activity, and N-P turnover rate. All these strategies are influenced by N-P content and their interactions, as well as secondary metabolites such as total phenolics and tannins in leaf and litter. Published data reveal mangrove leaves have higher NRE (56.2%) than PRE (48.8%), and NRE positively relates to PRE. Nutrient uptake by mangrove plants and N-P availability under different conditions, particularly global warming, rising sea levels and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) situations, are discussed. A framework for gaining in-depth and targeted understanding of the trade-offs associated with N-P in mangrove ecosystems is proposed.
Conclusion
This comprehensive overview, based on the published results on N and P conservation and their trade-off in mangrove plants, provides useful information on ecological services and functioning of mangrove wetlands.
Graphical abstract
... Allometrics are used to estimate the above-ground biomass of each mangrove species(Komiyama et al. 2005(Komiyama et al. , 2008Fatoyinbo et al. 2008;Fatoyinbo and Simard 2011) ...
Hilmi E, Hendrayana, Samudra SR, Fikriyya N, Junaidi T, Cahyo TN, Putri NA, Ummah AN. 2024. Species-specific and landscape carbon storage analysis of mangrove forest in Segara Anakan Lagoon, Cilacap, Central Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 2748-2755. Mangrove forests are one of the world's largest carbon pools. However, each mangrove species has a different capacity to sequester and store carbon in its biomass. Therefore, at the landscape scale, there are also differences in carbon storage and percent carbon between habitat sites influenced by dominant species and stand density due to differences in environmental conditions. This study aims to analyze each mangrove species' percent carbon and carbon storage and develop a mangrove landscape in Segara Anakan Lagoon, Cilacap District, Central Java Province, Indonesia. This study used destructive methods to collect mangrove samples. The percentage of carbon of each species was analyzed using a formulation of volatile and ash values, while carbon stock for each species was estimated using allometric equations. Landscape analysis of carbon stocks was based on mangrove stand density. The results showed that the carbon percentage of mangrove species averaged between 42.48-53.34% with Rhizophora spp. (R. apiculata, R. mucronata and R. stylosa) and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza having the highest carbon percentage of 47.1-55.6%, followed by Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia with 43.0-48.6%, Ceriops spp., Aegiceras spp., Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarpus spp. with 43.0-48.2%, and Nypa fruticans had the lowest carbon percentage with 39.1-41.0%. At the landscape scale, Segara Anakan had mangrove biomass between 34.83-786.61 tons/ha with carbon stock between 7.85-186.09 tons C/ha. Based on percent carbon, the mangrove landscape in Segara Anakan was dominated by B. gymnorrhiza, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Ceriops tagal, and R. mucronata. Avicennia marina, Aegiceras corniculatum, N. fruticans, R. apiculata, and Sonneratia alba dominated mangrove landscapes based on carbon storage. The results of this study indicate that carbon storage in mangrove ecosystems is important to support carbon conservation because it has a high percentage of carbon and large carbon storage.
... Mangrove forests are recognized as critical habitats and recruitment zones for an array of marine and terrestrial species (Laegdsgaard and Johnson 2001;Mumby et al. 2004). The soils in mangroves contain carbon levels that are among the highest found in the tropics (Donato et al. 2011;Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn 2008). Mangroves have also been noted for their ability to buffer storm damage from cyclones or hurricanes (Alongi 2008;Zhang et al. 2012). ...
Predicting the distribution, structure, and biomass of mangrove forests is an area of high research interest. Across the Atlantic East Pacific biogeographic region, three species are common and abundant members of local mangrove communities; Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, and Laguncularia racemosa. Biomass prediction for these species has relied on two approaches: site‐specific allometries based on the idea that environmental/climatic differences between sites drive growth differences, or the use of common allometric equations based on the idea that site driven differences are minimal. Meta‐analyses of global compilations of interspecific plot level data (e.g., mean canopy height, stand basal area) show trends in size and structure with climatic variables, however this has not been critically evaluated across these species using empirical allometric growth functions. We compared allometric equations derived from 590 individuals within and across nine broadly distributed sites at interspecific and intraspecific levels and explored the influence of climatic variables on allometric slopes and intercepts. Assessing variables that can be used to predict biomass in the field (height, diameter at breast height (DBH), canopy spread), we find interspecific root mean squared errors similar to or smaller than most intraspecific or site‐specific equations, particularly when examining sites with sample sizes above recommended values. We also find significant effects of several climatic variables on growth allometries with the strongest effects from minimum temperature followed by precipitation seasonality. Our results suggest that while climate has a clear influence on mangrove allometric growth, common equations may have utility in biomass prediction. Future methodological improvements, particularly larger sample sizes across the entire available size range, combined with data from a broader range of growth conditions will further inform which allometric relationships exhibit the most variability within and across sites and which variables best predict mangrove biomass.
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
... Mangroves are the most widespread tree communities of the Gangetic delta, and their physiology is considerably influenced by surface water salinity (Zaman et al. 2014). Therefore, salinity alteration is clearly visualized in the mangrove community by way of differential growth of aboveground biomass (AGB) of sensitive species (Komiyama et al. 2008). ...
The alterations in the salinity profile are an indirect, but potentially sensitive, indicator for detecting changes in precipitation, evaporation, river runoff , glacier retreat, and ice melt. These changes have a high impact on the growth of coastal plant species, such as mangroves. Here, we present estimates of the variability of salinity and the biomass of a stenoecious mangrove species (Heritiera fomes, commonly referred to as Sundari) in the aquatic subsystem of the lower Gangetic delta based on a dataset from 2004 to 2015. We highlight the impact of salinity alteration on the change in aboveground biomass of this endangered species that, due to different salinity profile in the western and central sectors of the lower Gangetic plain, shows an increase only in the former sector, where the salinity is dropping and low growth in the latter, where the salinity is increasing.
... We utilized an allometric model describing the relationship between tree characteristics and tree size as the fundamental estimation model. In general, this model has been used to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) from the DBH in forest ecology [40]. However, this model can also be used with other variables [41]. ...
A probabilistic estimation model for forest biomass using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photography was developed. We utilized a machine-learning-based object detection algorithm, a mask region-based convolutional neural network (Mask R-CNN), to detect trees in aerial photographs. Subsequently, Bayesian regression was used to calibrate the model based on an allometric model using the estimated crown diameter (CD) obtained from aerial photographs and analyzed the diameter at breast height (DBH) data acquired through terrestrial laser scanning. The F1 score of the Mask R-CNN for individual tree detection was 0.927. Moreover, CD estimation using the Mask R-CNN was acceptable (rRMSE = 10.17%). Accordingly, the probabilistic DBH estimation model was successfully calibrated using Bayesian regression. A predictive distribution accurately predicted the validation data, with 98.6% and 56.7% of the data being within the 95% and 50% prediction intervals, respectively. Furthermore, the estimated uncertainty of the probabilistic model was more practical and reliable compared to traditional ordinary least squares (OLS). Our model can be applied to estimate forest biomass at the individual tree level. Particularly, the probabilistic approach of this study provides a benefit for risk assessments. Additionally, since the workflow is not interfered by the tree canopy, it can effectively estimate forest biomass in dense canopy conditions.
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
Ground level study of Biomass and stored carbon in Sonneratia apetala
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
Biomass vs. carbon in mangroves.pdf
... Mangrove biomass was calculated using the allometric method based on the mangrove species in the Bedul Mangrove Area, Banyuwangi. This research uses allometric equations which refer to the allometric equations of Komiyama [21], because this equation is used for Asian mangroves. The allometric equations produced the AGB value rather than directly creating the AGC value [22]. ...
Mangroves are a type of vegetation that can absorb carbon and have an essential role in controlling CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Mangroves can absorb carbon better than terrestrial ecosystems because of their ability to bury carbon in sediment. This research aims to compare and measure the carbon stock content above the surface of mangroves in the field using multi-spatial resolution imagery, namely, Landsat 8 OLI, Sentinel 2A, and Planetscope. Field carbon calculations were carried out using the allometric method based on mangrove species. The calculation results are then linked through regression analysis with the vegetation index Difference Vegetation Index (DVI) results. The total carbon obtained from PlanetScope imagery was 535.27 tons, Sentinel 2A imagery was 549.23 tons, and Landsat 8 OLI imagery was 533.57 tons. Among the three images used, based on Sentinel 2A statistical analysis reflects the possibility of overfitting or the best with higher r and R 2 values in the calculations. However, based on SE accuracy tests, PlanetScope has better accuracy than the other two images. Apart from that, the accuracy test results using a 1:1 goodness of fit plot for each image, the distribution pattern of mangrove carbon stock estimates shows that the entire model in mapping mangrove carbon stocks is overestimated. The overestimated results are possible because more objects around the mangrove, especially canopy density, are recorded by remote sensing sensors compared to tree diameter as input for field carbon results.
... Various methods have been developed to estimate the biomass of forests. There are three main methods: the harvest method, the middle tree method and the allometric method [2]. The most accurate method to estimate biomass weight and subsequently ...
The standardized methods used in carbon markets require measurement of the biomass and carbon stored in trees, which can be quantified through allometric equations. The objective of this study was to analyze aboveground biomass estimates with allometric models in three mangrove species and compare them with those used by the Climate Action Reserve (CAR) standard. The mangrove forest in Tabasco, Mexico, was certified with the Forest Protocol for Mexico Version 2.0 (FPM) of the CAR standard. Allometric equations for mangrove species were reviewed to determine the most suitable equation for the calculation of biomass. The predictions of the allometric equations of the FPM were analyzed with data from Tabasco from the National Forest and Soil Inventory 2015–2020, and the percentages of trees within the ranges of diameters of the FPM equations were determined. The FPM equations generated higher biomass values for Rhizophora mangle and lower values for Avicennia germinans than the seven equations with which they were compared. In the mangrove swamp of Ejido Úrsulo Galván, Tabasco, 81.8% of the biomass of A. germinans, 34.4% of Laguncularia racemosa and 24.0% of R. mangle were within the diameter range of the FPM equations, and in Tabasco, 28.5% of A. germinans, 16.7% of L. racemosa and 5.7% of R. mangle were within the diameter range. For A. germinans and R. mangle, we recommend using the equation that considers greater maximum diameters. The allometric equations of the FPM do not adequately predict a large percentage of the biomass.
... They act as a link between land and sea. This area is influenced by sea level height [6]. Mangrove forests have an important function in mitigating climate change, including their ability to absorb and store carbon [7], [8]. ...
Perlis Village is around the mangrove forest in Langkat Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia. This village has several barren lands potentially planted with mangroves. They were considering that the livelihoods of most of the people were fishermen and mangrove crab catchers. It is necessary to plant and rehabilitate damaged mangrove forests to restore and repair the ecosystem in Perlis Village. Planting activities were carried out in locations considered suitable for planting 200 seedlings. Three transects were made to obtain vegetation analysis data and carbon content. Each transect consists of six plots in natural forest and restoration forest. When the seedlings at the planting location were 3 months old, observations were carried out again, and of the 135 plants, approximately 67.16 percent were still alive from a total of 200 seedlings planted. Carbon storage in natural forests is 69 Mg ha-1 and 41.64 Mg ha-1 in restoration forests. By enriching the methods and estimating the potential carbon stocks of natural and rehabilitated mangroves in Perlis village in the context of Indonesia's climate change mitigation strategy, it is hoped that this information has the potential to help the blue carbon research community and policymakers.
... Mangroves are among the plants with the highest primary productivity that accumulates and stores significant amounts of C in its biomass that may have a significant influence to global carbon budget (Kathiresan and Bingham 2001). The relatively high primary production and low decomposition process in mangrove soils are considered to bring about unusual carbon dynamics (Komiyama et al. 2008). The soil of the mangrove acts as a huge reservoir of carbon that can store three times its biomass (Kauffman and Donato 2012) and that it can even surpass the ability of terrestrial trees to store carbon. ...
The use of the non-traditional ecology concept such as freshwater mangroves is still debatable among experts and non-experts alike. This can be a hindrance in accepting the NUEs as part of the urban landscape. This R&D on ecological engineering using freshwater mangroves addresses a problem of urban wastewater along with water pollution and its health concerns, climate change mitigation, as well as typically low aesthetic appearance of cities. The ecotechnology creates an opportunity for the wastewater flowing into lake from adjacent restaurants located on campus into solution for many urban challenges including the use of nutrient-rich water as a fertilizer for mangrove trees in a Novel Urban Ecosystem (NUE). As a result, the enhanced growth of the mangrove trees yields to a greater biomass that is proportionate to carbon sequestration. The growth of the freshwater mangroves is almost similar to the coastal mangroves, an indication that these mangroves can perform similarly as carbon sink even when placed in a different habitat. In addition, this research has proven that mangrove roots increase dissolved oxygen in water. Despite that novel urban ecosystem makes use of an introduced species such as mangroves into freshwater wetlands, its acceptability in AIT community is relatively high. The majority of the respondents agree that the mangroves on campus provide habitat for wildlife and opportunities for contact with nature. Additionally, a greater number of the respondents agree that the NUE is not causing any problems both to people and to other organisms on campus. A strong indication that the freshwater mangroves as NUE is successful are increased areas for green spaces and habitat for biodiversity, which is providing an additional opportunity for outdoor recreation and therefore adding to the well-being for the community. Additionally, SDG mapping of the potential outcomes of a freshwater mangrove in cities indicates that out of the 17 Goals, 10 were directly and indirectly linked with the freshwater mangrove project in AIT with 18 indicators satisfied.
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
Sundarban fresh water loving mangrove - A unique carbon vault.pdf
... This is a non-destructive method and is thus useful for estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent measurements. However, the site and species-specific dependencies of allometric equations pose a problem to researchers because tree weight measurement in mangrove forests is labor-intensive [9] and often risky due to presence of wild animals (e.g., Sundarban mangrove is inhabited by man eating Royal Bengal tiger.) ...
Baseline and time series data of mangrove biomass and carbon in deltaic Sundarbans
... The above ground stem biomass of the dominant mangrove trees were 19.79 t ha -1 , 5.83 t ha -1 , 20.22 t ha -1 , 21.14 t ha -1 , and 6.70 t ha -1 for Sonneratia apetala, Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, and Avicennia officinalis respectively (Table 3). These values are comparatively lesser to the data of earlier study [18] in a secondary mangrove (Ceriops tagal) forest at Southern Thailand. It was documented that the stem biomass formed 62.49%, 59.92%, 56.81%, 60.61% and 59.50% of the total above ground biomass of Sonneratia apetala, Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, and Avicennia officinalis respectively. ...
A study was conducted during January 2017 on the biomass of dominant mangrove species in Satjelia Island, located in the central Indian Sundarbans. Eight species of true mangroves were documented in the selected plots. The mean order of abundance of these species was Avicennia alba (23.33%) > Avicennia marina (20.00%) > Excoecaria agallocha (16.66%) > Sonneratia apetala (13.33%) = Avicennia officinalis (13.33%)> Acanthus ilicifolius (6.66%) > Aegiceros corniculatum (3.33%) = Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (3.33%). The above ground stem biomass of the dominant mangrove trees were 19.79 t ha-1 , 5.83 t ha-1 , 20.22 t ha-1 , 21.14 t ha-1 , and 6.70 t ha-1 for Sonneratia apetala, Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis respectively.
... Mangroves are the most widespread tree communities of the Gangetic delta, and their physiology is considerably influenced by surface water salinity (Zaman et al. 2014). Therefore, salinity alteration is clearly visualized in the mangrove community by way of differential growth of aboveground biomass (AGB) of sensitive species (Komiyama et al. 2008). ...
The alterations in the salinity profile are an indirect, but potentially sensitive, indicator for detecting changes in precipitation, evaporation, river runoff , glacier retreat, and ice melt. These changes have a high impact on the growth of coastal plant species, such as mangroves. Here, we present estimates of the variability of salinity and the biomass of a stenoecious mangrove species (Heritiera fomes, commonly referred to as Sundari) in the aquatic subsystem of the lower Gangetic delta based on a dataset from 2004 to 2015. We highlight the impact of salinity alteration on the change in aboveground biomass of this endangered species that, due to different salinity profile in the western and central sectors of the lower Gangetic plain, shows an increase only in the former sector, where the salinity is dropping and low growth in the latter, where the salinity is increasing.
The coastal blue-carbon ecosystems have become the most promising ecological pathways to increasing carbon sinks and achieving carbon neutrality. In recent years, significant achievements have been obtained in ecological environment management and ecosystem protection and restoration in China. However, the protection and restoration model of coastal blue-carbon ecosystems and the value transformation and realization of blue-carbon resources still need to be optimized. This study summarizes and analyzes the current distribution and changes of mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass beds in China. Subsequently, it elaborates on the problems regarding the understanding of coastal blue-carbon ecosystems, scientific and systematic nature of blue-carbon ecosystem protection and restoration, and management system and value realization of blue-carbon resources, from the aspects of coastal blue-carbon resources, ecosystem protection and restoration, blue-carbon resource values, and blue-carbon trading market. Furthermore, we propose to improve the understanding of coastal blue-carbon ecosystems, strengthen green and sustainable protection and restoration models, and develop refined management and trading systems for blue-carbon resources. This study is expected to provide theoretical guidance and decision-making support for the conservation and restoration of coastal blue-carbon ecosystems in China.
Mangrove forests in southern Iran are of high ecological and economic importance. These forests are being threatened because of uncontrolled harvesting to provide fodder for livestock. The objective of this study is to provide recommendations for appropriate harvesting intensities by quantifying the effect of different harvesting intensities on vegetative and vigor characteristics of mangrove trees. This study was conducted using a randomized complete block design comprising four treatments (10.00%, 20.00%, and 30.00% trimming, along with a control) replicated three times. Vegetative characteristics were measured before and after trimming (five-year period) and analyzed using generalized linear model statistical analysis. The growths of the average diameter of canopy, canopy area, canopy volume, canopy height, tree height, and collar diameter in the control treatment were all significantly higher than those in the trimming treatments. In addition, there was a decreasing trend in leaf fresh and dry mass, leaf area index, total area of canopy leaves, and health status of tree in the trimming treatments. For example, the percentage change in fresh and dry leaf mass in the control treatment was positive (29.87% and 38.31%, respectively), whereas the trimming treatments of 10.00%, 20.00% and 30.00% had negative effects (−7.01% and −4.79%, −11.32% and −14.30%, and −15.84% and −17.29%, respectively). In addition, the changes in leaf area index in the control (4.95%) and 30.00% trimming (−24.57%) treatments were the highest and lowest, respectively. The percentage change in soil organic matter in the control, 10.00%, 20.00%, and 30.00% treatments were 22.94%, −9.90%, −16.91%, and −18.68%, respectively. The study demonstrated that gray mangrove trees were highly sensitive to canopy trimming, with even minimal trimming intensities negatively affecting vegetative growth and soil organic matter. Therefore, it is recommended that cutting and trimming of mangrove trees should be prevented even at low intensity to preserve mangrove ecosystem health and resilience against environmental stressors.
ABSTRAK Ekosistem mangrove merupakan salah satu bentuk ekosistem perairan yang berperan sangat penting dalam menjaga keseimbangan karbon di atmosfer dan mendukung upaya mitigasi perubahan iklim. Kemampuan mangrove dalam menyerap dan menyimpan karbon dalam biomassa dan tanahnya menjadikan ekosistem ini sebagai salah satu penyimpan karbon yang sangat efektif. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengestimasi cadangan karbon tegakan mangrove di Kawasan Mangrove Desa BAtu Putih , Sekotong, Lombok Barat. Penelitian dilakukan di 3 Stasiun yakni Stasiun 1 (Berambang), Stasiun 2 (Siung), dan Stasiun 3 (Bangko-Bangko). Pengumpulan data dilakukan menggunakan transek 10 x 10 meter, dimana data yang diambil berupa data spesies dan DBH (Diameter at Breast Height). Selanjutnya persamaan allometrik digunakan untuk mendapatkan nilai biomassa dan cadangan karbon. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat empat spesies mangrove yakni Rhizophora mucronata, R. stylosa, R. apiculata, dan Avicennia marina. Rata-rata kerapatan mangrove di setiap Stasiun masuk kedalam kategori sedang hingga padat dengan rentang nilai 1000-4666.66 ind/ha. Estimasi cadangan karbon tegakan mangrove yang ditemukan yakni Stasiun 1 (149.33 ton/ha), Stasiun 2 (28.38ton/ha), dan Stasiun 3 (476.36 ton/ha). Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan nilai estimasi cadangan karbon di setiap Stasiun. Dengan demikian hasil penelitian ini memberikan informasi penting untuk mendukung upaya konservasi dan restorasi ekosistem mangrove di Lombok Barat, serta untuk meningkatkan pemahaman tentang peran mangrove dalam mitigasi perubahan iklim.
Mangrove ecosystems are a vital form of aquatic ecosystem that significantly contribute to maintaining carbon balance in the atmosphere and support climate change mitigation efforts. Their ability to absorb and store carbon in both biomass and soil makes them among the most effective carbon sinks. This study aims to estimate the carbon storage of mangrove stands in the Gita Nada Mangrove Area, Sekotong, West Lombok. The research was conducted at three stations: Station 1 (Berambang), Station 2 (Siung), and Station 3 (Bangko-Bangko). Data collection involved a 10 x 10 meter transect, where species and diameter at breast height (DBH) data were recorded. Allometric equations were then applied to calculate biomass and carbon reserve values. The results identified four mangrove species: Rhizophora mucronata, R. stylosa, R. apiculata, and Avicennia marina. The average mangrove density at each station fell within the moderate to dense category, with values ranging from 1000 to 4666.66 individuals per hectare. The estimated carbon stocks of the mangrove stands were as follows: Station 1 had 149.33 tons per hectare, Station 2 had 28.38 tons per hectare, and Station 3 had 476.36 tons per hectare. These findings indicate significant differences in estimated carbon stock values across the stations. Overall, the results of this study provide crucial information to support conservation and restoration efforts for mangrove ecosystems in West Lombok, enhancing understanding of the role of mangroves in mitigating climate change.
Carong SR, Anwar A, Ahmed Y, Arbit NIS, Mannan A, Rusmidin, Anwar T, Rimbawan F. 2024. Carbon stock and biomass of Baluno Mangrove Forest ecosystems in West Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 3067-3074. Global warming, fueled by rising CO2 levels, threatens life on earth. Mangrove ecosystems, with their high CO2 absorption capacity, are crucial in climate mitigation efforts. This study aims to identify the attributes of mangrove biomass, quantify carbon stock, and assess the capacity of above-ground biomass (including trees, saplings, and seedlings) and soil to sequester carbon. Carbon stock measurements were conducted in the Baluno Mangrove Forest conservation area which is under the management of the Yayasan Peduli Pengembangan Masyarakat Desa (YPPMD). The sampling strategy employed was stratified proportionate random sampling. The research area is partitioned into multiple strata of mangrove forest vegetation density. The study area consists of 25 plots, each measuring 20x20 (400 m2 soil samples are collected using a soil core to a certain depth, typically up to 30 cm or more. The samples are then analyzed in a laboratory to determine the organic carbon content. Therefore, the total area covered by the plots is 10,000 m2, which is equivalent to 1 hectare. The Baluno Mangroves have a total biomass of 1,558.15 tons/ha. The species with the highest biomass was Sonneratia sp., with a value of 30.81 tons. Conversely, the species having the lowest biomass was Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, with a value of 0.0625 tons. The Baluno Mangrove area has an average carbon stock of 989.04 tons per hectare, with the potential to absorb 3,629.79 tons of CO2 per hectare. In conclusion, Baluno Mangroves store 58,719.57 metric tons of carbon, with Sonneratia sp. as the largest contributor, emphasizing the vital role of Indonesia's mangroves in global carbon sequestration and climate mitigation.
Erniasari I, Hernawan E, Mulyaningrum. 2024. Short Communication: Carbon stock of mangrove forest in Pantai Sederhana, Bekasi District, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 2974-2980. Mangrove forests play an important role in the carbon cycle because this forest can store greater amounts of carbon than other ecosystems including tropical rainforests. Mangrove forests in Bekasi District, West Java, Indonesia have enormous potential to absorb carbon in this industrial area. In this research, we estimate the aboveground carbon (AGC), belowground carbon (BGC), and soil organic carbon (SOC) of mangrove forest in Pantai Sederhana, Muaragembong Subdistrict, Bekasi District. Carbon estimation of AGC and BGC was carried out using the allometric method, while SOC at four depth intervals (0-15, 15-30, 30-50, and 50-100 cm) was estimated using the LOI (Loss of Ignition) method. There were four mangrove species in Pantai Sederhana, namely Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Rhizophora apiculata, and Rhizophora mucronata. The total carbon stock was 329.54 Mg.C.ha-1, which was composed by aboveground carbon (114.51 Mg.C.ha-1), belowground carbon (61.46 Mg.C.ha-1) and soil carbon (153.56 Mg.C.ha-1). The largest carbon pool was contributed from soils with 47% of the total carbon stock. The result of this study can be used as the initial information of the importance of the mangrove ecosystem in Bekasi District.
Mangrove-based carbon trading offers promise but faces significant challenges, including difficulties in accurately estimating biomass and carbon storage due to analytical gaps, market instability, and data collection issues. Lack of regional and global data on carbon storage by biotic communities like phytoplankton, molluscs, and seaweeds further complicates the matter. In addition, mangrove carbon credit projects often result in monoculture plantations that harm biodiversity, displace local communities, and create economic dependency on volatile carbon trading revenues. Land ownership conflicts, especially in regions like the Lower Gangetic Delta (LGD), exacerbate these issues. India’s carbon trading policies, including the Green Credit programme launched in October 2023, focus on green credits and mangrove conservation through afforestation and habitat restoration. Despite its broad scope, the programme gets hindered by issues like measuring non-GHG components (like biodiversity spectrum), standardizing prices, and integrating diverse ecosystem services into a unified national market. Addressing these challenges requires international cooperation, CSR emphasis, voluntary conservation policies, and global carbon standardization. Few major steps to enhance mangrove-based carbon trading in the Indian Sundarbans include standardizing carbon estimation protocols, using drone or satellite data to calibrate ground-level biomass data, and promoting few innovative practices like halophyte farming, seaweed culture, saltmarsh grass propagation, oyster culture, and increasing phytoplankton biomass in shrimp farms. These practices can boost carbon sequestration through nature-based solutions and provide alternative livelihoods for local communities, ensuring the sustainability and effectiveness of mangrove-based carbon trading.
The paper can be downloaded here: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1e6JKz9-0tgyN_cPtLuSMj370JLMzMpeK/view?usp=sharing
Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Desa Bakau Besar dan Bakau Kecil Kabupaten Mempawah Kalimantan Barat pada bulan Maret sampai April 2021. Tujuan dari Penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui jumlah simpanan karbon biomassa atas mangrove di Desa Bakau Besar dan Bakau Kecil. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan di 4 stasiun dengan menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Pengamatan dilakukan dengan jarak 100 m dari bibir pantai dan jarak antar plot 100 m. setiap stasiun dibagi menjadi 2 plot menggunakan plot persegi dengan kriteria pohon, pancang dan semai. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian estimasi simpanan karbon biomassa atas tertinggi berada pada stasiun dua di lokasi Bakau Besar dengan jumlah kandungan karbon biomassa atas sebesar 776,63 Kg/m2 dan yang terkecil berada pada stasiun 3 di lokasi Bakau Kecil dengan jumlah kandungan 276,62 Kg/m2.
Mangrove memiliki peran penting dalam mitigasi perubahan iklim sebagai komponen utama dari ekosistem karbon biru. Desa Riding Panjang terletak di Kecamatan Merawang, memiliki 70 ha habitat mangrove. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi komposisi spesies dan mengukur kerapatan vegetasi, menganalisis biomassa, serta menghitung stok karbon di ekosistem mangrove Desa Riding Panjang, Kabupaten Bangka. Metode pengambilan sampel non-destruktif diterapkan dengan menggunakan plot lingkaran berdiameter 14 m. Data yang dikumpulkan meliputi kerapatan spesies, biomassa di atas dan di bawah permukaan tanah, karbon biomassa, karbon sedimen, dan total stok karbon. Hasil penelitian mengidentifikasi delapan spesies mangrove, yaitu Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Avicennia alba, Lumnitzera littorea, L. racemosa, Ceriops tagal, dan C. decandra. Kerapatan semai tertinggi ditemukan pada R. mucronata di stasiun 4, dengan 563 ind/ha. Untuk kategori pancang, R. mucronata di stasiun 4 memiliki kerapatan tertinggi sebesar 3.163 ind/ha, sementara C. decandra menunjukkan kerapatan tertinggi untuk kategori tiang di stasiun 2 (22 ind/ha), dan S. alba memiliki kerapatan tertinggi untuk kategori pohon, juga sebesar 22 ind/ha. Rata-rata biomassa di Desa Riding Panjang diperkirakan sebesar 115,09 Mg/ha, dengan R. mucronata dan R. apiculata memberikan kontribusi biomassa tertinggi, masing-masing berkisar antara 2,35-839,68 Mg/ha dan 7,38-457,93 Mg/ha. Rata-rata stok karbon di seluruh kawasan mangrove adalah 252,38 MgC/ha, yang terdiri dari 40,63 MgC/ha pada biomassa di atas permukaan tanah, 13,45 MgC/ha pada biomassa di bawah permukaan tanah, dan 198,30 MgC/ha pada karbon sedimen.
Mangrove is a unique ecosystem in terms of climate change mitigation due to its ability to sequester huge amounts of organic carbon. The organic carbon pools in mangroves’ soils harbor a wide range of microbial communities and support diverse algal communities. However, conversions of mangroves to agriculture (particularly rice-based cropping systems) directly or indirectly influence the algal diversity and abundance in mangroves and adjacent rice ecologies. So, to understand the change of structural algal diversities (from phylum to genus level), a study was conducted through Illumina MiSeq metagenomic analysis using V3–V4 region of 16 S rRNA gene approach of soils both, in degraded mangroves and adjacent rice ecology in Sundarban, India. The abundance reads of algal communities were correlated with the nitrogen fractions and physio-chemical properties of soils. The 16 S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that, irrespective of the sites of the degraded mangroves and rice ecologies in estuarine systems in Sundarban, microalgae were dominant over macroalgae. The higher algal diversities and abundance were found in rice with higher Shannon index (3.14) than mangroves (Shannon index: 2.85). Further, among the mangrove sites, the higher algal diversities were found in the locations distant from the sea than in the sites nearer to the sea. Environmental and soil stresses, like high salinity, alkaline pH, tidal intrusion and limited nutrient availability are the key factors for less algal diversity in degraded mangroves. Specifically, among the microalgae, Nostoc and Calothrix were the dominant genus in rice with higher abundance percentage of 13 and 12%, respectively. Whereas, Leptolyngbya was the dominant genera with higher abundance percentage (15%) in degraded mangroves, followed by Spirulina (13%). The relative abundance of Spirulina was more in degraded mangroves due to their adaptability to higher salinity. Although, the algal diversities were more in rice than mangroves, the higher abundance of Spirulina could be a treasure in the mangrove system for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. Therefore, further research on carbon sequestration potential of the dominant algal genus under stress conditions of both mangroves and rice systems need to be conducted to get a better idea on the role of algal communities on climate change mitigation in estuarine systems.
Graphical Abstract
Mangroves can increase their elevation relative to tidal flooding through biogeomorphic feedbacks but can submerge if rates of sea-level rise are too great. There is an urgent need to understand the vulnerability of mangroves to sea-level rise so local communities and resource managers can implement and prioritize actions. The need is especially pressing for small islands, which have been identified as an area of concern by the IPCC. We developed a generalizable modeling framework for tidal wetlands (WARMER-3) that accounts for species interactions and the belowground processes that dictate soil elevation building relative to sea levels. The model was calibrated with extensive field datasets, including accretion rates derived from 29 soil cores, over 300 forest inventory plots, water level, and elevation. The model included five mangrove tree species and was applied across seven regions around the Pacific Island of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, where mangrove forest is a critical ecosystem that supports subsistence living for local communities. We explored mangrove resilience and carbon accumulation under six sea-level rise scenarios. We also conducted an analysis to determine the sea-level rise rate threshold above which mangroves would be lost. The results suggest that Pohnpei mangroves can build their elevations relative to low and moderate rates of sea-level rise to prevent submergence, with limited loss of mangrove area through 2150. Under higher sea-level rise rates, however, forest elevation decreased substantially relative to mean sea level and there was extensive loss of mangrove area by that year. Regarding mangrove community composition, for all sea-level rise scenarios, the model predicted a change to increasing relative abundance of flood tolerant species and decreasing relative abundance of high-elevation species, which started to being realized by 2100. Variation in sediment supply, water levels, and elevation capital led to differential vulnerability around the island. We identified a threshold for Pohnpei mangroves where if local sea-level rise rates exceed 7.8 ± 2.2 mm/year they are projected to eventually submerge and be lost. Our modeling framework is novel by addressing both species interactions and critical belowground processes to better understand potential tidal ecosystem responses to sea-level rise.
The declining mangrove forest cover in the Philippines led to increased attention towards their conservation and restoration, driven by growing awareness of their importance and the ecosystem services they provide. Yet, time-series information on forest structure, growth, and development of naturally occurring and planting efforts is still lacking. The conventional "complexity index" (I c ) rapidly characterizes forest structure using species richness and mean values (of only the top three tallest trees ≥ 10 cm in diameter for height, basal area, and density). However, it does not capture unique mangrove characteristics like canopy diameter and spatiotemporal growth dynamics. Mangroves often have spread-out canopies with varying tree diameters in response to environmental conditions. This study used a modified complexity index (I cm ) that integrates foliage and all tree parameters' mean values to assess mangrove structural complexity. We assessed and compared I c and I cm (at five to seven-month intervals) on selected mangrove stands in the Philippines composed of the natural and planted stands of Bani, Pangasinan; the natural stands of Calapan, Oriental Mindoro; and the natural stands of Las Piñas-Parañaque Critical Habitat and Ecotourism Area (LPPCHEA), Metro Manila. Results showed that LPPCHEA and Calapan have intact stand structural features, while Bani stands are either in their secondary forest growth or disturbed stage. The LPPCHEA had the highest structural complexity regardless of the method used, followed by Calapan, Bani-natural, and Bani-planted. There was high variability across stands and time, but the I cm was 4x higher than the I c and is more sensitive to detecting growth variability between stand types and sampling periods. Overall, the selected Philippine mangrove stand types showed higher structural complexity than those from neighboring countries. This study suggests that mono-species stands are less structurally complex than multi-species stands. Our results imply the need for (1) better assessment of the stability of structural complexity in mature mangroves, (2) better tracking of the structural complexity (in a chronosequence) in restored mangroves, and (3) better detection of the impacts of disturbance (e.g., typhoons) and post-disturbance recovery of structural complexity.
Mangrove ecosystems are some of the most productive on our planet but have declined globally by 30–50%. Many species rely on mangrove habitats; thus, their conversion to aquaculture farms has led to noticeable losses in commodities such as wild fish stocks. This study aimed to assess the influence of aquaculture and restoration projects on the ecosystem’s ability to provide resources. We collected data on mangrove vegetation (i.e., biomass, richness, and abundance), soil nutrients (i.e., organic carbon, aluminium, and nitrogen), crab abundance, and fishing pressure at six sites. We set up 15 plots at each site and collected data between May and July 2023. Via generalised linear mixed models, we found that the abundance and richness of crabs was significantly higher in aquaculture plots than in non-aquaculture plots. Aquaculture plots had higher topsoil aluminium, higher topsoil and subsoil nitrogen, and lower topsoil carbon than non-aquaculture sites. Restored sites had less nitrogen in the topsoil than unmanaged sites. The biomass did not change between aquaculture, restored, and unmanaged plots. We found a negative correlation between crab abundance and richness and mangrove diameter at breast height (DBH), suggesting that the species of crabs present preferred areas with propagules for feeding (e.g., Grapsidae crabs). The content of nitrogen in the subsoil was positively correlated with mangrove richness, diversity, and height, suggesting the importance of nitrogen availability for mangrove growth. The content of aluminium in the subsoil was negatively correlated with the content of organic carbon in both the topsoil and subsoil, suggesting the detrimental effect of aluminium on the carbon cycle. Fishing practices were observed at all sites during the data collection period. Despite the lack of significant impact on most vegetation parameters and the limited differences between managed and unmanaged sites, key variables such as soil aluminium, carbon, and nitrogen contents and crab assemblages exhibited high variability, highlighting the complex interactions within mangrove ecosystems.
Mangroves’ ability to store carbon (C) has long been recognized, but little is known about whether planted mangroves can store C as efficiently as naturally established (i.e., intact) stands and in which time frame. Through Bayesian logistic models compiled from 40 years of data and built from 684 planted mangrove stands worldwide, we found that biomass C stock culminated at 71 to 73% to that of intact stands ~20 years after planting. Furthermore, prioritizing mixed-species planting including Rhizophora spp. would maximize C accumulation within the biomass compared to monospecific planting. Despite a 25% increase in the first 5 years following planting, no notable change was observed in the soil C stocks thereafter, which remains at a constant value of 75% to that of intact soil C stock, suggesting that planting effectively prevents further C losses due to land use change. These results have strong implications for mangrove restoration planning and serve as a baseline for future C buildup assessments.
Ekosistem mangrove sebagai salah satu ekosistem pesisir memiliki peranan penting dalam mengurangi dampak perubahan iklim khususnya dalam penyerapan gas CO2. Hutan mangrove di Desa Mojo yang memiliki luasan terbesar di Kabupaten Pemalang tidak saja mengalami ancaman abrasi pantai, tetapi juga deforestasi untuk lahan tambak. Melihat fungsi ekologis mangrove yang tinggi dalam penanggulangan perubahan iklim, maka perlu dilakukan perhitungan estimasi simpanan karbon di ekosistem tersebut. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode survey untuk menganalisis indeks ekologi dan estimasi serapan karbon pada biomassa dan sedimen mangrove. Indeks Nilai Penting menunjukkan bahwa jenis pohon mangrove Avicennia alba memiliki tingkat kerapatan dan penutupan yang tinggi dibandingkan tiga jenis mangrove lainnya yang ditemukan yaitu Sonneratia caseolaris, Avicennia marina, dan Rhizopora mucronata, Tingginya nilai kerapatan dan penutupan jenis ini menjadikan pohon Avicennia alba sebagai jenis mangrove yang memiliki estimasi kandungan karbon biomassa tertinggi. Estimasi simpanan karbon biomassa mangrove di lokasi penelitian adalah 21,55–144,22 ton C/ha, sedangkanestimasi simpanan karbon pada sedimen mangrove berkisar 98,45–181,06 ton C/ha. Estimasi total simpanan karbon di ekosistem mangrove Desa Mojo Pemalang berkisar 112,43 – 247,98 ton C/ha dengan rata-rata 155,13 ton C/ha.
The present paper is an attempt to review available data on sediment biogeochemistry of the Ao Nam Bor mangrove forest on the east coast of Phuket Island, Thailand. Aspects of sedimentary carbon, sulfur and nitrogen cycling are evaluated and compared in 3 intertidal zones: 1) the low-intertidal, non-vegetated mudflat outside the forest; 2) the mid-intertidal forest zone with dense growth of Rhizophora apiculata; and 3) the high-intertidal sparsely vegetated zone with high abundance of crab burrows. By compiling data on organic carbon and nitrogen input to (e.g. litterfall, benthic primary production) and output from (e.g. crab ingestion, microbial mineralization, plant assimilation) the sediment, preliminary budgets for the 3 intertidal zones at Ao Nam Bor can be established. However, the presented budgets have serious limitations caused by a general lack of data. In those cases where no data are available from Phuket, results are either extrapolated from other mangrove forests, estimated based on assumptions or simply ignored. Furthermore, as most data on benthic carbon and nitrogen cycling used in the budgets are obtained only during the dry season, the carbon budgets most certainly do not represent annual averages, but should rather be considered dry season averages.
Above ground tree biomass was estimated in Bruguiera parviflora, B. sexangula, and Rhizophora apiculata communities of a mangrove forest in Talidendang Besar, East Sumatra, Indonesia. The research was carried out from December 1990 to January 1991, and allometric relation method was used to estimate the above ground biomass of tree species having a diameter of 10 cm and over. The above ground biomass in this forest ranged from 42.94 to 89.68 t d.wt/ha in a B. parviflora community; 75.99 to 279.03 t d.wt/ha in a B. sexangula community; and 40.70 t d.wt/ha in a R. apiculata community.
Mangrove forests are an integral part of tropical coastal ecosystems, particularly in northern Australia. In the Northern Territory, studies have determined the extent and species diversity of these associations but little is known of biomass or productivity. We sampled the above- and below-ground biomass of the four most abundant species, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera exaristata, Ceriops australis and Rhizophora stylosa, developed allometric relationships and examined partitioning. Unlike many other studies, we sampled below-ground biomass, which constituted a substantial proportion (0.29-0.57) of the total dry weight. Our results should be valuable in modelling potential changes in carbon allocation resulting from small- and large-scale ecosystem changes.
The biomass of Rhizophora apiculata Bl. was measured within a 25 m2 sample plot in a mangrove at Phuket Island on the west coast of Thailand. The total biomass above the ground of this 15 years-old stand was estimated to be 159 t dry matter ha−1. The annual increment in the form of trunks, branches and prop roots was estimated to be 20 t ha−1yr−1 during the last year of growth. By means of a simple marking technique, leaf turn-over rate was found to be 0.7 yr−1 and leaf production was 6.7 t ha−1yr−1. Buds, flowers and propagules contributed very little to annual production. Total net production was estimated to be 27 t dry matter ha−1yr−1 or 6.9 g ash free dry matter m−2day−1.The biomass of prop roots, trunks, branches and leaves as well as leaf areas were determined for 1 m horizontal levels. Prop roots formed 39% of total biomass above the ground.
Diurnal and seasonal variations in carbon dioxide and methane fluxes between Sundarban biosphere and atmosphere were measured using micrometeorological method during 1998–2000. Study of the diurnal variation of micrometeorological conditions in the atmosphere was found to be necessary to determine the duration of neutral stability when flux estimation was reliable. Neutral stability of the atmosphere occurred in the limited micrometeorological conditions, when friction velocity ranged between 0.360 and View the MathML source. The value of drag coefficient (1.62–20.6)×103 obtained at variable wind speed could be deemed specific for this particular surface. 58.2% drop of carbon dioxide and 63.4% drop of methane in the atmosphere at View the MathML source height were observed during day time, between dawn and early evening. Diurnal variations in methane and carbon dioxide mixing ratios showed a positive correlation with Richardson's number (Ri). This environment acted as a net source for carbon dioxide and methane. The mixing ratios of methane were found to vary between 1.42 and View the MathML source, and that of carbon dioxide, between 324.3 and View the MathML source during the study period. The biosphere–atmosphere flux of carbon dioxide ranged between −3.29 and View the MathML source, and that of methane, between −4.53 and View the MathML source. The overall annual estimate of carbon dioxide and methane fluxes from this ecosystem to atmosphere were estimated to be View the MathML source and View the MathML source, respectively. Considerable variations in mixing ratios of carbon dioxide and methane at the NE coast of Bay of Bengal were observed due to the seasonal variations of their fluxes from the biosphere to the atmosphere. The composition was inferred by fitting model prediction to measurements
Total above-ground production isusually estimated by a combination of allometry andlitter collection. However, in coastal sites that aretidally influenced, or in juvenile or dwarf forestswhere the crown bases of dominant individuals maybegin within a few decimeters of ground level,estimates of community leaf production that depend onlitter collection may not be feasible. Thus, in thispaper, we present 1) allometric equations that allowaccurate estimation of total above-ground biomass ofthree mangrove species (Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, and Avicennia germinans)in very small to medium size classes, and 2) analternative method of estimating total above-groundproduction that overcomes the limitations of littercollection. The method we employ to estimate mangroveproductivity is an adaptation for woody plantcommunities of a procedure introduced by Dai andWeigert (1996) for grasslands. It incorporates adetailed census of all individuals within fixedsampling plots, along with periodic observations ofmarked leaf cohorts. The method allows the comparisonof biomass allocation patterns among forests thatdiffer widely in physiognomy and physiographicsetting.The method was applied to a South Florida fringemangrove forest in the early stages of recovery fromHurricane Andrew (August 1992), and an adjacent dwarfforest which was not substantially damaged by thestorm. Total above-ground production in the fringeforest from July 1996 through June 1997 was about 3times higher than dwarf forest production,26.1 Mgha-1yr-1 vs.8.1 Mgha-1yr-1, respectively. Furthermore, when compared to the dwarf forest, fringeproduction rates were approximately eight, six, six,and two times as high as dwarf forest rates forproproots, branches, stems, and leaves, respectively. Calculations of leaf production were based on mean redmangrove leaf longevities that ranged from about 189days to 281 days, depending on cohort and site.Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated thatleaf life spans did not differ significantly betweendwarf and fringe forests, but did differ among leafcohorts.Based on reported values for similar mangrove forests,the method provided reasonable estimates ofabove-ground biomass and production, while furnishingrelevant auxiliary information on spatial and temporalvariation in leaf demographic patterns. Furthermore,the partitioning of annual production between woodytissues and leaves followed the reported trend in mostforest ecosystems.
The objective of this study was to quantify spatial patterns in above- and belowground biomass, primary productivity, and growth efficiency along a tidal gradient in a 4700-ha mangrove forest in the Dominican Republic. We tested the hypothesis that spatial patterns of forest structure and growth following 50 years of development were associated with variations in the soil environment across the tidal gradient. Twenty-three plots were monitored from 1994 to 1998. Aboveground biomass and biomass accumulation were estimated by applying allometric regression equations derived from dimension analysis of trees harvested at our study site. Soil porewater salinity ranged from 5 to 38 g·kg-1 across the tidal gradient, and most measurements of forest biomass and productivity were inversely related to salinity. Mean standing biomass (233 ± 16.0 Mg·ha-1; range, 123.5-383.5), biomass increment (9.7 ± 1.0 Mg·ha-1 y-1; range, 3.7-18.1), annual litterfall rates (11.4 Mg·ha-1 yr-1; range, 10.2-12.8), leaf area index (LAI) (4.4 m2·m-2; range, 2.9-5.6), aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) (19.7 Mg·ha-1 y-1; range, 15.6-25.0), and growth efficiency (1.6 ± 0.2 kg·ha -1 y-1; range, 1.0-3.6) all showed an inverse linear relationship with salinity. Fine-root biomass (≤ 2 mm) (9.7 ± 1.2 Mg·ha-1; range, 2.7-13.8) showed a weak tendency to increase with salinity, and the ratio of root to aboveground biomass increased strongly with salinity. Our results suggest that physiological stresses associated with salinity, or with some combination of salinity and other covarying soil factors, control forest structure and growth along the tidal gradient. The higher allocation of carbon to belowground resources in more saline sites apparently contributed to reductions in ANPP along the tidal gradient.
The article presents new results on the structure and the above-ground biomass of the various population types of mangroves
in French Guiana. Nine mangrove stands were studied, each composed of three to ten adjoining plots with areas that varied
depending on the density of the populations. Structural parameters and indices were calculated. Individuals representative
of the three groups of taxa present were felled:Avicennia germinans (L) Stearn, Rhizophora spp., and Laguncularia racemosa (L) Gaertn. The trunks, branches and leaves were sorted and weighed separately. The biomass was obtained by determining the
allometric relationships, the general equation selected being of the type y = a
o
x
a1, where the diameter (x) is the predictive variable. The total above-ground biomass varied from 31 t ha−1 for the pioneer stages to 315 t ha−1 for mature coastal mangroves, but with large variations depending on the structural characteristics at each site. The results
place the Guianese mangroves among those with high biomass, although lower than those reported for Asia. Based on the relationships
between structural parameters and standing biomass, in particular with the use of the “self-thinning rule”, population dynamics
models are proposed.
Because the world's forests play a major role in regulating nutrient and carbon cycles, there is much interest in estimating
their biomass. Estimates of aboveground biomass based on well-established methods are relatively abundant; estimates of root
biomass based on standard methods are much less common. The goal of this work was to determine if a reliable method to estimate
root biomass density for forests could be developed based on existing data from the literature. The forestry literature containing
root biomass measurements was reviewed and summarized and relationships between both root biomass density (Mg ha−1) and root:shoot ratios (R/S) as dependent variables and various edaphic and climatic independent variables, singly and in
combination, were statistically tested. None of the tested independent variables of aboveground biomass density, latitude,
temperature, precipitation, temperature:precipitation ratios, tree type, soil texture, and age had important explanatory value
for R/S. However, linear regression analysis showed that aboveground biomass density, age, and latitudinal category were the
most important predictors of root biomass density, and together explained 84% of the variation. A comparison of root biomass
density estimates based on our equations with those based on use of generalized R/S ratios for forests in the United States
indicated that our method tended to produce estimates that were about 20% higher.
Mathematical relations that use easily measured variables to predict difficult-to-measure variables are important to resource
managers. In this paper we develop allometric relations to predict total aboveground biomass and individual components of
biomass (e.g., leaves, stems, branches) for three species of mangroves for Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. The Greater
Everglades Ecosystem is currently the subject of a 7.8-billion-dollar restoration program sponsored by federal, state, and
local agencies. Biomass and production of mangroves are being used as a measure of restoration success. A technique for rapid
determination of biomass over large areas is required. We felled 32 mangrove trees and separated each plant into leaves, stems,
branches, and for Rhizophora mangle L., prop roots. Wet weights were measured in the field and subsamples returned to the laboratory for determination of wet-to-dry
weight conversion factors. The diameter at breast height (DBH) and stem height were also measured. Allometric equations were
developed for each species for total biomass and components of biomass. We compared our equations with those from the same,
or similar, species from elsewhere in the world. Our equations explained ≥93% of the variance in total dry weight using DBH.
DBH is a better predictor of dry weight than is stem height and DBH is much easier to measure. Furthermore, our results indicate
that there are biogeographic differences in allometric relations between regions. For a given DBH, stems of all three species
have less mass in Florida than stems from elsewhere in the world.
Growth of selected Rhizophora apiculata (Rhizophoraceae) trees was monitored from 1920 through 1981 in a 0.16 ha plot of protected forest in the Matang Mangroves. Starting in 1950, the sample was increased to include monitoring the growth of all the trees more than 10 cm dbh (diameter at 1.3 m or above prop roots). All seedlings were censused by species and removed in 1920 and recensused in 1926, 1927, and 1981. Total above-ground dry weight (biomass) of the forest was estimated using stand tables and a regression equation of biomass on dbh calculated for destructively sampled R. apiculata trees from elsewhere in the Matang Mangroves. Net primary productivity (1950–1981) was calculated from estimated biomass increments and published litter-fall rates.Rhizophora apiculata has maintained its dominance of the plot since 1920 but Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Rhizophoraceae) and several other more shade-tolerant species have steadily increased in abundance. Between the 1920's and 1981, R. apiculata declined in relative abundance in the seedling layer while B. parviflora and B. cylindrica increased.Mean mortality rate (1950–1981) for trees more than 10 cm dbh was 3.0% per year with a range of 1.3–5.4% per year. When trees fell over and hit other trees, the damaged trees usually died within 10 years. A major cause of mortality appeared to be sapwood-eating termites.Net primary productivity averaged 17.7 t/ha/year over the 1950–1981 observation period. Biomass ranged from 270 to 460 t/ha with a mean of 409 t/ha. It is suggested that Rhizophora spp. trees greater than 50 cm dbh and mangrove forests with total above-ground biomass exceeding 300 t/ha would develop in other areas outside of the region affected by hurricanes if the forest was protected from human disturbance.
Rates of organic carbon accumulation, mineralization and burial in sediments were examined during dry and wet seasons in four mangrove forests of a shallow-water embayment (Ao Sawi) in southern Thailand. Mass sediment accumulation (MAR), estimated from 210Pb and 137Cs profiles, was rapid at all forests, ranging from 2.9 to 7.6 kg m−2 yr−1; mixed layer sediment thicknesses ranged from 16 to 38 cm. Total inputs of organic carbon ranged from 26.4 to 40.9 mol C m−2 yr−1 and burial rates ranged from 15.3 to 23.4 mol C m−2 yr−1. Total rates of carbon mineralization, estimated from direct measurements of CO2 gas flux from exposed sediments, from DIC flux from submerged sediments, and from core incubations for ΣCO2, ranged from 7.0 to 16.4 mol C m−2 yr−1 with few consistent seasonal differences among the four forests. Rates of O2 gas flux into exposed sediments ranged from 9.4 to 91.4 mmol O2 m−2 d−1 and were significantly greater than rates of dissolved O2 flux into submerged sediments (range: 21.9–38.3 mmol O2 m−2 d−1). Oxic respiration was the largest decomposition pathway, with sulfate reduction (range: 0.6–16.9 mmol S m−2 d−1) the next most important pathway. Other metabolic pathways appeared to be minor, and methane was not detected in the porewater or in the gas flux chambers. The discrepancy between rates of O2 and CO2 fluxes implies involvement in geochemical processes (e.g. sulfide oxidation, authigenic mineral formation). Sediment budgets indicate that organic carbon preservation was greatest (71% burial efficiency) in the oldest forest with equivalent burial efficiency (57–59%) in the younger forests. Mineralization efficiency ranged from 27–40% with the lowest efficiency at the oldest forest. These tropical mangrove forests are storage sites for sediment and, on average, retain approximately 60% of total input of organic carbon to the sediment.
To test the applicability of the pipe model theory to actual tree form, the frequency distribution of the thickness of woody organs in a tree was examined in 10 different species. The frequency f(D) of a certain diameter class D proved to have a definite pattern of distribution in the root, branch and trunk respectively, with only a little difference between the species. The obtained f(D)〜D curves showed that a root system could well be approximated by the assemblage of many pipes of unit thickness, a trunk by a few cones piled up one upon another, and a branch system by a geometric model intermediate between the two. The results were well consistent with the pipe model theory of tree form. As an application of the theory in forest ecology, a new method for estimating the amounts of leaves or branches of trees and stands was also proposed, based on the direct proportionality found between those amounts and the cross-sectional area of the trunk at the height just below the lowest living branch.
OOHATA Sei-ichi (Kyoto Univ. For. Agr., Kyoto Univ., Kyoto) & SHINOZAKI Kichiro (Sci. Educ. Inst. Sakai City, Sakai). 1979. A statical model of plant form-Further analysis of the Pipe Model Theory. Jap. J. Ecol., 29 : 323-335. In the present study, the structure of stems in plant communities was analyzed as an extension of the Pipe Model Theory proposed by SHINOZAKI et al. (1964). A close correlation was found between the amount of non-photosynthetic tissue [C (z)] at the stratum z and the cumulative amount of plant weight [T (z)] from the top to that stratum. The relation between T (z) and C (z) is always linear, at least in the leafless range (trunk) in plant communities. A characteristic constant of this linear relation is herein referred to as the Specific Stress Length (SSL). This linear relation implies that the amount of nonphotosynthetic tissue increases exponentially downward. This trunk form may be physically interpreted in terms of a compressive stress distribution that is constant regardless of elevation. Statically, this form may be ideally suited for the purpose of supporting the plant body. Among the plant communities investigated, the values of SSL were always proportional to the community height. This statical model of woody tissue may be construed as a consequence of the pattern of accumulation of disused pipes that was proposed by SHINOZAKI et al. (1964).
The consumption of mangrove leaves by herbivores before leaf fall was studied. Up to 20 percent of the leaf blade enters the food web in this manner. The influence of several environmental factors on the amount of foliage eaten before leaf fall was investigated. The quantity of leaf material eaten could not be correlated with any of the following parameters: species diversity (as species number), the distance of the plant from the upper tidal limit, plant density, season, energy value of the leaves, the presence of "protective" ants, the chloride content of leaves, or, in contrast to a previous report, pollution (high nitrogen levels). Recently leaved Xylocarpus were the only plants with no leaf damage. In all cases damage from leaf to leaf was extremely variable and obscured between-plant and, in most instances, between-species differences.
Presents some of the results of a long-term study near Kuala Sepetang, Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve, Malaysia (started in the mid-1970s) on the carbon and nutrient budget of a mangrove ecosystem. The tree density of the 20 m × 40 m plot in the 20-yr-old stand was equivalent to 2425 stems ha⁻¹ (1975 live trees ha⁻¹). Size (girth at breast height) of Rhizophora apiculata trees ranged from 9-75.5 cm (mean 39 cm). The smallest live tree weighed 10 kg and the biggest weighed 510 kg with a mean biomass of 122 kg. About 70% of the trees were <100 kg but 30% of the bigger trees contributed to slightly more than half of the total biomass of the plot. The canopy had an average height of 21 m. The total standing biomass was 114 t C ha⁻¹; 74% of the biomass was in the trunk, 15% in the roots (10% in stilts and 5% below-ground) and 10.6% in the canopy (only 2.6% in leaves). Using allometry, net productivity was estimated at 17±5 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. If greater accuracy (than ±30%) is needed, direct measurements of root turnover and leaching from roots would be needed. Using the gas exchange method and using the mean value for a whole day's net photosynthesis measurements (averaged at 6 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), 1.5 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for leaf respiration, a leaf area index of 4, and assuming respiration of the non-leaf tissues to be the same as for leaves, we estimated net productivty to be 11.35 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, almost at the lower limit of the allometric estimate. -from Authors
Differences in biogeochemical characteristics between three Rhizophorastylosa and three Avicenniamarina forests were examined in different coastal settings of arid Western Australia. Decomposition rates of sediment organic matter correlated with temperature, but did not differ significantly between Rhizophora (range: 46.5–52.9 mmol C m−2 per day) and Avicennia (range: 28.5–48.3 mmol C m−2 per day) forests. There were, however, clear differences in the dominance of specific carbon oxidation pathways between forest types. Rates of sulfate reduction were significantly greater in the Rhizophora (range: 12.9–28.2 mmol S m−2 per day) than in the Avicennia (range: 2.1–8.5 mmol S m−2 per day) forests, accounting for 54–100 and 20–55% of total mineralization rates in both forest types, respectively. Sulfate reduction rates correlated significantly with live root biomass, above-ground biomass and forest net primary production. Rates of oxic respiration were, on average, greater in the Avicennia forests (range: 12.7–37.4 mmol m−2 per day). Oxic respiration appeared to be a minor decomposition pathway in two of the three Rhizophora forests (range: 0.0–23.1 mmol m−2 per day). It was estimated that, on average, 50% (Avicennia) to 87% (Rhizophora) of total oxygen uptake was consumed in oxidation of reduced metabolites. Methanogenesis was not detected in any of the forests, and Mn and Fe reduction were minor carbon oxidation pathways. Rates of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus regeneration across the sediment–water interface were slow when measurable. The percentage ratios of total sediment respiration to forest net primary production (TCOX/NPP) were low, ranging among forests between 3 and 7%. Although there may be some carbon loss via tidal export, the low TCOX/NPP ratios suggest slow rates of organic matter decomposition in relation to tree productivity. A large, slowly decomposing, pool of wood and other plant detritus may be an adaptive response, as in other tropical forests, to enhance ecosystem stability and conserve essential nutrients.
Inventory data on tree weights of 104 individual trees representing 10 mangrove species were collected from mangrove forests in South-East Asia to establish common allometric equations for the trunk, leaf, above-ground and root weight. We used the measurable tree dimensions, such as dbh (trunk diameter at breast height), DR0.3 (trunk diameter at 30 cm above the highest prop root of Rhizophora species), DB (trunk diameter at lowest living branch), and H (tree height) for the independent variable of equations. Among the mangrove species studied, the trunk shape was statistically identical regardless of site and species. However, of each species, when DB2 or dbh2 or DR0.32 was selected as the independent variable. For the root weight, the common equation was derived from the allometric relationship between root weight and above-ground weight, since these two partial weights significantly correlated with each other. Based on these physical and biological parameters, we have proposed four common allometric equations for estimating the mangrove tree weight of trunk, leaf, above-ground part and root.
Allometric relationships are described for estimating leaf biomass, branch biomass, stem biomass and total above-ground biomass from measurements of stem diameter (DBH) in the mangrove species Rhizophora apiculata, R. stylosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal var. australis and Xylocarpus granatum. A linear relationship was found when the biomass of each above-ground component was plotted against DBH on a log-log scale. The two Rhizophora species were found to have the greatest stem and total above-ground biomass for a given DBH, followed by B. parviflora, B. gymnorrhiza, C. tagal var. australis, and X. granatum, the last having a significantly lower biomass for a given DBH than the other five species. However, there was much less variation in stem volume for a given DBH amongst the six species, owing to differences in the specific gravity of their stems.
A quantitative analysis was done for the root system of Xylocarpus granatum with reference to the Pipe model theory of tree form proposed by Shinozaki et al. (1964a, b). For this objective, six root systems of X. granatum were excavated using a water-pump, and the roots were weighed for respective diameter categories. A significant allometric relationship between the squared stem-base diameter and the individual root weight was seen. The coefficient of this relationship was statistically regarded to be 1.0, meaning that the individual root weight is proportional to the squared value of stem-base diameter. We also analyzed the relationship between diameter and number of roots for the six sample trees. The number of roots with a given diameter and length was calculated from the weight and the specific gravity of roots. Significant linear relationships were recognized in this relationship for the six sample trees. For all sample trees, the coefficients of relationships were statistically regarded to be - 2.0. From these analyses based on population and individual level, we conclude that the root system of X. granatum obeys the pipe model. Application of this model is helpful in the estimation of root biomass, since individual root weight can be estimated from a proportional constant and the stem-base diameter of a mangrove tree.
Biomass and (leaf) litter production of stands of Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal were assessed in an East African mangrove forest. Inundation frequency of the R. mucronata stand was twice a day (on average 575 min day(-1)), whereas the C. tagal stand was inundated only during spring tides (on average 116 min day(-1)). The highest above-ground biomass (24.9 +/- 4.0 kg dry weight m(-2)) was present in the R. mucronata stand, in which leaf litter production was 2.51 +/- 1.15 g DW m(-2) day(-1). Above-ground biomass and leaf litterfall in the C. tagal stand were 4.01 +/- 0.34 kg DW m(-2) and 1.05 +/- 0.49 g DW m(-2) day(-1), respectively. There was a distinct seasonal pattern in litterfall in both stands, with lower litterfall values in the wet season. Chloride concentrations were relatively high in senescent leaves, compared with those in green leaves. The decreased litterfall during the wet periods may be related to a reduced accumulation of chloride in the leaves. The difference in inundation frequency between the R. mucronata and C. tagal stands is expected to cause a more substantial tidal export of fallen leaves from the R. mucronata stand. As nitrogen resorption before defoliation was similar for C. tagal (50.9%) and R. mucronata (50.1%), tidal flushing may cause larger nitrogen losses from the R. mucronata stand. [KEYWORDS: Australia; coast; crabs; turnover; ecology; growth; fish]
Above- and below-ground biomass of A. marina were estimated on three plots with different vegetation
characteristics in a subtropical mangrove woodland at Boggy Creek near Brisbane. Total photosynthetic
and non-photosynthetic above-ground biomasses of mangroves in the plots were 16.2, 34.1 and 11.0 kg m-2,
below-ground plus pneumatophore biomasses were 10.9, 12.1 and 12.6 kg m-2. Although the study site
is in an industrialized, moderately polluted estuary, the biomass of Avicennia here is similar to that of
Avicennia communities elsewhere.
This allometric data set gives total biomass in kg (logtotalbiomass=2.523logGBH−1.943); total above-ground biomass (logabove-groundbiomass=2.420logGBH−1.832); total below-ground biomass (logbelow-groundbiomass=2.611logGBH−3.454) as well as stilts (logstiltbiomass=2.546logGBH−2.945); trunk (logtrunkbiomass=2.477logGBH−2.050) and leaf biomass (logleafbiomass=0.133logGBH−0.728), from girth at breast height (GBH, in cm) of the mangrove Rhizophora apiculata Blume. A comparison is made with three other previous studies. The below-ground data set is unique: there is only one other study on root biomass but the stilts were not separated from the below-ground roots. This is the second reported data set for total biomass and the two allometric regression equations are almost identical. Based on the few direct comparisons available, it is suggested that allometric equations for R. apiculata may not be very site specific but further studies would be needed to confirm this. Partitioning of biomass is very variable for the smaller trees (GBH
Benthic mineralization rates and pathways were measured in two extensive shrimp ponds of the Mekong delta, Vietnam. Sediments of both ponds were unconsolidated, oxic to suboxic silt-clays of neutral pH (6.8–7.3). Free sulfides and methane were not detected in the porewater, which was dominated by NH4+ (up to 400 μM); other interstitial solutes were very variable among replicate cores, ponds, and sediment depths. Particulate C and N concentrations ranged from 2–8% and 0.15–0.36% by sediment dry weight (DW) with few depth differences between ponds. Pyrite was abundant (0.3–5.6% of sediment DW) in both ponds. Total carbon oxidation rates were not significantly different between the pond located separate from mangroves (separate pond) and the pond located within a mangrove forest (mixed pond). Fluxes of O2 and CO2 (=total carbon oxidation, TCOX) were highly variable, with slow rates of CO2 release (range: 7.7–30.5 mmol m−2 day−1) but higher rates of O2 consumption (range: 9.8–135.9 mmol m−2 day−1), especially in the separate pond. A budget of the contribution of the various diagenetic pathways to total carbon oxidation indicates that aerobic respiration accounted for 41–60% of TCOX, with active manganese and iron reduction in the mixed and separate ponds, respectively. No denitrification or methane flux was detected from sediments of either pond. Rates of sulfate reduction were slow (range: 0.94–2.73 mmol S m−2 day−1) and highly variable, accounting for 13–26% of TCOX. Rates of solute flux across the sediment–water interface were dominated by DOC, NO2−+NO3−, and Mn. There was no measurable NH4+ flux. Most light–dark bottle O2 fluxes indicated no net benthic primary productivity. The slow rates of benthic decomposition and the dominance of oxic and suboxic pathways reflect the slow rates of organic matter input, and phytoplankton and shrimp production in these extensive ponds.
This review is intended to introduce an outline of the results of community metabolism studies on various forest ecosystems of the Western Pacific area made by Japanese investigators in these past ten years. In 1955,SATOO opened this line of research by publishing his first report(65)on the productivity of artificial plantations in this country. A few years later, in 1957 and 1958,four groups of ecologists and forest scientists including ourselves began almost simultaneously to follow him, and the fields of study were expanded to include various types of natural and artificial vegetation ranging from subarctic conifer forests of Hokkaido to the tropical jungle of Southeast Asia. Since that time, more than one hundred stands belonging to some forty different forest types have been investigated, of course mostly within Japan Proper, but also in the Ryukyus(40), Thailand(21,22,24,42,44-47,93,100)and Cambodia(23). Steady progress has been made in the methodology for analysing the metabolism of forest community. These studies were, therefore, not always based on one and the same method, making it difficult to compare the results obtained by different authors. Thus the contents of this review are more or less tentative ; yet we hope, this may well be a useful starting point for more advanced studies to be made under the framework of the International Biological Programme.
A procedure is described for obtaining allometric relationships between stem
diameter and above-ground biomass for multi-stemmed trees of the mangroves
Rhizophora stylosa and
Avicennia marina. The procedure treats each stem as
discrete tree that shares a proportion of the butt and other elements common
to all stems. Linear log–log relationships were obtained between stem
diameter and the dry weights of each above-ground component. Allometric
relationships between stem diameter and total above-ground biomass were
similar to those for single-stemmed trees in north-eastern Australia, but
multi-stemmed trees on the west coast had much greater proportion of their
biomass in the form of prop roots than single-stemmed trees of comparable stem
diameter on the north-eastern coast. This is attributed to the arid
environment on the north-western coast of Australia.
In a mangrove forest in southern Thailand, the root biomass was estimated for the Sonneratia zone, the Sonneratia-Bruguiera ecotone, the Bruguiera zone and the Rhizophora zone. A 0.2 m (width) × 15.5 m (length) × 1.0 m (depth) trench was dug between two trees of Rhizophora apiculata and the roots in the trench harvested, rinsed, sorted by diameter and weighed. The dry weight of roots collected from the trench was 135.6 kg, equivalent to a total root biomass of 437.5 t ha ⁻¹ including 220.5 t ha ⁻¹ of fine roots.
The root density distribution of a single tree was assumed to be predictable exponentially. Two variables of the equation were determined by iteration using the data from a trench excavation and tree distribution study. This equation was applied to 1.3 ha and the root biomass distribution was analysed. The root biomass in each of the above four zones was estimated at 171.8, 84.8, 242.6 and 509.5 t ha ⁻¹ , respectively. The proportion of fine roots (<2 mm) ranged from 46.4% to 66.4%.