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Toward a Model of the Effective Transfer of Scientific Knowledge from Academicians to Practitioners: Qualitative Evidence from the Commercialization of University Technologies

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Abstract

A new organizational entity has emerged at research universities: the technology transfer office (TTO). TTOs were established to facilitate commercial knowledge transfers from universities to practitioners or university/industry technology transfer (UITT). Despite the potential importance of UITT in fostering technological diffusion and as a source of revenue to the university, there has been little systematic analysis of the role of organizational practices in this process. Thus, we rely on an inductive, qualitative approach to identify the key organizational issues in promoting successful knowledge transfers. Based on 55 structured interviews of 98 UITT stakeholders associated with five US research universities, we conclude that there are numerous impediments to effectiveness in UITT: cultural and informational barriers among the three key stakeholder types (university administrators, academics, and firms/entrepreneurs), TTO staffing and compensation practices, and inadequate rewards for faculty involvement in UITT. Two somewhat surprising results are that many faculty members have decided to circumvent the formal UITT process and that involvement in UITT may actually increase the quantity and quality of basic research.

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... Previous research has contributed significantly to our understanding of the economic impact and potential advantages associated with university technology transfer. Studies conducted by Breznitz (2014) and Siegel et al. (2007) have emphasized the critical role of Technology Transfer Offices in bolstering regional economic growth through effective technology transfer mechanisms. These studies have shed light on how American universities can serve as engines of innovation, driving economic development by translating academic research into tangible products and services. ...
... Research question 1 (RQ 1) examines the organisational design of Technology Transfer Offices typically used in universities in the USA, focusing on staffing and resource allocation. University Technology Transfer Offices in US universities typically comprise the business key roles such as directors or executive directors, associate directors or managers, licensing officers, legal and patent professionals, marketing and business development teams, and administrative and support staff (Siegel et al., 2007;AUTM, 2023). This organizational setup is essential for effectively bridging the gap between academic research and commercial markets. ...
... The allocation of resources, including staffing, budget, and infrastructure, must be strategically planned to align with the office's goals and priorities. According to studies by Siegel et al. (2007) and Brantnell and Baraldi (2022), TTOs that allocate resources towards building strong industry partnerships and investing in staff training tend to achieve better outcomes in terms of licensing revenues and startup formations. Siegel et al., 2007 andBrantnell &Baraldi, 2022) The pie chart in Figure 1, based on data from AUTM Licensing Activity Surveys (AUTM, 2022; 2023), highlights the resource allocation in Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs). ...
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This study explores the organisational design and strategic approaches employed by Technology Transfer Offices in U.S. higher education institutions, focusing on their engagement with industry partners. By analysing data from sources such as the Association of University Technology Managers Licensing Activity Surveys, the research provides a comprehensive overview of how Technology Transfer Offices facilitate the commercialisation of university-based innovations. The study identifies key functional areas within Technology Transfer Offices, including management, licensing, legal, marketing, and administrative support, and evaluates their roles in the technology transfer process. The scientific novelty of this research lies in its detailed examination of the specific strategies used by Technology Transfer Offices to engage industry partners, such as customised licensing agreements, collaborative research ventures, industry-sponsored research programs, and robust networking and outreach activities. The study assesses the strengths and weaknesses of these practices, providing new insights into how these strategies bridge the gap between U. S. university academic research and market needs. Findings indicate that customised licensing agreements, accounting for 35% of approaches, are a primary strategy. Tailoring licensing terms to meet industry partners’ needs enhances the feasibility and appeal of university technologies. Collaborative research ventures, used in about 30% of cases, foster joint projects between university scientists and industry experts, accelerating technology development and commercialisation. Industry-sponsored research programmes, preferred by universities in the USA in 20% of cases, align university research objectives with market demands, ensuring a direct path to commercialization. Networking and outreach activities, utilised in 15% of cases, are crucial for showcasing university innovations and building industry relationships. The study highlights the importance of effective resource allocation withinTechnology Transfer Offices, with significant investments in licensing (35%) and legal/patent activities (30%). However, the modest allocation to marketing (20%) suggests a potential area for improvement to enhance Technology Transfer Offices’ effectiveness.
... The research will investigate potential best practices from other developing countries that can be adapted to the Ugandan context. The findings will provide evidence-based recommendations for how IP policies, support systems, and organizational structures at Makerere and Kyambogo can be enhanced to create a culture of innovation (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). This has the potential to boost IP activity, technology transfer, and commercialization of academic research for wider economic and social benefits in Uganda. ...
... Krattiger et al., propose IP management models suited for universities in developing countries, with variations in centralization, income distribution, and roles of technology transfer offices. Siegel et al., (2004) examine IP approaches across US universities, highlighting the importance of customized strategies based on institutional priorities. Recommended best practices include streamlining procedures, incentives for disclosing inventions, and supporting academic entrepreneurs (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). ...
... Siegel et al., (2004) examine IP approaches across US universities, highlighting the importance of customized strategies based on institutional priorities. Recommended best practices include streamlining procedures, incentives for disclosing inventions, and supporting academic entrepreneurs (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). ...
Article
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Intellectual property (IP) protection is critical for promoting innovation in academic institutions. However, IP awareness and utilization remains low at Uganda's Makerere and Kyambogo Universities despite their strong research and innovation potential. This study assessed the level of IP utilization as a tool for fostering creativity and innovation at these universities. The research employed a quantitative approach, collecting data through surveys of students, staff and alumni. Findings revealed high levels of innovation participation, but very limited IP registration across patents, trademarks, copyrights and industrial designs. Key barriers included lack of knowledge about registration procedures and high associated costs. While general awareness of IP rights was moderately high, specific understanding of application processes was lacking. To address these challenges, the study recommends regular IP awareness campaigns, implementing online registration systems, increasing IP expertise, and providing financial incentives. Integrating IP education in university curricula, establishing technology transfer support, and developing customized IP policies are also proposed. Continuous monitoring of IP performance metrics can help strengthen management practices. Overall, the research highlights the need for concerted efforts to build IP capacity and promote commercialization of academic innovations in Makerere and Kyambogo Universities. Leveraging IP more effectively can contribute to Uganda's transition into a knowledge-based economy driven by science, technology and innovation.
... The first KTOs were established in universities in the United States (Holgersson & Aaboen, 2019;Siegel et al., 2004) and in Belgium's Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Geuna & Muscio, 2009) in the 1970s. Since then, these infrastructures have appeared in many other countries such as Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and more recently Eastern Europe (Kochenkova et al., 2016). ...
... Instead, the division of labour within KTOs positively impacts the formation of start-ups. Furthermore, Siegel et al. (2004) found that KTO managers with previous business experience generally have superior market awareness, deeper understanding of technologies and their commercial potential and more proactivity when conducting negotiations. In Italy, Micozzi et al. (2021) evaluated the impact of a national policy that aimed to increase the number of KTO employees to promote technology transfer and support and protect firms' IPR. ...
... However, university administrative staff have additional goals related to the effectiveness of university processes and legitimate spending. In contrast, non-academic actors, particularly managers and entrepreneurs, must navigate rapid changes in turbulent environments and usually find the university's aversion to risk taking and lack of 'deal-making' mind-set frustrating (Siegel et al., 2004). This has been portrayed as an 'identity crisis of the university' (Rothaermel et al., 2007, p. 741), indicating that cultural barriers between scholars and stakeholders of the ecosystem can potentially hinder knowledge transfer . ...
Article
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National and regional governments have promoted the professionalisation of knowledge transfer by establishing specialised structures: Knowledge Transfer Offices (KTOs). Although previous research has examined the features and performance of KTOs extensively, there is limited evidence regarding their role and associated evolution in managing new academic, economic, social and environmental challenges that extend the scope and mission of both universities and of their KTOs. This exploratory study investigates the challenges encountered and the good practices of higher education institutions (HEIs) to improve knowledge transfer and innovation, making a threefold contribution. First, the study proposes a conceptual framework for improving KTO services based on the four intertwined dimensions of people, culture, governance and collaboration. Second, a multi-country analysis is conducted on the KTOs of nine European HEIs that participated in a project financed by the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) Higher Education Institutions (HEI) Initiative. Third, drawing on the results obtained from a questionnaire and a set of focus groups, the study constructs a proposed roadmap for implementing or improving KTOs. The findings demonstrate that KTOs should focus on up-skilling and reskilling staff (people) and implement effective governance and coordination mechanisms under the supervision of and in synergy with university governing bodies while continuously monitoring, adapting and improving organisational structure, processes and initiatives (governance). Furthermore, an entrepreneurial mind-set should be promoted among academic and non-academic staff and students (culture). Constructing or strengthening internal and external collaborations with the key stakeholders of the ecosystem (collaboration) is also crucial.
... In the first category, scholars used industrial funding (Gulbrandsen and Smeby, 2005) and the time dedicated to entrepreneurial activities, for example, outside consulting or freelance work (Lee and Rhoads, 2004). In the second category, scholars used commercial outputs like patents (Baldini et al., 2006a;Meyer et al., 2003;Carayol and Matt, 2004;Meyer et al., 2005;Powers, 2003;Dai et al., 2005;Azagra Caro et al., 2003), the establishment of firms (Degroof and Roberts, 2004a;Vanaelst et al., 2006;Pirnay et al., 2003), license income and outcomes (Lach and Schankerman, 2003;Sine et al., 2003;Siegel et al., 2004). Other commercial outputs are products or services that are currently marketed, consulting contracts, software with commercial applications and trade secrets (Gulbrandsen and Smeby, 2005;Harman, 2001). ...
... Status: evidence suggests that full professors are more likely than assistant and associate professors to disclose inventions and patents. As full professors have generally less institutional constraints and more freedom than their counterparts, they could be more motivated in considering entrepreneurial activities (Siegel et al., 2004). ...
... For example, KTTO encourage and solicit research grants from government and industry, identify and protect discoveries (patenting, registering, etc), and promote University intellectual property (Hum, 2000). The KTTOs' size and age (number of years since the creation), and the technical orientation of the KTTO managers make the KTTOs more effective in realizing the full potential value of the inventions (Lach and Schankerman, 2003;Siegel et al., 2004). ...
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In the Triple Helix of the University-Industry-Government relations, the academic researcher appears as a predominant actor as he participates in research which gives opportunities for innovation, in teaching which develops highly qualified personnel, and so plays a major role in developing absorptive capacities in firms, and in entrepreneurialism which represents the transformation of knowledge in a more usable form and so another opportunity for innovation. The changes in the context of the University and of the researcher lead to a need for a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of the University’s universe. To answer to this need a systematic review of the literature was done, starting from 5463 articles; it allowed to select 98 articles which permitted to indentify four different roles of the researcher (research, teaching, entrepreneurialism and services) and four different levels of determinants of the researcher’s activities: the ones related to the researcher’s characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, network, etc.), the ones related to the departmental level, the ones related to the University’s characteristics (type, structure, policies, etc.) and the ones related to the characteristics of the University’s location (city characteristics, entrepreneurial climate, regional policies, etc.).
... The research will investigate potential best practices from other developing countries that can be adapted to the Ugandan context. The findings will provide evidence-based recommendations for how IP policies, support systems, and organizational structures at Makerere and Kyambogo can be enhanced to create a culture of innovation (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). This has the potential to boost IP activity, technology transfer, and commercialization of academic research for wider economic and social benefits in Uganda. ...
... Krattiger et al., propose IP management models suited for universities in developing countries, with variations in centralization, income distribution, and roles of technology transfer offices. Siegel et al., (2004) examine IP approaches across US universities, highlighting the importance of customized strategies based on institutional priorities. Recommended best practices include streamlining procedures, incentives for disclosing inventions, and supporting academic entrepreneurs (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). ...
... Siegel et al., (2004) examine IP approaches across US universities, highlighting the importance of customized strategies based on institutional priorities. Recommended best practices include streamlining procedures, incentives for disclosing inventions, and supporting academic entrepreneurs (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2004). ...
Article
Full-text available
Intellectual property (IP) protection is critical for promoting innovation in academic institutions. However, IP awareness and utilization remains low at Uganda's Makerere and Kyambogo Universities despite their strong research and innovation potential. This study assessed the level of IP utilization as a tool for fostering creativity and innovation at these universities. The research employed a quantitative approach, collecting data through surveys of students, staff and alumni. Findings revealed high levels of innovation participation, but very limited IP registration across patents, trademarks, copyrights and industrial designs. Key barriers included lack of knowledge about registration procedures and high associated costs. While general awareness of IP rights was moderately high, specific understanding of application processes was lacking. To address these challenges, the study recommends regular IP awareness campaigns, implementing online registration systems, increasing IP expertise, and providing financial incentives. Integrating IP education in university curricula, establishing technology transfer support, and developing customized IP policies are also proposed. Continuous monitoring of IP performance metrics can help strengthen management practices. Overall, the research highlights the need for concerted efforts to build IP capacity and promote commercialization of academic innovations in Makerere and Kyambogo Universities. Leveraging IP more effectively can contribute to Uganda's transition into a knowledge-based economy driven by science, technology and innovation.
... Universities are key actors within the entrepreneurial ecosystems and often are on the forefront of global challenges and conflicts (Reuters, 2024). The knowledge and ideas emerge at universities are highly valued by the greater society, enabling the process of entrepreneurship (Siegel et al., 2004;Heaton et al., 2019Heaton et al., , 2020Audretsch & Belitski, 2021) with the universities having a mandate to spark economic growth and prosperity and solve societal challenges and problems (Audretsch, 2014). ...
... This is achieved through strategic collaborations with external partners within an entrepreneurial ecosystems (Audretsch & Belitski, 2017;Belitski & Büyükbalci, 2021). Finally, we contributes to scholarly understanding of dynamic capabilities formed within the Henley Centre for Entrepreneurship and in the Henley Business School that can impact internal stakeholders-university managers, researchers, faculty and students and external-businesses, local policymakers and other universities (Siegel et al., 2004), extending prior research on entrepreneurial university on the mechanisms of knowledge transfer within the university Klofsten et al., 2019;Guerrero et al., 2021). ...
... Commercialisation takes many forms including patenting, licensing, spinning out a company, which was born from the research conducted within the university, consultancy could also be considered commercialisation (Siegel et al., 2004). ...
Article
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Entrepreneurial universities play a crucial role in supporting regional economy and addressing social challenges. Despite the significant contributions in the entrepreneurial university literature, little is still known about the process of entrepreneurial idea development, validation and commercialisation within the university. Inspired by this gap in the knowledge transfer literature we draw on three pillars of entrepreneurial university–teaching, research and commercialisation and explain how entrepreneurial process set up to nurture entrepreneurial opportunities within university develops dynamic capabilities that shape product commercialisation at university. We use the case study of the Henley Centre of Entrepreneurship at University of Reading in the United Kingdom, secondary data sources and sixteen interviews with university ecosystem stakeholders to explain the role of dynamic capabilities in entrepreneurial process for university to become entrepreneurial. The process which describes the entrepreneurs journey comprises five stages could become part of entrepreneurial university curricular and embedding university practices into regional entrepreneurial ecosystem.
... Academia and industry differ in purpose and language (Etzkowitz, 2003;Siegel et al., 2004). To efficiently integrate the results of academic scientific research into commercial applications, university technology transfer offices (TTOs) play a crucial role in linking universities and industry (Albats et al., 2018a(Albats et al., , 2018bAmesse & Cohendet, 2001;Battaglia et al., 2017;Bengoa et al., 2021;Etzkowitz, 2003;Markman et al., 2005;Sapir, 2020;Siegel et al., , 2007Zmuidzinaite et al., 2021). ...
... If the incentive mechanism is insufficient, hiring executives will be challenging. Furthermore, if the salary structure for TTOs is the same as that for the general administrative staff in universities, the lack of adequate incentives will negatively impact the efficiency of technology transfer (Abreu & Grinevich, 2017;Battaglia et al., 2017;Bengtsson, 2017;Siegel et al., 2004;Zmuidzinaite et al., 2021). ...
... On one hand, the government structure of TTOs should adopt a market-oriented approach, emphasizing the encouragement of CEO appointments rather than an emphasis on administrative controls (Chang et al., 2008;Ger et al., 2010;Soares et al., 2020;Tsai & Tsai, 2007). TTOs represent specialized departments focused on the management and commercial development of research and development within the university, distinguishing them from other administrative organizations governed by bureaucratic and hierarchical management models (Siegel et al., , 2004. Integrating TTOs into the administrative hierarchy would only impose additional administrative constraints on their operations, which is counterproductive to their intended function (Chang et al., 2008;Tsai & Tsai, 2007). ...
Article
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University technology transfer offices (TTOs) are being introduced at a rapid pace, making it critical that we understand how they affect university-to-industry technology transfer performance. Despite the growing interest in TTO governance, there are very few studies on TTO governance structures and how they are empirically effective in technology transfer performance. Our study aims at contributing to the existing literature in two ways. First, we take into account the diversity of TTO governance structures from a theoretical perspective: three types of TTOs are identified: market-oriented structure TTO, hierarchy-oriented structure TTO, and hybrid structure TTO. Second, we test our hypotheses by examining the number of patents licensed and technology transfer revenue for 157 Taiwan universities from 2016 to 2018. We find that (i) market-oriented structure is positively related to both the number of patents licensed and technology transfer revenue gained, (ii) hierarchy-oriented structure negatively affects both the number of patents licensed and technology transfer revenue gained, and (iii) we further find a negative interactive effect of market-oriented structure and hierarchy-oriented structure on the number of patents licensed and technology transfer revenue gained. These findings can inform the management of policies related to the performance of university-to-industry technology transfer, calling for attention to these organization structure attributes.
... Traditional, linear models of technology transfer often fail to capture the complexities and informal practices that characterize cross-sector collaborations because of their focus on formal mechanisms, such as licensing and patenting, which overlook important relational and contextual factors (Bradley et al., 2013;Cloitre et al., 2023;Siegel et al., 2004). As a result, growing calls have emerged for the development of more adaptive, context-specific approaches to technology transfer that can better address the unique challenges faced by multi-stakeholder partnerships (Granieri & Basso, 2019;Miller et al., 2018). ...
... A critical analysis reveals limitations with existing technology transfer approaches due to their linear and unidirectional approaches, emphasizing formal mechanisms such as licensing and patenting, that often overlook informal practices and relational factors shaping successful multi-stakeholder partnership technology transfer (Bradley et al., 2013;Cloitre et al., 2023;Miller et al., 2018;Siegel et al., 2004). Furthermore, the market-oriented outcomes of traditional transfer approaches may not align with the broader social goals of members (Bozeman et al., 2015;Le Ber & Branzei, 2009). ...
... Thus, a combination of these approaches, with adaptations for technology transfer needs, enables us to avail of interdisciplinary approaches not found in most standard technology transfer approaches (i.e. Alexander et al., 2018;Basso et al., 2019;Bozeman et al., 2015;Loorbach & Rotmans, 2010;Siegel et al., 2004;Zalewska-Kurek et al., 2018). Namely, the use of PIPA's objectives trees affords a visual approach to generating relationships between projects, outcomes, and stakeholders (Alvarez et al., 2010), while integration with CFV ensures visualizations (e.g. ...
Article
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This study offers a new method for multi-stakeholder partnership managers to improve technology transfer processes and better manage people during those processes. The method, called convergent diagramming, enables partnership members to co-develop technology transfer practices through negotiation and discussion of shared trajectories and approaches. This study applies and shows the method’s outcomes via a 130 person multi-stakeholder partnership case study. Findings reveal member derived technology transfer recommendations align with standard technology transfer model recommendations including the need for staff with appropriate technology transfer competencies and resources, early and collaborative technology transition planning, support for multiple transition paths, and monitoring through final technology transfer. The method’s application also generated tailored practices, outside of standard technology transfer recommendations, including organization-specific technology transfer terms and acculturation events. Practice and policy recommendations include employing dedicated social scientists to facilitate collaboration and technology transfer, creating tailored technology transfer terms and transition paths, and implementing annual orientations and retreats to build a shared understanding of the partnership’s technology transfer processes and outcomes. The research also highlights the need for future studies to compare multiple cases, explore long-term outcomes, and investigate the role of collaboration platforms, shared culture, and well-defined roles in enabling effective technology transfer.
... Contemporary policies in innovation and higher education advocate for collaboration, emphasizing its role in the later stages and embryonic phases of innovation (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000;Thune, 2009). This development in collaborative research is particularly evident in the establishment of publicly funded initiatives, such as, competence centres in Sweden, wherein industrial and academic players come together outside their traditional value chains and use their different but complementary knowledge for mutual innovation gains (Laursen & Salter, 2004;Perkmann et al., 2013;Siegel et al., 2004). ...
... Despite that research over the past two decades has shed light on knowledge transfer processes (e.g. de Wit-de Vries et al., 2019;Siegel et al., 2004;Szulanski, 2000) and boundary spanners in interorganizational contexts (Balogun et al., 2005;Lundberg, 2013;Rosenkopf & Nerkar, 2001), organizations are still uncertain about how to reap the benefits of co-creating knowledge through UIC and industrial PhD projects in particular (Assbring & Nuur, 2017). Holistic performance improvement requires deliberate engagement with boundary spanners such as industry PhD students and with the opportunities that facilitate the process of knowledge dissemination (Haas, 2015). ...
... We also recognize the value of long-term studies to see how knowledge dissemination evolve, also considering that knowledge cocreation itself takes time. As also identified in previous research, further uncovering how to develop processes and practices of knowledge integration and application remains critical (Grant, 1996a;Mell et al., 2022;Siegel et al., 2004) ...
Article
Industrial PhD students, affiliating to industrial firms and academic institutions, hold unique boundary‐spanning positions as they engage in knowledge co‐creation through university–industry collaboration (UIC). Despite much research on knowledge transfer processes and boundary spanners in inter‐organizational contexts, firms who engage in UIC remain uncertain about how to reap the benefits of co‐creating knowledge through industrial PhD projects. This paper investigates the enablers of knowledge dissemination for PhD students in industrial firms. Based on a qualitative case study in Sweden, our study identifies enablers and mechanisms related to individual and organizational actions in the internal knowledge dissemination process. Based on the findings, the paper presents a model that distinguishes between surface and deep knowledge dissemination and elaborates on the symbiotic nature of enablers, with middle management mediating between the individual and organizational levels. The paper enhances research on knowledge dissemination in UIC by specifically addressing industrial PhD students' dissemination of co‐created knowledge. The findings inform organizations in managing their expectations, making more informed decisions and improving dissemination conditions for boundary‐spanning industrial PhD students in UIC.
... The topic UTT output refers to the impact and measurable outcomes of UTT, particularly in the context of research commercialization. This topic includes an analysis of the role of patents and their impact on the direction and output of academic research, focusing on the positive aspects and the challenges there (Siegel et al., 2004). For example, Azoulay et al. (2009) show that patenting activities can have a positive impact on publication rates and may lead to a reorientation of research focus toward commercially relevant issues. ...
... Employing this method allowed us to obtain an overview of relevant topics in the UTT literature. Research has dealt with how UTT institutions and units successfully transfer knowledge and technology to the industrial sector, focusing on barriers (Siegel et al., 2004), productivity (Siegel et al., 2003a), commercialization (Gregorio & Shane, 2003;Siegel et al., 2007), and mechanisms (Debackere & Veugelers, 2005). Consequently, analyzing the efficiency of these actors has been a pertinent focus of the literature (Teixeira & Mota, 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
Over the last few decades, a substantive body of research has been created that focuses on university technology transfer (UTT), resulting in a rich and complex literature. The purpose of this paper, using a text mining approach, is to identify underlying key topics that have shaped this field of research and to determine key emerging themes. Using computational linguistic techniques, we systematically examine 1,944 papers published between 1981 and 2022. Based on the identification of 20 distinct topics, we analyze the popularity of these topics over time. Our findings reveal that UTT capacities are widely discussed, especially themes related to processes, enablers, and the third mission. Moreover, topics such as spin-offs and metrics are gaining ground in the UTT literature. However, topics related to the UTT context, including the role of institutions and transfer units, are losing research momentum, as do themes around legislation and commercialization. Our paper defines thematic clusters, posits a framework to consolidate UTT research, and suggests promising future avenues of research.
... [76] C6 Poor marketing/technical/negotiation skills of TTO TTOs hire more people with technical, licensing, and patenting experience than they do people with marketing expertise. [77] C7 University proponents have unrealistic expectations regarding the value of their technologies Sometimes academics overestimate the importance of their work, which discourages companies from using their intellectual property. [77] C8 Lack of venture capital Due to a dearth of venture capital, universities could not acquire money and advice. ...
... [77] C7 University proponents have unrealistic expectations regarding the value of their technologies Sometimes academics overestimate the importance of their work, which discourages companies from using their intellectual property. [77] C8 Lack of venture capital Due to a dearth of venture capital, universities could not acquire money and advice. ...
Article
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By implementing new technologies, university technology transfer (UTT) is crucial for economic advancement. However, developing countries face numerous challenges regarding UTT. This study proposes a unique approach by combining Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) methods such as Delphi and Decision-Making Trial And Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) with Fuzzy Theories, specifically Spherical Fuzzy Sets (SFSs) and T – Spherical Fuzzy Sets (T-SFSs), to examine the barriers in UTT. The distinctive aspect of this study lies in addressing the limitations of SFSs and upgrading them to T-SFSs by incorporating them with the DEMATEL approach. Initially, SFS Delphi is employed to identify and eliminate nonimportant barriers. Subsequently, SF DEMATEL is utilized to classify barriers into cause-effect groups and determine their interactive relationships. However, SFSs have revealed specific weaknesses during this step, prompting the adoption of T-SF DEMATEL as a replacement. The findings highlight the perfect compatibility of T-SFSs with the research model and identify several primary barriers that hinder UTT, including C14, inconsistent rules and regulations, C9, misalignment between research and commercialization objectives, C3- lack of recognition for university-industry linkages, and C5- lack of resources. This study not only improves the understanding of UTT for decision makers, entrepreneurs, and policymakers, facilitating the creation of solutions, but also serves as a reference for researchers in the application of T-SFSs in other research domains.
... La interacción entre los tres primeros es fundamental para el éxito de la TT. Bozeman (2000), junto con Siegel et al. (2004) y Giuria et al. (2019), mencionan una amplia gama de actores, incluyendo científicos, investigadores, directores de áreas de tecnología y transferencia, inversores, burócratas, gerentes de empresas, rectores o directores de universidades y centros de investigación, el gobierno, la industria y los legisladores, entre otros. ...
... Además, su alcance se extiende hacia el exterior, estableciendo conexiones con organismos gubernamentales, entidades financiadoras de la investigación y, especialmente, el sector productivo(Goldhor & Lund, 1983;Bozeman, 2000;Kremic, 2003;Markman et al. 2005 y Giuria et al., 2019.En segundo lugar, debe ser abordado el rol del adoptante de la tecnología, asumido generalmente por el sector productivo, incluye empresas de diversos tamaños que buscan generar utilidades, liderar el mercado y ser reconocidas por sus innovaciones. Las empresas deben vincularse con las IESP para lograr estos objetivos(Smilor et al, 1989;Siegel et al., 2004). ...
Article
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Technology transfer (TT) is essential to promote innovation and, therefore, the economic and social development of countries. In this paper, we seek to identify the main determinants of TT in México. We interviewed 24 director y/or managers of Technology Transfere Offices (OTT) of Public Higher Education Institutions (PHEI), whose content was analyzed using Atlas ti. The results revealed 22 determinants of TT, which can be grouped into four categories: IESP, goverment, productive sector and support groups. This comprehensive approach allows us to understand the complexity of TT in México and identify the challenges it faces. This qualitative study provides valuable information for decision makers in the field of TT.
... Whilst academic spinout companies are an important focus of TTO activities, their breadth of functions is much greater, as TTOs typically oversee all university-industry interactions, deal with patenting and licensing, identify disclosures, develop networks with venture capitalists and other local or regional investors, and in addition form connections with external management talent to recruit into spinout companies to assist academic founders with building the companies (Holgersson and Aaboen 2019;Good et al. 2019;BVCA/Library House 2005). A well-resourced and supportive TTO, with experienced professionals, may generate more academic spinout companies (Siegel et al. 2004;Fini et al. 2011). It is important to note that the decision whether to form a spinout company or follow an alternative commercialisation route rests with technology transfer offices, and their different priorities may influence entrepreneurial activity (Markman et al. 2005). ...
... patents) to industry. Technology transfer offices participate in university intellectual property protection through patent applications (Siegel et al. 2004), decide on a particular commercialisation route, whether licensing or spinout formation (Alexander and Martin 2013), recruit management talent for spinout companies (BVCA/Library House 2005), identify funding opportunitiesconsultancy work for faculty or donations -to support knowledge transfer (Fitzgerald and Cunningham 2016), in particular applying for grants to fund prototype development (Prokop 2017), offer initial seed funding for academic spinouts (Gubitta et al. 2016), and build connections with venture capitalists (Franklin et al. 2001) or other university TTOs (Lockett et al. 2003). ...
... Whilst academic spinout companies are an important focus of TTO activities, their breadth of functions is much greater, as TTOs typically oversee all university-industry interactions, deal with patenting and licensing, identify disclosures, develop networks with venture capitalists and other local or regional investors, and in addition form connections with external management talent to recruit into spinout companies to assist academic founders with building the companies (Holgersson and Aaboen 2019;Good et al. 2019;BVCA/Library House 2005). A well-resourced and supportive TTO, with experienced professionals, may generate more academic spinout companies (Siegel et al. 2004;Fini et al. 2011). It is important to note that the decision whether to form a spinout company or follow an alternative commercialisation route rests with technology transfer offices, and their different priorities may influence entrepreneurial activity (Markman et al. 2005). ...
... patents) to industry. Technology transfer offices participate in university intellectual property protection through patent applications (Siegel et al. 2004), decide on a particular commercialisation route, whether licensing or spinout formation (Alexander and Martin 2013), recruit management talent for spinout companies (BVCA/Library House 2005), identify funding opportunitiesconsultancy work for faculty or donations -to support knowledge transfer (Fitzgerald and Cunningham 2016), in particular applying for grants to fund prototype development (Prokop 2017), offer initial seed funding for academic spinouts (Gubitta et al. 2016), and build connections with venture capitalists (Franklin et al. 2001) or other university TTOs (Lockett et al. 2003). ...
... Later, are widely used models to transfer technology named lineal and dynamic. The Linear model according to Siegel et al. (2004) refers to the scientific discoveries that are generated and that must be patented having as actors the university, research center, results transfer office (OTRI) and the companies, the process in Figure 3, basically seeking to patent and exploit the discovery made. The dynamic model, which is a linear improvement, aims to transfer knowledge through marketing or dissemination using variables that are critical to this process: ...
... Lineal Model to transfer technology. Source:Siegel et al. (2004). ...
Article
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Technology transference is widely considered as a very important factor to determinate growing at agriculture industry; this paper reviewed successful models to transfer technology to the agricultural sector to identify key factors that can determinate the success of their implementation. To do this, a systematic review of some examples with the objective of identifying characteristics was done. Finally, the analysis can support some recommendations and give more clear vision of situation of transference of technology at agriculture industry as a mean to invigorate the few existing relations between the field where science and technology are developed and the business industrial field where solutions will be commercialized.
... Relationships with industry appeal to universities since more bureaucracy is involved with public funding than with industrial funding (Blumenthal, 2003;Santoro and Chakrabarti, 1999). Academic staff will be motivated for personal financial gain to enter into relationships with industry Siegel et al, 2004). ...
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This study investigates different approaches to University business partnerships in the United Kingdom (UK). The research documents links universities have with companies in terms of industrial research, knowledge transfer, and other forms of external collaborative partnerships, and what these links are. The objectives of the paper are to provide accurate information on university business partnerships for business professionals, industrial policymakers, management students, researchers, and academicians. The research was carried out in three stages including i) the nature of university business partnerships, ii) an overview of the university/business inter-organizational relationship, and iii) university-industry relationships and the different approaches to university business partnerships. Comparison is made between universities in order to benchmark and assess "good/best practice" and potential barriers. Investigation of the commercialization of Intellectual Property (IP) is undertaken with insights for improvements. Recommendations to improve the management of university knowledge transfer are given.
... Значимость инноваций, ориентированных на устойчивое развитие экономических агентов, возрастает с каждым годом. Однако затраты в инновационные проекты, могут окупиться и способствовать эконо-мическому развитию только в том случае, если эти проекты основываются на результатах серьезных научных исследований [396]. ...
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Монография посвящена актуальной проблеме разработки и реализации отраслевых политик государства применительно к сфере взаимодействия системы высшего профессионального образования, НИОКР и рынка труда в условиях цифровизации экономики Российской Федерации и Республики Беларусь. В современной эпохе рассматриваются важные аспекты, связанные с развитием сложных социально-экономических систем в новых экономических условиях, на примере Союзного государства РФ и РБ. Изучаются проблемы и перспективы цифровизации экономики в изменяющейся внешней среде и вопросы развития человеческого капитала в цифровой экономике. Авторы делятся результатами долгосрочных теоретических и практических исследований. Данная книга предназначена для специалистов в области науки и образования; научно-педагогических работников; аспирантов и магистрантов, занимающихся проблемами цифровизации, инновационной инфраструктуры, современного высшего образования и рынка труда; для студентов, обучающихся по экономическим, социологическим и управленческим специальностям в России и Беларуси.
... Research and practice on the transfer of technology derive their rationale from the above insight. It is now taken for granted that academic inventions have to be 'transformed' into innovations, in order for them to come to use (Brantnell and Baraldi 2022;Siegel et al. 2004). This transformation process includes several actors and actions ranging from technology transfer offices at universities to enterprising individuals who can create or adapt market niches for the final product (Dolmans et al. 2021;Jacob et al. 2003). ...
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This article addresses the issue of how Social Science and Humanities (SSH) researchers frame and argue relevance, where there are no explicit expectations to do so. It uses research project reports submitted to a Swedish research council, to distil and further analyze ‘relevance expressions’. These expressions illustrate some methodological differences along the lines of the long-standing distinction between nomothetic (generalization oriented) and idiographic (case /description oriented). We extracted relevance claims from a database of project abstracts and reports from the following fields: History, Linguistics, Political Science and Psychology. We interrogated these statements for possible differences with respect to how relevance is expressed. The study finds differences in the way that nomothetic and idiographic expressions imply, argue or derive support for relevance, and that these may be somewhat associated with fields, although with certain qualifications. Importantly, relevance expressions can be viewed as epistemic operations that occur in degrees of concretization, broadly or narrowly formulated, and in different levels of everyday and technical expressions. A key insight is that relevance in SSH appears to be closely associated with the way subjects relate to the empirical. This ultimately lends support for the application of the nomothetic/idiographic as a conceptual, albeit not exhaustive, analytical approach to understanding the relevance of SSH.
... These help ensure that new ideas from research labs are used in the real world. They also help protect intellectual property, develop commercialisation strategies and form industry partnerships, making it easier to turn research into useful products (Siegel et al., 2004). ...
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This study provides a comprehensive framework for analysing and developing research and development (R&D) models in higher education. Despite the evolution of R&D management practices, there remains a lack of clearly defined models that ensure long-term flexibility and effective management within rapidly changing environments. Drawing on existing literature, this paper proposes criteria and structured approaches for higher education institutions (HEIs) to manage and facilitate R&D activities. By focusing on key dimensions such as mission alignment, research strategy, innovation strategy, and intellectual capital management, this study aims to offer practical guidelines to enhance the competitiveness and societal impact of HEIs. The goal is to move beyond general recommendations and provide a detailed criteria checklist to guide the development of effective R&D models.
... Concerns include the extent to which collaboration with industrial partners could be associated with restrictions for university on the dissemination of research findings, threats to the norm of open science and the possible 'epistemic drift' in short-term target-driven research, at the expense of longer-term research (Gulbrandsen and Smeby, 2005;Lee and Miozzo, 2015;Tartari and Breschi, 2012). The second refers to conflicts over ownership of intellectual property (Siegel et al., 2004), and is argued to arise from attempts by universities to capture the commercial benefits from research and the sometimes unrealistic expectations about these benefits (Clarysse et al., 2007;Rhoten and Powell, 2008). Although ideal typical descriptions of conflicting 'academic logic' and 'commercial logic' are shown to overstate differences and neglect strong heterogeneity within academic and industrial science (Sauermann and Stephan 2013), these challenges do create a degree of complexity in inter-organizational collaborations that may not exist within collaborations between firms and therefore require us to look more deeply into their challenges and dynamics (He et al., 2021). ...
... For example, specific aspects of HEIs have been explored, such as resource allocation (Heaton et al., 2023), leadership (Leih & Teece, 2016), internationalization (Minola et al., 2016), university-business cooperation (Galán-Muros et al., 2017), and impact on youth employment . However, despite these advancements in the broader literature on HEIs, most previous studies on the EU have primarily concentrated on the challenges faced by HEIs in their third mission or community outreach, particularly in terms of technology transfer activities, such as patents, licenses, and start-ups (Rasmussen et al., 2014;Siegel et al., 2004). Thus, we require more insights into how HEIs adhere to the EU paradigm (Stolze, 2021) by behaving entrepreneurially across all their constituent missions (Audretsch, 2014;Klofsten et al., 2019;Urbano & Guerrero, 2013). ...
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This article presents a case study of the Cooperative University of Mondragon to explore the intricate processes through which higher education institutions (HEIs) adopt an entrepreneurial university (EU) framework across their three core missions: teaching, research, and community outreach. Using a qualitative research design, this study examines the organizational strategies that Mondragon University’s engineering faculty (MGEP) employs to embrace entrepreneurial behaviors (EBs), specifically by building on its peculiar cooperative governance model. The findings shed light on how MGEP, as a prominent example, leverages a long-term vision that centers its decision-making processes on entrepreneurship and the management tools and governance elements that favor collective participation and intrinsic motivation. This research advances our understanding of the evolving landscape of higher education and its entrepreneurial drift in the following ways: (1) by addressing the need for further exploration of governance in EUs; (2) by complementing existing studies on the role of university leadership in the adoption of EBs; and (3) by identifying strategies to overcome inherent barriers within large organizations that impede universities from being entrepreneurial. Overall, this study offers practical implications for the adoption of EBs in HEIs.
... First the knowledge creators-including academicians, researchers, and scientists, who generate new material as the basis for knowledge development. The second component involves the dissemination of scientific information and research findings globally to society (Dolmans et al. 2022;Siegel et al. 2004). The third component includes the recipients of this information, who use it to either further advance their understanding or to develop practical applications (Bornmann and Marx 2014). ...
... Significant differences emerge when comparing the behaviors and motivations of scientists and entrepreneurs. While the primary motivation of an entrepreneur is the financial gain derived from technological advancements, the main motivation for scientists is to achieve scientific recognition while commercializing their research, and they view the potential financial gain as a secondary goal that can enable them to do more research (Siegel et al., 2004). Furukawa and Goto (2006) state that scientists gather academic information from various sources, such as published articles, educational institutions, and the internet, and integrate this knowledge, and assimilate it to make it an integral part of innovation. ...
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This research focused on the effects of prior experiences based on the imprinting theory that how individual-level imprints are transferred to the organizational level. The research attempted to answer the question of how owners’ career imprints affect the performance of ventures. Ventures operating in the technology sector were categorized according to their academic and industry background. The results showed that although academic-partnered ventures were found to generate more patents, their performance is lower than non-academic partnered ventures. This research has theoretical and practical contributions providing results that show different institutional contexts lead to different outcomes through the occupational imprinting effect.
... Creating high-performance USOs has become a key strategic focus for many universities and policymakers (Pitsakis et al., 2015), and has been extensively researched (Fini et al., 2011). In general, a USO's performance (e.g., lower risk rates, higher corporate valuations) is influenced by the size, institutional characteristics and support from resources (e.g., talents, finance and social relations) of parent universities (Andersson & Klepper, 2013;Colombo et al., 2009;Link & Scott, 2005;Siegel et al., 2004;Xia et al., 2010), which are influential factors from the parent universities' organizational-level. Additionally, a USO's performance is affected by external environments too, such as local-context support mechanisms, regional market conditions and local laws and policies (Cui et al., 2011;Dia´nez-Gonza´lez & Camelo-Ordaz, 2015;Kroll & Liefner, 2008;Michael et al., 2007;Mustar & Wright, 2009;Rasmussen et al., 2014;Xia et al., 2010). ...
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Much of the university spin-offs (USOs) literature either focuses on the influence of parent universities or the external environments on enterprise performance in economies with one aspect almost always neglected, that is, the role of USOs’ corporate governance. In this study, we examine the effects of USOs’ corporate governance structure which includes equity structure, board size and organizational form, on enterprise performance in a Chinese context, as well as the moderating effect of human capital on the relationship between board size and enterprise performance. This study takes 150 enterprises in 42 universities in Hubei Province as samples in 2017 using the weighted least square (WLS) method. The research finds evidence of positive relationships between equity structure and enterprise performance, as well as between board size and enterprise performance. However, a positive effect is not found between organizational form and enterprise performance, which shows a prominent negative effect. Moreover, human capital which is partially positive, influences the relationship between board size and enterprise performance. Therefore, these findings add some potentially noteworthy dimensions to the USOs literature that are especially important to USOs’ policy makers and other stakeholders.
... In this case, the differences and dependencies between universities and firms often generate more negative consequences, which hinders the contextualized transformation of need-solution pairs into final new products in specific industrial contexts. Furthermore, the novelty of sciencebased innovation increases the complexity of boundaries, as this knowledge transformation process often requires the integration of knowledge from both universities, firm functions, and complementary components (Siegel et al., 2004). Firms and universities often need to jointly resolve negative consequences via input from both researchers and firms (Dolmans et al., 2022). ...
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Despite the acknowledged importance of learning from universities, the literature offers inconclusive evidence of its value for innovation. Addressing this inconsistency, we aim to explore how learning from universities affects firm innovation from the knowledge transformation perspective. We find that learning from universities plays different roles in the identification of need–solution pairs and the transformation of need–solution pairs into new products. Specifically, we find that learning from universities has an inverted U shaped effect on innovation: it exerts a positive effect on need–solution pair identification and a negative effect on the transformation of identified need–solution pairs into innovation performance. The negative role of learning from universities is weaker when the levels of R&D intensity, product modularization, and demand heterogeneity are higher. Empirical evidence based on data collected via an on-site survey of 360 Chinese high-tech firms supports our hypotheses. We confirm the robustness of our results using a separate set of survey data. This research contributes to the literature on learning from universities and technology transfer by offering insights into the role of academic knowledge in firm innovation. We further contribute to the knowledge transformation literature by exploring boundary conditions on the transformation of academic knowledge into firm innovation.
... Since the 1980s, TTOs have become established in fields where knowledge is in high commercial demand, for example biomedical science, biotechnology, bioengineering, food science, and pharmacology Martinelli et al., 2008;Perkmann et al., 2013). TTOs perform a wide range of tasks, including determining the commercial potential of academic research, protecting and monetising intellectual property (IP), identifying market opportunities and providing post-deal support (Macho-Stadler et al., 2007;Heisey & Adelman, 2011;Siegel et al., 2004). To execute their mission, TTOs offer specific skills in technology transfer (Wu et al., 2015), including licencing negotiations AUTM, 2007;Chitale et al., 2016), protection of IP, spinout formation, contract research and research collaborations (Abreu and Grinevich, 2013;Yusuf, 2008). ...
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Technology transfer offices (TTOs) play an increasingly important role in universities, supporting researchers in translating science knowledge into commercially and socially valuable outcomes. However, the literature is limited regarding how TTOs support the technology transfer process. This study contributes deeper insight into the role of TTOs in facilitating knowledge transfer outcomes. A case study of life science commercialization in Australasian universities drew on depth interviews with senior TTO managers and industry experts, on longitudinal participant observation within a life science intermediary business to inform about supply side elements, and on secondary data. The findings emphasise the effects of wider institutional change on quintuple helix (5H) stakeholders, i.e., the environment, society, government, universities, and industry. Financialization and competition places growing demands on universities for commercializable intellectual property (IP) production. In response, TTOs have built competencies in translational engagement (trust and reputation building and boundary spanning) and value co-creation (service quality management and de-risking). Those competencies translate to a five-stage process of technology transfer facilitation: (1) Identifying, (2) assessing, (3) protecting, (4) promoting and (5) profiting. In the complex context of life science innovation, innovation networks benefit from investment in university outreach, stakeholder relationship building, tax credits, and fund matching with transnational corporations. To ensure optimal social and commercial outcomes independent oversight of the process should be maintained, by representatives from all 5H stakeholders.
... They drive economic development, enhance institutional competitiveness, and stimulate regional innovation by commercializing academic research outputs (Grimaldi et al., 2011;Porter, 1991;Rasmussen, 2008). Acknowledging this role, governments have implemented policies within national innovation systems to support the integration of universities, industries, and society, thus facilitating technology transfer (Clarysse et al., 2011a(Clarysse et al., , 2011bLink & Siegel, 2009;Siegel et al., 2004). Universities, responding to these policies, have invested strategically in UTTOs to maximize research commercialization and value creation (Good et al., 2019). ...
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Over the last decades, the University Technology Transfer Offices (UTTOs) literature has focused on how technology transfer contributes to economic development and only a few studies have focused on social development. This study explores how UTTOs transform into ambidextrous organizations capable of simultaneously addressing economic and social challenges, during external crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Particularly, we explore which dynamic capabilities and strategies should be developed or reconfigured by UTTOs to respond to complex societal challenges. We conducted an exploratory qualitative study using semi-structured interviews with 20 UTTO officials from universities across Europe, North America, and Latin America, carried out in 2020 and 2021. Our findings show that UTTOs reconfigured their dynamic capabilities and implemented inclusive strategies, such as flexible intellectual property models, inclusive technology transfer practices, and newmetrics that integrate social value. These adaptations enable UTTOs to respond effectively to the COVID-19 pandemic by facilitating the translation of impactful technologies to societal needs. We propose a theoretical framework that incorporates the role of dynamic capabilities—sensing, seizing, and transforming—into how UTTOs align economic and social goals by translating knowledge-creation processes to make discoveries that address social needs and financial opportunities. This study highlights some strategic implications based on the emergence of ambidextrous UTTOs, which focus on simultaneously driving both economic and social impacts.
... The work of (Siegel et al., 2004) considers that having experienced employees in the transfer offices of the universities can more efficiently promote the commercialization of technology to the industry. ...
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The formal university technology transfer (TTU) in Colombia can contribute significantly to the country’s economic development. Based on the Theory of Resources and Capacities, this paper investigates the determinants of transfer in Colombian public and private universities. For this, we used structural equations methodology from data collected through a survey of 20 Colombian universities. The results of the estimates empirically confirm the significance of the financial, commercial, cultural, and human dimensions in the technology transfer process. Among the main factors that positively influence the TTU are: 1. the importance of external financial resources, 2. having a technological portfolio, 3. the time that transfer activities have been carried out, and 4. the people in charge’s experience.: The study shows us that it is necessary to strengthen policies within universities and improve their articulation with firms to achieve more successful technology transfer processes.
... Meanwhile, the following studies considered developed countries from a general perspective. Siegel et al. (2004) contended that the TTO plays a vital role from invention disclosure, the evolution of invention for patenting, the patenting process, to the licensing process. Min et al. (2019) meanwhile, stated that the TTO plays a role in the licensing process, although its role in developing spin-off companies was not described. ...
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Abstract The technology commercialisation process at universities in developing countries often requires improvement owing to their tendency to adopt models commonly used in developed countries. Besides being less contextual, the existing technology commercialisation models is also not practical because it does not accommodate the interests of each stakeholder directly involved in the commercialisation process, such as laboratories, industry and intermediaries. This research proposes a more practical model of technology commercialisation for universities in the Indonesian context by emphasising the interests of such stakeholders, based on four commercialisation strategies, and four university intermediary organisations, namely the technology transfer office, an incubator, the science and technopark, and the university company focused on technology commercialisation.
... Esta no es una decisión trivial, porque las universidades tienen presupuestos limitados para la presentación de patentes, lo cual es bastante costoso si se busca la protección global de patentes. Las universidades pueden optar por solicitar la protección de patente nacional, que protege la tecnología a un costo mucho menor (Siegel et al., 2004). ...
Article
El desarrollo económico desigual de las naciones ha obligado a los agentes económicos a construir estructuras más productivas y sustentables con base en la generación y gestión del conocimiento. El presente artículo tiene como objetivo explicar como los modelos de gestión del conocimiento son fundamentales para la aplicación de un plan de transferencia tecnológica que optimice la productividad de las organizaciones en los procesos de industrialización. Para el desarrollo del tema, se identificaron los aspectos teóricos que sustentan la transferencia tecnológica en las relaciones económicas internacionales y en la gestión del conocimiento como factores determinantes para el proceso de industrialización en el siglo XXI. Palabras clave: Gestión del conocimiento / Transferencia tecnológica / Industrialización
... Para contribuir a la transferencia del conocimiento por medio de la vinculación de actores se han generado diversos modelos como el lineal (Siegel, Waldman, Atwater, y Link, 2004), de innovación abierta (Chesbrough, 2003), el triángulo de Sábato (Sábato y Botana, 1975) o los Sistemas Nacionales de Innovación (Ahuja y Pedroza, 2011;Dutrénit, 2009;Villavicencio y López, 2010). ...
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Nowadays knowledge is not enough to benefit today's societies, it is necessary to transfer it and incorporate it into products and services that contribute to solving existing problems. For that reason, various ways of knowledge transfer have been created, such as contracts to generate innovations, collaborative research and development projects, licenses to use or transfer rights of knowledge obtained, mobility of researchers and the creation of university´s spin-offs. That organizations, also known as university technology-based companies, stand out because they promote the commercialization of innovations generated in Higher Education Institutions, allowing tangible benefits to be obtained for society. In this sense, this document aims to identify the characteristics that allow spin-offs to be successful in the province of Alicante in Spain, through a qualitative methodology, whose main tool for obtaining information was the semi-structured interview, complemented with documentary review, an inductive analysis process and the triangulation of information. Recognizing the problems that today are an international priority, the need arises to join efforts with academia to address current social problems with technological developments. The results allowed to identify all the elements that allow the spin-off created by the University of Alicante to be successful, concluding that this type of organization has the potential not only to share the knowledge generated in the universities, but also to contribute to the economic development of the region and the country where they are created.
... Several studies emphasized the importance of infrastructures, facilities and equipment such as incubators, science and technology parks, and etc. For the success of university entrepreneurship (Powers and McDougall, 2005;Siegel et al., 2004). Competent and successful human capital is considered one of the success factors of organizations. ...
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Purpose The present study aims to seek the strategic analysis of the entrepreneurship of agricultural colleges (AC). Design/methodology/approach In terms of approach, this research was a combination of exploratory and hybrid methods. The present study was conducted in four stages. In the first stage, an open-ended questionnaire was designed to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of entrepreneurship in AC (qualitative method). In the second stage, the Delphi-Fuzzy questionnaire was designed based on the results obtained from the first stage. In the third stage, the criteria of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of entrepreneurship of AC were analyzed based on the pairwise comparison (quantitative method) by the sample using a fuzzy hierarchical analysis process (FHAP). In the fourth stage, presented strategies were ranked based on pairwise comparison using FHAP. Findings From the analysis of weaknesses, strengths, opportunities and threats facing AC for entrepreneurship, 12 strategies were presented in 4 groups of aggressive, conservative, competitive and defensive. Originality/value The literature review showed that no research has been done so far to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing university entrepreneurship, especially AC. So the present study analyzes the weaknesses, strengths, opportunities and threats and proposes practical strategies for moving toward the formation of entrepreneurship AC. According to the gaps in providing SWOT of the AC, the results of this research can pave the way for policy makers and planners in this field.
... Using patent assignment data can address these deficiencies. The primary purposes of university patenting are generating revenue for universities and providing technological knowledge to enterprises (Siegel et al., 2004;Link et al., 2007). Universities sell their patent ownership to enterprises for economic value, and enterprises acquire academic patents to use the technology contained in the patent. ...
Article
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The commercialization of intellectual property has become a fundamental avenue for universities to improve regional competitiveness. However, large-scale empirical studies on patent transfers, reflecting technology and knowledge sharing, remain limited. This study used social network analysis to investigate university technology flows in China based on patent assignments from technological, organizational, and regional perspectives. The results firstly revealed clear stage characteristics in the number of university patent assignments with the improvement of the Chinese version of the Bayh-Dole Act. Secondly, popular technologies in university technology flows mainly concentrated on measurement, testing, digital transmission, and other areas in which enterprises lack international competitive advantage. Thirdly, central actors comprised prestigious universities focusing on science, engineering, and comprehensive disciplines, along with intellectual property-focused enterprises. Finally, university technology flows gradually delocalized, and varied regional patterns exist owing to a spatial mismatch between university knowledge supply and regional demand. These findings have several practical and policy implications for government and university management in terms of promoting emerging technologies and clarifying universities’ functions in regional and national innovation systems. This study contributes to the economic geography literature on regional innovation.
... By passing the Patent and Trademark Act, authorities attempted to institute a uniform patent policy to remove any restriction on licensing. However, the Patent and Trademark Act, as well as the Trademark Clarification Act of 1984, the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986, and the National Competitiveness Technology Transfer Act of 1989 have supported technology transfer and development, as well as increased innovative activity in the United States, opening up further opportunities to commercialize new knowledge (Jaffe and Lerner 2001;Siegel et al. 2004). ...
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This research paper analyzes innovative activity among firms in North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) countries. In so doing, the paper examines the number of patents granted in Canada, Mexico and the United States through the years 1940 to 2005. The starting point of this research project is Scotchmer’s (2004a) seminal work on intellectual property treaties and policy. To develop our study, we used patent data released by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), as indicators of innovative activity among firms in these countries. We make use of the methodologies proposed by Perron (1997) and Vogelsang (1997) to search for presence of a one-time change in the level or in the slope of the trend function of patent granted. It would be expected that the new regulations implemented in the United Sates in the 1980s and 1990s have affected patent granting practices in Canada and Mexico through NAFTA (1994) and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreements. However, North America countries are now obliged to extend national treatment to all intellectual property on this continent, as well as to go in the direction toward harmonizing protections (Scotchmer 2004a). Nevertheless, in the United Sates, the new legislation on intellectual property has deeply affected its own intellectual property regime.
... Denmark and Germany) introduced Bayh-Dole Act -like regulation, giving up the intellectual property rights to the university. However, this rule is rarely enforced so many faculty members are not disclosing their inventions to their university (Siegel et al., 2004;Thursby et al., 2001). To elicit disclosures, universities need proper incentive schemes specifying an adequate share for the inventors in royalties or equity, as suggested by several studies (Macho-Stadler et al., 1996;Jensen and Thursby, 2001;Lach and Schankerman, 2004;Link and Siegel, 2005). ...
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Diversos són els factors concomitants que permeten el desenvolupament de la transferència de coneixement, sobretot entre la consciència que el coneixement universitari es basa en la innovació i la productivitat empresarial, generant avantatges competitius rellevants. Les polítiques públiques s'han centrat a fomentar tipus de mecanismes, tant a nivell nacional com europeu. No obstant això, la transferència de coneixement és un procés complex, que implica diversos actors i objectius diferents, sovint conflictius. La nostra revisió de la literatura revela que els obstacles per a una transferència de coneixement eficaç i eficaç són nombrosos i de naturalesa diversa, que van des del sistema d’incentius a nivell individual fins a la gestió de processos a nivell institucional i nacional i europeu. Ens centrem en els principals mecanismes de transferència de coneixement de l’arbre, és a dir, llicències, patents i empreses emergents. Els estudis existents demostren que s’han pres mesures, però encara queda molt per recórrer. Es proporcionen suggeriments per als responsables de la formulació de polítiques i la direcció, i es discuteixen les implicacions a la secció final.
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This article analyzes how renewable energy, waste management, and sustainable agriculture tie the newest green technology to corporations' climate change initiatives. This article examines these technologies' environmental impact. The article will cover the two subjects. Artificial intelligence, smart grids, and the Internet of Things may save companies money, minimize their environmental effect, and enhance productivity. The research presented green technology's merits and downsides in different ways. This investment requires specific expertise and high startup costs. Studies suggest industry cooperation and regulation may fund green ideas. This pertains to eco-friendly tech. This would help businesses accomplish environmental targets and increase resilience. Green technology and how firms are battling climate change via renewable energy, waste management, and sustainable agriculture are covered in this article. This article examines these technologies' environmental impact. The article will cover the two subjects.
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Este estudo propõe um modelo de transferência de tecnologia (TT) para apoiar a internacionalização da Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), considerando a complexidade, as barreiras e as possibilidades desse processo. A pesquisa adotou uma abordagem qualitativa, utilizando o estudo de caso como metodologia. Foram analisados documentos e realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com gestores, docentes e técnicos administrativos da UFGD, com o objetivo de entender ações anteriores de internacionalização, identificar barreiras e oportunidades, além de explorar percepções. A originalidade deste estudo reside na adaptação do Modelo de Transferência de Tecnologia de Eficácia Contingente de Bozeman para o contexto da internacionalização universitária. O modelo proposto organiza-se em quadrantes, descrevendo características essenciais da instituição, das pessoas envolvidas e do ambiente, de forma a compreender e facilitar a internacionalização. Além disso, o estudo apresenta sugestões práticas para que a alta gestão melhore as condições internas e promova a internacionalização. A compatibilidade entre TT e internacionalização é evidenciada, oferecendo uma abordagem pragmática para esse desafio. Ao integrar TT como ferramenta para enfrentar as dificuldades da internacionalização, o estudo contribui teoricamente com novas perspectivas. O modelo proposto fornece uma compreensão abrangente das bases necessárias para uma internacionalização bem-sucedida e destaca a importância da TT nesse contexto. Os resultados oferecem insights importantes para a alta gestão da UFGD, sugerindo readequações na gestão e no organograma, com o intuito de superar barreiras institucionais e financeiras, possibilitando o fortalecimento das ações internacionais.
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This article analyzes how university entrepreneurial activities impact the reputation of the institution. Higher education has seen an increase in the number of entrepreneurial initiatives such as the creation of startup incubators, industry partnerships, innovation centers as well as the provision of various entrepreneurial education programs. The purpose of this article is to assess how these initiatives affect the public perception of universities as well as their reputation. In order to produce this article, an analytical methodology was used in order to examine data on research activities conducted at universities, student enrollment at these universities as well as university rankings. Strong entrepreneurial ecosystems and a higher university reputation are positively correlated, according to the findings, which also emphasize the importance of stronger links with industry players, higher visibility and improved student satisfaction. The research offers suggestions for developing an innovative entrepreneurial culture on campus and explores the strategic ramifications for universities looking to enhance their reputation by promoting entrepreneurial activities.
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The helix model (triple, quadruple, and quintuple) research has grown drastically in the past decade as a practical approach for establishing new theories and spreading knowledge. Expanding research is being conducted on the underlying causes and effects of the helix model development in knowledge sharing. This study assesses the literature on model helix creation in knowledge sharing through three components of bibliometric analysis (co-citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and co-word analysis) based on 227 peer-reviewed publications from 1970 to 2022. This literature review integrates thematic groups from different analyses to offer a holistic picture of the current state-of-the-art, designing its main approaches and offering future field trends. These findings are crucial for academics, practitioners, and stakeholders in seeking to improvise the helix model for policymakers by incorporating the helix model into a knowledge-sharing strategy.
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The study delves into the realm of Promotion and Fostering of Entrepreneurship (PFE) research, a domain of scholarly interest due to its potential to shape a future where economic growth aligns with societal well-being. This article presents the first-ever bibliometric analysis of academic research dedicated to PFE, spanning from 1956 to 2021. Utilizing bibliometric techniques as performance analysis and graphical mapping, the research examines academic output using the Scopus database, categorizing articles, authors, and institutions. Noteworthy journals like Journal of Business Venturing feature prominently. Crucial articles by authors like Walter, Auer, and Ritter gain attention, while influential institutions like the University of Toronto are emphasized. Graphical mapping of Keywords highlights the growing importance of PFE research, with a notable surge in studies over the last decade. Entrepreneurship ecosystems and the integration of PFE with sustainability and social responsibility issues stand out as new and prominent perspectives.
Chapter
We devote this chapter to knowledge transfer offices (KTOs). They are at the heart of universities’ and PROs’ third mission (TM) strategies for the valorization of research results. KTOs represent one of the most important organizational mechanisms in support of knowledge sharing, in charge of managing an increasing number of activities that take place between research organizations, external stakeholders and industrial partners.
Article
Purpose This systematic review aims to identify the key determinants of knowledge transfer (KT) activities among researchers. Design/methodology/approach This study systematically reviewed KT literature in academic settings from 1995–2023. The authors searched Web of Science and Scopus using predefined keywords, following PRISMA guidelines for screening and eligibility assessment. From 158 selected articles, the authors extracted data and conducted a descriptive analysis to map KT activities’ evolution. A narrative synthesis approach categorized determinants of researchers’ KT activities. Findings The systematic review findings revealed a general conceptual framework that categorizes the identified determinants of KT into four categories. At the individual level, the factors are related to the sociodemographic characteristics of the researcher (e.g. gender, age, experience), their psychological aspects (e.g. attitude, intrinsic motivation, intention) and personal characteristics (e.g. self-efficacy, communication skills). At the research team level, leadership style and team dynamics. At the organizational level, the findings emphasize university characteristics (e.g. size, structure and ranking), KT culture installed and university resources. At the inter-organizational level, the key determinants were funding sources, network strength and trust. Research limitations/implications The studies included in our database were different in terms of contexts, country of the study, the disciplines of KT and the types of KT activities examined. This variety restricts the direct comparison of research findings thus the generalizability of our conclusions. Future research should focus on specific contexts, disciplines, countries or types of KT activities to provide generalizable findings. Practical implications A better understanding of all the factors influencing KT among university researchers is essential for several reasons. First, it will enable the government to develop effective policies to promote KT ecosystems. Second, universities can create strategies, policies and programs to support researchers’ engagement in KT activities. Finally, researchers can be more strategic in their KT efforts. Originality/value This systematic review contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive conceptual framework that identifies KT determinants at different levels and fills a gap in the existing literature that only addresses specific aspects of KT determinants. This framework can be a theoretical reference for future empirical studies. Furthermore, it practically provides recommendations for different actors including, government, universities and researchers.
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Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the evolution of the literature on technology transfer and culture, identifying the main contents of the current body of knowledge encompassing culture and technology transfer (TT), thus contributing to a better understanding of the relationship between TT and culture based on bibliometric and multivariate statistical analyses of the relevant body of literature. Design/methodology/approach Data for this study were collected from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection database. Based on a bibliometric analysis and in-depth empirical review of major TT subjects, supported by multivariate statistical analyses, over 200 articles were systematically reviewed. The use of these methods decreases biases since it adds rigor to the subjective evaluation of the relevant literature base. Findings The exploratory analysis of the articles shows that first, culture is an important topic for TT in the literature; second, the publication data demonstrate a great dynamism regarding the different contexts in which culture is covered in the TT literature and third, in the last couple of years the interest of stimulating a TT culture in the context of universities has continuously grown. Research limitations/implications This study focuses on culture in the context of TT and identifies the main contents of the body of knowledge in the area. Based on this first insight, obtained through more detailed bibliometric and multivariate analyses, it is now important to develop and validate a theory on TT culture, emphasizing the dimensions of organizational culture, entrepreneurial culture and a culture of openness that fosters economic and societal spillovers, and to link those dimensions to the performance of TT activities. Practical implications From the practical point of view, managers in companies and universities should be aware of the importance of identifying those dimensions of culture that contribute most to the success of their TT activities. Originality/value Despite several literature reviews on the TT topic, no studies focusing specifically on culture in the context of TT have been developed. Therefore, given the multifaceted nature of the research field, this study aims to expand and to deepen the analysis of the TT literature by focusing on culture as an important and commonly cited element influencing TT performance.
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This paper analyzes universities' recent attempts to adapt their policies and organizational arrangements in order to accommodate the commercialization of university biotechnology research. We argue that these attempts have been severely hampered because internal and external parties have sought to enforce universities' adherence to their historic commitment to create and sustain an 'intellectual commons' for the benefit of society at large. The standardized organizational arrangements universities maintain to administer this intellectual commons have also served to impede adaptive efforts. We conclude that social-contractual commitments and organizational standards can significantly affect the shape and outcome of negotiations over property rights, and can place important limits on the scope of organizations, potentially leading to the generation of new organizational forms.
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American universities are experimenting with new mechanisms for promoting the commercialization of academic research and generating revenue from university intellectual property. This paper discusses mechanisms available to universities in managing the commercialization of intellectual property, considering equity as a technology transfer mechanism that offers advantages for both generating revenue and aligning the interests of universities, industry and faculty. Employing data from a national survey of Carnegie I and Carnegie II institutions, we document the recent rise in university equity holdings. We present and estimate a model that considers the university's use of equity to be a function of behavioral factors related to the university's prior experiences with licensing, success relative to other institutions, and the organization of the technology transfer office, as well as structural characteristics related to university type.
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In this paper, we argue that the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends is critical to its innovative capabilities. We label this capability a firm's absorptive capacity and suggest that it is largely a function of the firm's level of prior related knowledge. The discussion focuses first on the cognitive basis for an individual's absorptive capacity including, in particular, prior related knowledge and diversity of background. We then characterize the factors that influence absorptive capacity at the organizational level, how an organization's absorptive capacity differs from that of its individual members, and the role of diversity of expertise within an organization. We argue that the development of absorptive capacity, and, in turn, innovative performance are history- or path-dependent and argue how lack of investment in an area of expertise early on may foreclose the future development of a technical capability in that area. We formulate a model of firm investment in research and development (R&D), in which R&D contributes to a firm's absorptive capacity, and test predictions relating a firm's investment in R&D to the knowledge underlying technical change within an industry. Discussion focuses on the implications of absorptive capacity for the analysis of other related innovative activities, including basic research, the adoption and diffusion of innovations, and decisions to participate in cooperative R&D ventures.
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The development of commercially viable new products requires that technological and market possibilities are linked effectively in the product's design. Innovators in large firms have persistent problems with such linking, however. This research examines these problems by focusing on the shared interpretive schemes people use to make sense of product innovation. Two interpretive schemes are found to inhibit development of technology-market knowledge: departmental thought worlds and organizational product routines. The paper describes in some depth differences among the thought worlds which keep innovators from synthesizing their expertise. The paper also details how organizational routines exacerbate problems with learning, and how successful innovators overcome both interpretive barriers. The main implication of the study is that to improve innovation in large firms it is necessary to deal explicitly with the interpretive barriers described here. Suggestions for practice and research are offered.
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Artículo de la publicación periódica anual Research in Organizational Behavior que aborda ensayos analíticos y revisiones críticas en el campo de las organizaciones. Corresponde al volumen 12 publicado en 1990.
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This paper describes results of our survey of licensing at 62 research universities. We consider ownership, income splits, stage of development, marketing, license policies and characteristics, goals of licensing and the role of the inventor in licensing. Based on these results we analyze the relationship between licensing outcomes and both the objectives of the TTO and the characteristics of the technologies. Patent applications grow one-to-one with disclosures, while sponsored research grows similarly with licenses executed. Royalties are typically larger the higher the quality of the faculty and the higher the fraction of licenses that are executed at latter stages of development. Sponsored research is more likely to be included in a license if the new technology is at an early stage of development or if the TTO evaluates it as important. We find that additional disclosures generate smaller percentage increases in licenses, and those increases in licenses generate smaller percentage increases in royalties. Copyright 2001 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
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This paper examines the organizational arrangements used by New Biotechnology Firms (NBFs) to source scientific knowledge. Using data from two highly successful NBFs, the paper shows that both firms relied principally on hierarchies and networks to source scientific knowledge; market arrangements were insignificant. Most interesting, each firm had a very large, diversified set of boundary-spanning collaborative research arrangements, mostly involving university scientists. It is argued that these external research networks enabled the two firms studied to compete more successfully in a highly turbulent and highly competitive industry environment.
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This is a book on the means by which technological knowledge is transferred from countries that develop it to those that need it, but have not yet been able to develop it on their own. The focus is on the transfer of technology from Western countries to Asian countries.
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Technological innovation can alter the competitive status of firms and nations, but its purposeful management is complex, involving the effective integration of people, organizational processes, and plans.
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We employed a qualitative interview technique to develop an inductive model of punishment from a managerial perspective. Findings suggest that managers feel pressure from a variety of sources - organizations, work groups, punished subordinates, and themselves. Managers are also aware that punishment is a highly charged cognitive and emotional event with broad and far-reaching effects that range well beyond punished subordinates and simply changing their attitudes and behaviors.
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How do executive teams make rapid decisions in the high-velocity mi- crocomputer industry? This inductive study of eight microcomputer firms led lo propositions exploring that question. Fast decision makers use more, not less, information than do slow decision makers. The former also develop more, not fewer, alternatives, and use a two-tiered advice process. Conflict resolution and integration among strategic de- cisions and tactical plans are also critical to the pace of decision mak- ing. Finally, fast decisions hased on this pattem of hehaviors lead to superior performance.
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The research described in this article focuses on one important aspect of the innovation process - the need for the innovating system to gather information from and transmit information to several external information areas. Special boundary roles evolve in the organization's communication network to fulfill the essential function of linking the organization's internal network to external sources of information. These boundary roles occur at several organizational boundaries, and their distribution within the organization is contingent on the nature of the organization's work. This research supports literature on boundary spanning in general and highlights the importance of boundary roles in the process of innovation.
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Objectives. —To identify the prevalence and determinants of data-withholding behaviors among academic life scientists.
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The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
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Examines the trend of increasing collaboration between American universities and corporations, including issues such as the academic-industrial complex, secrecy and science, the university as a business/commercial enterprise, who controls the research agenda, downsizing the humanities, and on-line marketing of course material. Expresses concerns about corporate creation and commercialization of knowledge and universities behaving like for-profit companies. (DB)
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Book
The original edition of this book summarized more than a decade of work on communications flow in science and engineering organizations, showing how human and organizational systems could be restructured to bring about improved productivity and better person-to-person contact. While many studies have been done since then, few of them invalidate the general conclusions and recommendations Allen offers. In a new preface he points out - new developments, noting areas that need some modification, elaboration, or extension, and directing readers to the appropriate journal articles where the findings, are reported. The first three chapters provide an overview of the communication system in technology, present the author's research methods, and describe differences in the career paths and goals of engineers and scientists that cause special problems for organizations. The book then discusses how technological information is acquired by the R & D organization, shows how critical technical communication within the laboratory is for R & D performance, and originates the idea of the "gatekeeper," the person who links his or her organization to the world at large. Concluding chapters take up the influence of formal and informal organization and of architecture and office layouts on communication. Many of these ideas have been successfully incorporated by architects and managers in the design of new R & D facilities and complexes.
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This paper addresses research in the life sciences, responsible for significant national expenditures for scientific investigations funded by both the federal government and industry. Our investigation examines faculty members' involvement with industry in entrepreneurial ways that is, involved in translating their research into potentially marketable knowledge or products. First, this study examines whether there are differences in entrepreneurial behaviour between clinical and non-clinical faculty in the life sciences with industry relationships, and, second, to discover any linkage between entrepreneurship and secrecy or productivity in different ways for clinical and non-clinical faculty. The study is based on survey responses of a national sample of 4,000 clinical and non-clinical life sciences faculty in 49 U.S. research universities. The results show non-clinical faculty as more involved at the back end. The more entrepreneurial end of commercialization while clinical faculty are involved at the back end. The more entrepreneurial faculty (non-clinical) are more likely to be secretive about their research. Clinical faculty are less likely to have been denied access to research results or products. Entrepreneurial faculty are not less productive in their faculty roles. This investigation is preliminary in that it addresses one large area of academic research but excludes fields with longer historical relationships with industry.
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The purpose of this study was to perform a qualitative, inductively-oriented investigation of leadership and quality improvement (QI) efforts. This approach was chosen given that there is relatively little evidence regarding the nature of effective leadership as organizations pursue QI, potential differences across managerial levels, and the persistence of leadership as QI efforts evolve. Our qualitative analyses involved the identification of relevant themes or categorical schemes, data collection in an open and somewhat unstructured manner, and theory development in line with the data collected. Based on the analyses, we develop a proposed model of alternative paths of leadership and managerial commitment in association with a QI process. One path involves continuing commitment toward QI efforts and results in a culture shift. In contrast, a second path involves wavering commitment and could lead to negative outcomes such as cynicism about the possibility of organizational change. In sum, this study demonstrates the potential value of pursuing an inductive approach in leadership research.
Article
This paper analyzes universities' recent attempts to adapt their policies and organizational arrangements in order to accommodate the commercialization of university biotechnology research. We argue that these attempts have been severely hampered because internal and external parties have sought to enforce universities' adherence to their historic commitment to create and sustain an `intellectual commons' for the benefit of society at large. The standardized organizational arrangements universities maintain to administer this intellectual commons have also served to impede adaptive efforts. We conclude that social–contractual commitments and organizational standards can significantly affect the shape and outcome of negotiations over property rights, and can place important limits on the scope of organizations, potentially leading to the generation of new organizational forms.
Article
Today almost all industrial research — R&D conducted within a private firm — takes place within the industrialized countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). There is, however, a growing base of industrial research in the Far East, Latin America, and other non-OECD countries. This growth is accelerating as 1.(1) formerly controlled economies move towards market economies,2.(2) multinational corporations (MNCs) seek access to new growth markets internationally, and3.(3) the R&D strategy and organization of MNCs follow new patterns.Inevitably, the industrial research base of non-OECD countries will generate an increasing share of commercial technical advances in world markets. The impact on non-OECD countries and on industrial research generally will be substantial. Technical institutions and universities in emerging economies will be upgraded as industrial demand increases for more sophisticated R&D programs and for more technical graduates with advanced degrees. More technical advances from non-OECD countries will stimulate more R&D by MNCs both at home and in host countries.
Article
Growth during the 1980s and 1990s in patenting and licensing by American universities is frequently asserted to be a direct consequence of the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980. However, there has been little empirical analysis of the effects of this legislation. This paper uses previously unexploited data to consider the effects of Bayh–Dole at three leading universities: the University of California, Stanford University, and Columbia University. Two of these universities (California and Stanford) were active in patenting and licensing before Bayh–Dole, and one (Columbia) became active only after its passage. The evidence suggests that Bayh–Dole was only one of several important factors behind the rise of university patenting and licensing activity. Bayh–Dole also appears to have had little effect on the content of academic research at these universities. A comparison of these three universities reveals remarkable similarities in their patent and licensing portfolios 10 years after the passage of the Bayh–Dole Act. The concluding section raises several questions about the effects of Bayh–Dole and related policy shifts that are not addressed by this analysis but that deserve attention in future research.
Article
We present quantitative and qualitative evidence on the relative productivity of university technology transfer offices (TTOs). Our empirical results suggest that TTO activity is characterized by constant returns to scale and that environmental and institutional factors explain some of the variation in performance. Productivity may also depend on organizational practices. Unfortunately, there are no quantitative measures available on such practices, so we rely on inductive, qualitative methods to identify them. Based on 55 interviews of 98 entrepreneurs, scientists, and administrators at five research universities, we conclude that the most critical organizational factors are faculty reward systems, TTO staffing/compensation practices, and cultural barriers between universities and firms.
Article
The most productive ("star") bioscientists had intellectual human capital of extraordinary scientific and pecuniary value for some 10-15 years after Cohen and Boyer's 1973 founding discovery for biotechnology [Cohen, S., Chang, A., Boyer, H. & Helling, R. (1973) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70, 3240-3244]. This extraordinary value was due to the union of still scarce knowledge of the new research techniques and genius and vision to apply them in novel, valuable ways. As in other sciences, star bioscientists were very protective of their techniques, ideas, and discoveries in the early years of the revolution, tending to collaborate more within their own institution, which slowed diffusion to other scientists. Close, bench-level working ties between stars and firm scientists were needed to accomplish commercialization of the breakthroughs. Where and when star scientists were actively producing publications is a key predictor of where and when commercial firms began to use biotechnology. The extent of collaboration by a firm's scientists with stars is a powerful predictor of its success: for an average firm, 5 articles coauthored by an academic star and the firm's scientists result in about 5 more products in development, 3.5 more products on the market, and 860 more employees. Articles by stars collaborating with or employed by firms have significantly higher rates of citation than other articles by the same or other stars. The U.S. scientific and economic infrastructure has been particularly effective in fostering and commercializing the bioscientific revolution. These results let us see the process by which scientific breakthroughs become economic growth and consider implications for policy.
Article
To identify the prevalence and determinants of data-withholding behaviors among academic life scientists. Mailed survey of 3394 life science faculty in the 50 universities that received the most funding from the National Institutes of Health in 1993. A total of 2167 faculty responded to the survey, a 64% response rate. Whether respondents delayed publication of their research results for more than 6 months and whether respondents refused to share research results with other university scientists in the last 3 years. A total of 410 respondents (19.8%) reported that publication of their research results had been delayed by more than 6 months at least once in the last 3 years to allow for patent application, to protect their scientific lead, to slow the dissemination of undesired results, to allow time to negotiate a patent, or to resolve disputes over the ownership of intellectual property. Also, 181 respondents (8.9%) reported refusing to share research results with other university scientists in the last 3 years. In multivariate analysis, participation in an academic-industry research relationship and engagement in the commercialization of university research were significantly associated with delays in publication. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were 1.34 (1.07-1.59) and 3.15 (2.88-3.41), respectively. Variables associated with refusing to share results were conducting research similar to the Human Genome Project (OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.75-2.42), publication rate (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01-1.03), and engagement in commercialization of research (OR, 2.45; 95% CI, 2.08-2.82). Withholding of research results is not a widespread phenomenon among life-science researchers. However, withholding is more common among the most productive and entrepreneurial faculty. These results also suggest that data withholding has affected a significant number of life-science faculty and further study on data-withholding practices is suggested.
Article
We present quantitative and qualitative evidence (field research) on university technology transfer offices (TTOs). These offices negotiate licensing agreements with firms to commercialize university-based technologies. A stochastic frontier production function framework is used to assess the relative productivity of 113 university TTOs. Our field research provided a useful reality check on the specification of the econometric model. The empirical findings imply that licensing activity is characterized by constant returns to scale. Environmental and institutional factors appear to explain some of the variation in TTO efficiency. Relative productivity may also depend on organizational practices in university management of intellectual property, which potentially attenuate palpable differences in the motives, incentives, and organizational cultures of the parties to licensing agreements. Unfortunately, there are no existing data on such practices, so we rely on inductive, qualitative methods to identify them. We present detailed information on our use of these methods. This information may be useful to economists who are contemplating fieldwork. Based on 55 interviews of managers/entrepreneurs and administrators at five research universities, we conclude that the most critical organizational factors are likely to be reward systems for faculty, TTO staffing and compensation practices, and actions taken by administrators to extirpate informational and cultural barriers between universities and firms.
Article
In light of the history of Research Triangle Park, we develop an analytical model to characterize the Park's growth. The model is based on the hypothesis that the Park's growth can be thought of as the adoption of an innovation, where the innovation is the new innovative environment created by the Park and its infrastructure. Copyright 2003 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Article
University technology transfer activities are increasingly important as a source of regional economic development and revenue for the university. We use regression analysis, a two-stage model and the most recent data to examine the determinants of technology transfer. Our analysis strongly support four factors, not previously examined in the literature, enhancing university technology transfer: greater rewards for faculty involvement in technology transfer, location of the university in a region with a concentration of high technology firms, a clear university mission in support of technology transfer and the experience of the university's technology transfer office. Copyright 2003 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Article
The concept of university-industry collaboration is an important social experiment in the nation's innovation system. This study examines the sustainability of this collaborative experience by focusing on the actual "give-and-take" outcomes between university faculty members and industrial firms. Based on two separate but similar surveys conducted in 1997, one for faculty members and another for industry technology managers, the study reports that participants in research collaboration appear to realize significant benefits, some expected and others unexpected. The most significant benefit realized by firms is an increased access to new university research and discoveries, and the most significant benefits by faculty members is complementing their own academic research by securing funds for graduate students and lab equipment, and by seeking insights into their own research. Reflecting on their collaborative experience, an overwhelming majority of these participants say that in the future they would expand or at least sustain the present level of collaboration. Copyright 2000 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Managing the Flow of Technology: Technology Transfer and the Dissemination of Technological Information within the R&D Organization Privatizing the intellectual commons: universities and the commercialization of biotechnology
  • T J Allen
Allen, T.J., 1984. Managing the Flow of Technology: Technology Transfer and the Dissemination of Technological Information within the R&D Organization. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Argyres, N.S., Liebeskind, J.P., 1996. Privatizing the intellectual commons: universities and the commercialization of biotechnology. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 35, 427–454.
Qualitative Research Methods and Organization Studies Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on innovation and learning
  • A Bryman
  • W M Cohen
  • D Levinthal
Bryman, A., 1989. Qualitative Research Methods and Organization Studies. Unwin Hyman, London. Cohen, W.M., Levinthal, D., 1990. Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on innovation and learning. Administrative Science Quarterly 35, 128–152.
  • D S Siegel
D.S. Siegel et al. / J. Eng. Technol. Manage. 21 (2004) 115-142
Technology Transfer: Administration of the Bayh-Dole Act by Research Universities
General Accounting Office, 1998. Technology Transfer: Administration of the Bayh-Dole Act by Research Universities. US General Accounting Office, Washington, DC.