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Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak experiences
Abstract
This study among 178 music teachers and 605 students from 16 different music schools examined the peak experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). On the basis of the literature, it is hypothesized that job resources, including autonomy, performance feedback, social support, and supervisory coaching have a positive influence on the balance between teachers’ challenges and skills, which, in turn, contributes to their experience of flow (absorption, work enjoyment, and intrinsic work motivation). In addition, using emotional contagion theory, it is hypothesized that flow may crossover from teachers to their students. The results of structural equation modeling analyses offer support for both hypotheses. These findings are discussed in light of theories about crossover and emotional contagion.
... WhatsApp dapat mengganggu proses pendidikan karena dapat menimbulkan kecanduan, bermalas-malasan, dan mengganggu konsentrasi karena teringat dan membayangkan informasi-informasi yang diterima di media sosial whatsApp atau dapat dikenal dengan adanya distraksi media sosial (Jannaty, 2023;Rozalia, 2017;Zuliani et al., 2023). Pengurangan konsentrasi tersebut dapat memengaruhi kondisi academic flow, sebab konsentrasi atau disebut sebagai absorption by activity merupakan salah satu aspek penting dari kondisi tersebut (Aini et al., 2019;Bakker, 2005) Academic flow dapat diartikan sebagai kondisi larut, tenggelam, dan menikmatinya dalam sebuah kurun waktu yang lama sehingga terciptanya kelancaran dalam penyerapan materi pembelajaran meskipun dalam kondisi yang tidak kondusif (Bakker, 2005). Kondisi flow dapat mengantarkan siswa pada hasil pembelajaran yang ideal dan memuaskan (Pearce & Howard, 2004). ...
... WhatsApp dapat mengganggu proses pendidikan karena dapat menimbulkan kecanduan, bermalas-malasan, dan mengganggu konsentrasi karena teringat dan membayangkan informasi-informasi yang diterima di media sosial whatsApp atau dapat dikenal dengan adanya distraksi media sosial (Jannaty, 2023;Rozalia, 2017;Zuliani et al., 2023). Pengurangan konsentrasi tersebut dapat memengaruhi kondisi academic flow, sebab konsentrasi atau disebut sebagai absorption by activity merupakan salah satu aspek penting dari kondisi tersebut (Aini et al., 2019;Bakker, 2005) Academic flow dapat diartikan sebagai kondisi larut, tenggelam, dan menikmatinya dalam sebuah kurun waktu yang lama sehingga terciptanya kelancaran dalam penyerapan materi pembelajaran meskipun dalam kondisi yang tidak kondusif (Bakker, 2005). Kondisi flow dapat mengantarkan siswa pada hasil pembelajaran yang ideal dan memuaskan (Pearce & Howard, 2004). ...
... Kondisi flow dapat mengantarkan siswa pada hasil pembelajaran yang ideal dan memuaskan (Pearce & Howard, 2004). Csikzentmihalyi berpendapat bahwa siswa membutuhkan flow dalam proses akademik agar mampu fokus dan konsentrasi dalam menyelesaikan segala tugas meskipun sedang mengalami kondisi sulit dalam pembelajarannya (Bakker, 2005;Gatari, 2020). Flow berdampak baik terhadap performa belajar siswa, penelitian menunjukkan flow membuat siswa lebih bersemangat saat mendapatkan tugas yang cukup menantang dan cenderung lebih baik dalam hal atensi, mood, serta motivasi (Shernoff et al., 2003). ...
This study aims to determine the relationship between the intensity of WhatsApp social media use and academic flow in Darul Fatwa High School students in the 2023/2024 school year. The quantitative method of correlational type was used in this study, with a population of 120 students and a sample of 92 students obtained through proportionate stratified random sampling technique. The normality test results show that the significance value on the academic flow variable is 0.200 and the intensity of whatsApp social media use variable is 0.190 which indicates that both variables have normally distributed data. The results of hypothesis testing show a correlation coefficient value of -0.172 with a significance value of 0.100, this value indicates that there is no relationship between variables X and Y.
... Results were able to demonstrate a significant strong correlation between flow and presence (Nijs et al., 2012). In another study using structural equational modelling, job resources was seen to have a positive influence on the dimension of challenge-skills dimension of flow among music teachers, also resulting in a flow crossover to the students (emotional contagion theory) (Bakker, 2005). A research that intended to observe in academic and social activities among high school music students and observed that the students were able to experience flow in a wide range of activities but musical and academic activities were prominently able to induce flow as compared to other social activities (Diaz & Silveira, 2013). ...
... Both mindfulness and flow are closely related with music. Flow is a frequent phenomenon among musicians and playing a musical instrument is one of the paradigmatic conditions for inducing flow states (Bakker, 2005;Diaz & Silveira, 2013;Sinnamon et al., 2012). Music and playing a musical instrument are seen as essential areas where flow keeps ones attention captured, triggers a range of emotions, alters or regulates mood, heightens arousal, induces higher states of functioning and encourages rhythmic movement (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 2017). ...
... Despite well-established similarities in the basic construct and outcome effects of mindfulness and flow (Allen & Kiburz, 2012;Bakker, 2005;Bakker et al., 2011;Baltzell et al., 2014;Brown & Ryan, 2003;Carpentier et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2019;Dane & Brummel, 2014;Fritz & Avsec, 2007), there are some researchers who point to the differences between these two experiences. In a study that aimed to observe the experiential incompatibility of mindfulness and flow, it was reported that boosting one´s ability to remain mindful might actually undermine their ability to reach intense states of absorption, which are reflective of flow experience (Sheldon et al., 2015). ...
Mindfulness and flow are two optimal, therapeutic and productive states of consciousness that have recently gained a lot of attention in various fields such as clinical, cognitive science, psychology, sports, music, human-computer interaction, etc. There is an ongoing discussion about the similarities and differences between these two states, and numerous studies have appeared comparing the two based on various parameters such as present awareness and the type of self that both seek to promote. Research on integrating mindfulness to influence the flow phenomenon has proven to be a promising field, but there is little knowledge about the relationship between these two states in general and in a musical context in particular. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the constructs of mindfulness and the dimensions of flow during the process of playing a musical instrument. Playing a musical instrument is one of the most important areas for entering the flow state, and research on the relevance of mindfulness during the flow phenomenon in a musical context is still in its infancy. This work is divided into two main studies. The first study aims to investigate whether the dispositional trait of mindfulness has a predictive relationship with different dimensions of flow. Such an investigation should understand the nature of optimal experiences of mindfulness and flow and try to elucidate the issues related to their coexistence and interdependence. The second study was a qualitative study aimed at observing the changes in the lived experience of flow by changing mindfulness levels in musicians. A one-month musical induction program was planned with two music students and two musicians.
Mindfulness and flow are two optimal, therapeutic and productive states of consciousness that have recently gained a great deal of attention in various fields such as clinical, cognitive science, psychology, sports, music, human-computer interaction, etc. There is an ongoing discussion about the similarities and differences between these two states, and numerous studies have appeared comparing the two based on various parameters such as present awareness and the type of self that both seek to promote. Research on integrating mindfulness to influence the flow phenomenon has proven to be a promising field, but there is little knowledge about the relationship between these two states in general and in a musical context in particular. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the constructs of mindfulness and the dimensions of flow during the process of playing a musical instrument. Playing a musical instrument is one of the most important areas for entering the flow state, and research on the relevance of mindfulness during the flow phenomenon in a musical context is still in its infancy. This work is divided into two main studies. The first study aims to investigate whether the dispositional trait of mindfulness has a predictive relationship with different dimensions of flow. Such an investigation should understand the nature of optimal experiences of mindfulness and flow and try to elucidate the issues related to their coexistence and interdependence. The second study was a qualitative study aimed at observing the changes in the lived experience of flow by changing mindfulness levels in musicians. A one-month musical induction program was planned with two music students and two musicians. In summary, the results of the experiments presented in this thesis provide a preliminary understanding of how mindfulness is related to various dimensions of flow and how a mindfulness training program has an ability to influence flow in musical instrument playing context. This thesis contributes to the literature at a conceptual level by identifying which constructs of mindfulness that have a greater influence on different dimensions of flow as well as outlining relevant mindfulness-based intervention techniques.
... In the light of these definitions, flow experience can be said to have three main features: giving yourself to an activity completely, having the highest level of pleasure regardless of the necessity of the job, and having intrinsic motivation (Bakker, 2008;Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Bakker (2005) characterizes this short-term peak experience (flow) by three elements: absorption, work enjoyment and intrinsic work motivation. He observes that these dimensions increase employees' job performance and are, therefore, indicators that explain the structure of performance (Bakker, 2008). ...
... Especially, one's degree in the work enjoyment dimension is the most important indicator of task performance. In addition, the degree of intrinsic work motivation is found to be associated with contextual performance (Bakker, 2005). ...
... Regarding the relationship between flow experience and LMX, welldefined and precise purpose, open-way communication and beneficial feedback can be influential factors for flow experience of employees (Nakamura & Csikzentmihalyi, 2005). Furthermore, Bakker (2005) claims that it is possible to increase the likelihood of employees in the work environment experiencing flow. According to a study by Bakker (2005) on music teachers, those who felt manager support experience more flow. ...
Based on the positive psychology approach, the present study claims that Leader-Member Exchange Theory and Person-Job Fit Theory could be significant antecedents of flow experience in the workplace, as individuals living in the 21st century spend most of their lives at work. Flow experience is a source of high motivation for employees in terms of both cognitive and emotional functions. Therefore, the concept can cause many psychological states of well-being, such as having fun, feeling happy, or optimism. For this reason, it is quite important for the organizational behavior discipline to define the concept in detail and to focus on possible antecedents. In accordance with this purpose, a cross-sectional research study has been performed in Turkey with the participation of 711 white-collar employees from various companies in the service sector in Istanbul, Turkey. The findings of the research show that high quality manager-employee relationships had significant positive impacts on employees' flow experience (b ¼ 0,801; t ¼ 35,664; p ¼ ,000). In addition, a good match between person and job had significant positive impacts on employees' flow experience (b ¼ 0,559; t ¼ 17,968; p ¼ ,000). Thus, the proposed hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2 of the study were supported. The results indicated that leader-member exchange and person-job fit are antecedents of flow experience in the workplace (p < 0,05). In the present study, all study variables are reviewed and the possible relationships among the study variables are discussed in the literature review part. Finally, the implications of the study for both the individual and the organization are presented in the conclusion and discussion section.
... In music learning, flow fuels intense focus, pleasure, and an intrinsic drive for growth. Flow is closely tied to students' motivation and engagement (Custodero, 2002) and can be influenced by teachers' own experiences (Bakker, 2005). Flow enhances performance, promotes growth, and contributes to well-being in musical settings (Spahn et al., 2021). ...
... Intrinsically motivated students, especially those in flow, tend to invest more time and effort into their musical pursuits, leading to greater engagement, persistence, and better outcomes (Evans & Bonneville-Roussy, 2016;Valenzuela et al., 2018). These findings align with and extend Bakker's (2005) work and underscore the importance of creating learning environments that foster flow and cultivate intrinsic motivation (Tan & Sin, 2020) to optimize student learning and achievement in music education. ...
... Our research reveals that flow indirectly influences learning outcomes through selfefficacy and learning motivation. This finding deepens our understanding of how flow indirectly enhances learning outcomes through mediating variables, a topic that has not been sufficiently explored in previous studies such as Bakker (2005) and Yeh et al. (2019). Specifically, our study indicates that when students experience flow during music learning and practice, they become fully immersed in the activity, leading to mastery experiences that enhance their self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 2012;Yeh et al., 2019). ...
This study innovatively investigates the interplay among flow, self-efficacy, learning motivation, and learning outcomes in music education, shedding light on the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying these relationships. Employing Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), it analyzes data from 241 music students in the Guangdong region to empirically test the research hypotheses. The results reveal that flow not only directly predicts learning outcomes (β = 0.411) but also indirectly influences them through the serial mediation of self-efficacy and learning motivation (β = 0.026). Moreover, this study uncovers the crucial moderating role of prior experience, showing that the relationships between flow, self-efficacy, and learning outcomes are stronger for students with higher levels of prior experience. These findings not only advance the understanding of flow theory but also provide insights into how to create flow-conducive environments in music education and offer practical implications for designing differentiated teaching strategies based on students' prior experience levels.
... In the aforementioned studies, the percentage of teachers who frequently experience flow in their work varied between 50% and 63%. Teachers of music also experience flow while teaching music (Bakker, 2005;Kang, 2023;Loepthien & Leipold, 2021). ...
... Studies of crossover in teachers found the crossover of burnout symptoms (Bakker & Schaufelli, 2000;Bakker et al., 2007). There is also one study that demonstrates positive crossover, i.e., the crossover of the flow experiences of music teachers to flow experienced by students (Bakker, 2005). ...
... Studies that addressed these antecedents are scarce. Some of them pointed to elements of the school environment such as resourceful working conditions (Bakker, 2005), or behavior of school principals (Basom & Frase, 2004) while others stressed characteristics of teachers such as intrinsic life aspiration (Olčar et al., 2019) or academic optimism (Beard & Hoy, 2010). One study (Salanova et al., 2006) found reciprocal relations between personal (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs) and organizational resources (including social support, climate, and clear goals) and flow. ...
... Flow is defined as when people are fully concentrated in work activities for intrinsic rewards instead of materialistic gains (Bakker, 2005;Tse et al., 2022). Literature has asserted that flow is positive psychology that increases work productivity, enhances innovation, and develops employees (Kasa & Hassan, 2017). ...
... All four variables used in the research model ( Figure 1) (i.e., Structural empowerment, Physiological empowerment, Flow, and Retention) were examined by using instruments adapted from previous studies. Structural empowerment was measured using 12 items from Kanter's (1979Kanter's ( , 2010 study, Physiological empowerment was measured using 21 items from a study by Spreitzer (1995), Flow was being measured using Bakker (2005) study which contains 13 items, and Retention was being measured with 11 items from a study by Kyndt et al. (2009). All items utilized were being rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "Strongly Agree" (1) to "Strongly Disagree" (5). ...
... Investigations from this study establish a strong positive link between experiencing flow and sustaining employee retention. Flow is defined as a state of positive psychological engagement that results in heightened focus and concentration during work tasks (Bakker, 2005;Kasa et al., 2019;Kasa & Hassan, 2013). This intense engagement not only elevates individual job performance but also significantly boosts overall productivity, leading to beneficial outcomes for organizations. ...
... Akış deneyimi ve eğitim alanında yapılmış çalışmalar incelendiğinde öğretmenlerin akış deneyimlemesini sağlayan içsel faktörlerin kendini kaptırma, işten zevk alma ve içsel çalışma motivasyonu olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmış ayrıca öğretmenlerin akış yaşamaları (özveri, işten zevk alma ve içsel motivasyonu) ile öğrencilerin akış deneyimlemeleri arasında pozitif yönlü bir ilişki belirlenmiştir (Bakker, 2005). Yine öğretmenler açısından ele alındığında öğretmenlerin katılım, otantik ve anlamlı görevler, ilişkiler, öğrenme ortamı ile esneklik ve risk alma gibi faktörlerin akış deneyimlemelerinde etkili olduğu ifade edilmektedir (Dalton vd., 2014). ...
... Yine öğretmenler açısından ele alındığında öğretmenlerin katılım, otantik ve anlamlı görevler, ilişkiler, öğrenme ortamı ile esneklik ve risk alma gibi faktörlerin akış deneyimlemelerinde etkili olduğu ifade edilmektedir (Dalton vd., 2014). Bununla birlikte Bakker (2005) öğretmenlerin iş özerklik kaynakları ve performans geri bildirimi, sosyal destek ve denetleyici koçluk gibi dışsal faktörlerden etkilendiğini, bu faktörlerin öğretmenlerin zorluk ve beceri arasındaki dengeleri üzerinde olumlu etki yaratarak akış deneyimlerine katkı sunduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. ...
... Yukarıdaki bilgilerin yanında akış deneyimini cinsiyete göre inceleyen çalışmalarda birbirinden farklı sonuçların ortaya çıktığı gözlenmektedir. Örneğin öğretmenlerin akış deneyimlerinde kadın ve erkek öğretmenler arasında cinsiyetten doğan bir farklılık olmadığını ortaya koyan çalışmalar bulunurken (Bakker, 2005;Belce, 2019;Sahoo & Sahu, 2009), bazı çalışmalarda ise akış deneyiminde cinsiyet değişkeni açısından anlamlı farkların olduğu belirtilmektedir (Ermiş, 2013;Karasakal, 2019). Ermiş (2013)'e göre kadınlar erkeklere kıyasla daha çok akış deneyimi yaşamaktadır. ...
Mersin ili merkez ilçeleri kamu ortaokullarında görevli öğretmenlerin akış deneyimleri üzerinde öz liderlikleri ile pozitif psikolojik sermaye algılarının rolünü incelemeyi amaçlayan bu araştırmada ilişkisel tarama deseni kullanılmıştır. Küme örnekleme yönteminin kullanıldığı araştırmanın örneklemini 2021-2022 eğitim öğretim yılında Mersin ili merkez ilçelerindeki kamu ortaokullarında görev yapmakta olan toplam 636 (361 kadın, 275 erkek) öğretmen oluşturmaktadır. Bu araştırmanın verileri, “Çalışmada Akış Deneyimi Ölçeği”; “Pozitif Psikolojik Sermaye Ölçeği” ve “Öz Liderlik Ölçeği” aracılığıyla elde edilmiştir. Veriler SPSS 22.0 paket programında analiz edilmiştir. Toplam örneklem için elde edilen bulgular öz liderlik ve pozitif psikolojik sermaye algısının birlikte öğretmenlerin akış deneyiminde toplam varyansın % 25’ini açıkladığını göstermektedir. Toplam örneklem grubu için öz liderlik, öğretmenlerin akış deneyimini açıklayan en güçlü değişkendir. Kadın ve erkek örneklem grubuna yönelik yapılan çoklu ve adımsal regresyon analizinin sonucunda kadın örneklem grubu için öz liderlik ve pozitif psikolojik sermaye algısının akış deneyiminin anlamlı yordayıcıları olduğu belirlenmiştir. Erkek örneklem grubu için ise öz liderlik anlamlı bir yordayıcıyken, pozitif psikolojik sermaye algısının akış deneyimini anlamlı düzeyde yordamadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular kapsamında okul yöneticilerinin, öğretmenlerin, öğrencilerin ve veli de dahil tüm ögelerin pozitif psikolojik sermaye seviyelerini arttırmaya yönelik çeşitli gelişimsel ve önleyici çalışmalar düzenlemeleri gerektiği belirtilebilir.
... Keller and Blomann (2008) have identi ied a strong relationship pattern between the locus of control and the likelihood of low experience happening under conditions of balance incorporating certain behavioural dimensions in constructing the understanding of low in the process of work. Flow in the workplace has a certain dimensional perspective which needs to be understood in the way it is re lected as an engagement and engaging style in the work-related task as opposed to activities involving leisure (Bakker (2005); ...
... Massimini, 1988). In the study of music teachers Bakker ( 2005) have identi ied the concept of low to be applicable in the work situation and is de ined as an short-term experiences at work which is characterized by the determinants of work enjoyment, absorption and intrinsic work motivation where the absorption is referred to as a total immersion of an individual in the work ( , 1990). It is rather a conceptual Csikszentmihalyi understanding of the cognitive ability and the effective outcome of low experience which is referred to as the experiences of enjoyment of the activity itself giving inherent pleasure and satisfaction in the process of work involvement as an direct indication of low ( Salanova et al 2006) . ...
... Certain indicators in the workplace like autonomy, social support, support in luencing the matching dimension between challenging skill environment affecting the low experience is explained in the study of . Drawing Bakker (2005) from emotional contagion theory Bakker (2005) the positive emotional setup and enjoyment experiences during the low experience spread over the individuals in luence the dimensional understanding of low as applicable in the workplace. ...
In general sense academic output is measured in terms of grades obtained by students taking a particular course or with the level of understanding generated while undergoing the course. The output in terms of A grades is quite easy to comprehend, although, holds little value, the deeper understanding of the course holds much merit, although, it's very dif
... Numerous studies have confirmed the importance of a balance between challenge and skill in achieving flow (Bassi et al., 2012;Delle Fave & Massimini, 2004, 2005Eisenberger et al., 2005;Engeser & Rheinberg, 2008;Fullagar et al., 2013). However, these studies also suggest that high levels of flow can occur even when one's skills exceed the challenges. ...
... 1. Autonomy 2. Skill variety 3. Task identity 4. Task significance 5. Feedback from the task These core job characteristics substantially increase the probability of experiencing flow in the workplace. Of the five characteristics, autonomy seems to be the most consistently and strongly related to flow (Bakker, 2005;Mäkikangas et al., 2010). This is due to the fact that employees' freedom in scheduling their work and in determining their work methods has repeatedly been found to increase positive effect (Saaverda & Kwun, 2000) and motivation (Fried & Ferris, 1987 referenced in Demerouti & Mäkikangas, 2017). ...
... In exploring flow within the framework of the job demands-resources model, Bakker (2005Bakker ( , 2008 and Demerouti (2006) discovered that employees in resource-rich environments are more likely to experience a balance between skills and challenges, leading to higher chances of flow. Job resources include the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of a job that either aid in achieving work goals, mitigate job demands and their costs, or foster personal growth and development (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). ...
Deep work, the ability to focus without distraction on cognitively demanding tasks, is essential for professionals in Estonia's rapidly growing tech sector. However, the evolving work environment and increasing demands on technical experts raise questions about the effectiveness of current management techniques in supporting deep work. This thesis critically evaluates the management techniques and practices employed by Estonian tech companies to facilitate a culture of deep work among their technical professionals. Utilising qualitative research methods, including interviews with Estonian tech leaders and tech professionals, it examines how these practices support or hinder deep work and flow. It also identifies the challenges and barriers these experts face in achieving deep work immersion within the Estonian tech realm. The primary barriers highlighted include frequent interruptions and work fragmentation, a lack of structured and deliberate enhancement of flow, and the absence of consistent and proactive leadership approaches to fostering deep work environments. A notable disconnect between leaders' theoretical understanding and practical application of flow principles further complicates these challenges.
Based on these insights, the thesis proposes refined management strategies aimed at enhancing the support mechanisms for deep work and flow. These strategies focus on minimizing disruptions, implementing structured approaches to encourage flow, and fostering a culture that prioritizes deep work.
The findings reveal that while there is a general recognition among leaders of the importance of deep work, the practical implementation varies significantly, often lacking in structure and proactivity. This research underscores the need for Estonian tech companies to adopt more systematic, proactive management practices to better facilitate deep work. The implications of this study suggest that improving these practices could significantly enhance productivity and job satisfaction, contributing to the sector's overall efficacy and innovation.
This thesis not only provides a critical evaluation of current management techniques but also offers actionable recommendations for fostering an environment where technical experts can thrive, thus supporting the growth and innovation of the tech sector in Estonia.
Keywords: deep work, flow, leadership, management techniques, tech sector
... Flow has been extensively studied across various domains including education (Shernoff et al., 2003), sports (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999), and workplace settings (Bakker, 2005). In academic contexts, ow has been linked to increased concentration, persistence, and academic success (Engeser & Rheinberg, 2008). ...
... In academic contexts, ow has been linked to increased concentration, persistence, and academic success (Engeser & Rheinberg, 2008). In the workplace, Bakker (2005) found that employees experiencing ow reported higher productivity and job satisfaction. ...
This study explores the "Flow Paradox"—a psychological phenomenon wherein sustained high engagement, typically associated with optimal performance and well-being, paradoxically contributes to emotional exhaustion and burnout. Drawing from flow theory and the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model, this research employs the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to examine how real-time flow experiences relate to subsequent changes in subjective vitality and burnout symptoms. Sixty professionals from cognitively demanding fields participated in a 10-day ESM protocol involving momentary assessments of flow, fatigue, and recovery practices, alongside validated psychological instruments. Anticipated results suggest a curvilinear relationship between flow intensity and burnout, with subjective vitality acting as a mediating factor. Additionally, recovery experiences, job autonomy, and emotional regulation are hypothesized to moderate the flow–burnout pathway. The findings aim to challenge the notion of flow as an unconditionally positive state, highlighting the psychological costs of unmanaged engagement. This research contributes theoretically by integrating dynamic models of motivation with occupational health psychology and offers practical implications for sustainable performance strategies. It calls for organizations and individuals to promote balance between deep engagement and recovery to prevent long-term emotional depletion. Overall, the study offers a nuanced understanding of high-performance states in contemporary work contexts.
... This is a multilevel effect in which the enthusiastic behaviors and engagement of professors are expected to influence study demands and resources, student well-being, and student behaviors. For example, it can be hypothesized that engaged professors will be best able to inspire students, influence their enthusiasm and vigor (i.e., student engagement), and influence their study performance (Bakker, 2005;Frenzel et al., 2018;Pachler et al., 2019). Vujčić et al. (2022) found that teacher engagement was positively related to student well-being because students were more willing to invest time and energy in study tasks and activities. ...
... In trainings and workshops, professors may learn about SD-R theory, role-modeling, and the crossover of teacher engagement to students (cf. Bakker, 2005Bakker, , 2022. Through exercises, lecturers can learn about possible ways to increase study resources for students and to stimulate proactive behaviors such as study crafting and playful study design. ...
This article reviews the literature on student well-being (burnout and engagement) and their relationships with study demands and resources, student behaviors (proactive and self-undermining study behaviors), and student outcomes in higher education. Building on research that used Job Demands–Resources and Study Demands–Resources models to investigate student well-being, we develop the Study Demands–Resources (SD–R) theory to delineate the various processes, mechanisms, and behaviors involved in student burnout and engagement. Study demands and resources have unique and combined effects on higher education students’ well-being. In addition, students can influence their own well-being and study-related outcomes by either proactively optimizing their study demands and resources or displaying self-undermining behaviors that can adversely affect their study environment. We discuss several avenues for future research, including (a) rigorous tests of SD–R propositions; (b) trait versus state effects in SD–R theory; (c) the impact of the higher education climate and lecturer influence; and (d) an expanded SD–R theory.
... This balance is fragile, however, because if the challenges encountered begin to exceed personal abilities, this will lead to vigilance, followed by stress and anxiety; instead, if the skills start to surpass the challenges, the person will start to relax, which will then lead to boredom. Moreover, researchers generally agree that flow is more likely to occur when the person perceives this balance to exist (e.g., Bakker, 2005;Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;Fullagar, & Kelloway , 2009), resulting in an optimal experience. Therefore, "the effortless absorption experienced by the practiced artist at work on a difficult project always is premised upon earlier mastery of a complex body of skills" (Nakamura, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005, p. 91). ...
... For flow to occur, it is essential that the person is fully engaged in an activity that is both enjoyable and meaningful to them (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). The reason behind choosing to operationalize flow as a threedimensional experience made up of absorption, enjoyment and intrinsic motivation, similar to research in the field of organizational psychology (Bakker, 2005;, derives from the fact that this study focuses on artistic activities in a university setting, which can be likened to work activities at the office, while feedback, a variable that will be detailed further, is being provided by people of a higher rank who hold more knowledge in the field than the participants, namely art teachers in this study, who can be likened to supervisors at work. The experience of flow through these three components is also of major importance in the case of artistic involvement, with Csikszentmihalyi (1993) suggesting that games, sports and artistic performances are expressly designed to facilitate flow. ...
The current study set out to investigate the effect of flow experienced during artistic activities on performance. Furthermore, the study looked into how the relationship between flow and performance was affected by a moderating variable, namely the perceived feedback given by art teachers. Based on a non-experimental cross-sectional model, the research included a sample of 108 students of various art degrees. The results suggested that flow predicts performance in art (ΔR2 = .10, p < .001), while perceived feedback acts as a moderator on the link between flow and performance (F(3, 104) = 11.17, p < .001), having a buffering effect and not an enhancing effect as this study initially proposed (ΔR2 = .057, β = -.24, p < .01). Moreover, a separate moderation analysis was performed for each subscale of the perceived feedback measuring instrument. Some possible explanations of the buffering effect are presented based on the scientific literature.
... [65] Another important implication of this study is research involving not just students but also teachers. [66] Studies indicate that the flow state among teachers is likely to trigger flow among students. Further studies also show that human interaction and communication are one good way of inducing flow. ...
... Further studies also show that human interaction and communication are one good way of inducing flow. [65,66] ...
In the age of digitization, the prevalence of distraction has grown significantly, particularly impacting the academic sphere and students’ overall well-being. Although previous research highlights the positive outcomes of achieving the state of flow in various contexts, its connection to academic engagement remains relatively less explored. This narrative review article seeks to bridge this gap by synthesizing existing literature to examine the conceptual overlaps and underlying principles between the state of flow and academic engagement. A total of 15 studies were included based on the following criteria: studies on flow and engagement published in English between 1973 and 2021 with a QualSyst score above 0.60. Drawing from the review, we present a conceptual framework delineating the probable conditions for achieving a state of flow to boost academic involvement, bolster student well-being, and foster academic success. It comprises factors such as having clear, well-defined goals and providing prompt feedback; each condition has a significant impact on students’ learning outcomes because of its direct effect on their sense of autonomy, control, and concentration. The implications and insights for educators in guiding students through challenging academic tasks to enhance engagement and well-being were discussed.
... Research has revealed the importance of flow at the workplace (e.g., Bakker, 2005;Demerouti, 2006;Ceja & Navarro, 2012) because this phenomenon may offer a window for action to boost employee performance and well-being. Flow is an intrinsic motivational process characterized by the complete immersion of a person in an activity that later has positive affective and cognitive outcomes (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975(Csikszentmihalyi, , 1990(Csikszentmihalyi, , 2002Engeser & Schiepe-Tiska, 2012;Landhäuβer & Keller, 2012). ...
... Furthermore, Bricteux et al. (2017) identified interest as a moderator of the challenge-skills balance condition and not as a part of the experiential state. They demonstrated in their study that a model of two components (i.e., enjoyment and absorption) was more effective than Bakker's (2005) three flow component model (i.e., enjoyment, absorption, and interest) to evaluate flow experience. ...
A debate has taken place on the relationship between challenge and skills as the universal precondition of flow. Flow's precursor, Csikszentmihalyi, states that these two constructs are independent, while other scholars state the opposite. This research aims to better understand this relationship and explore its effect on the flow experience. As flow is considered a nonergodic and nonlinear process, we will base our analysis on an intra-individual level and then shift to an inter-individual level. The database consisted of 3,630 registers collected from a sample of 60 employees. At an intra-individual level, we observed the nature of the challenge-skills relationship classifying the participants according to the direction of these relationships (positive, negative, or nonsignificant correlation). At the inter-individual level, we explored the effect that the three groups had on the flow experience. We also examined nonlinear relationships (cusp modeling) among challenge, skills, and flow. The results showed that the challenge-skills relationship is not homogeneous between individuals. Flow theory is represented by the positive correlation group, but this pattern is the least frequent (21,6% of the cases) in our sample. Finally, the results showed that the nonlinear models fit the data better (R 2 nonlinear = .48, R 2 linear = .35, p < .01).
... There is no doubt that learner and teacher well-being are connected through processes of emotional contagion (Bakker, 2005;Houser & Waldbuesser, 2017;King, 2016;Mercer, 2018). This refers to when emotions are transferred from one person to another as a result of empathic mirroring of emotional states. ...
This article advocates for the expansion of research into the topic of well-being in language education. It begins by outlining key definitional concerns and then moves to outline general issues and gaps in the current body of research such as a need for a diversification in research in social contexts, working conditions , languages, cultures, as well as a clarification of the domain specificity of the construct. In the main body of the paper, three core specific areas are outlined in detail with suggestions of not only what could be researched but how this could be done in concrete empirical terms. Task 1 concerns the dynamism of well-being across different timescales and how those interact. Task 2 focuses on the relationship between self-efficacy and well-being as an example of one core individual difference that could impact well-being development. Task 3 reflects on the possible interplay between learner and teacher well-being. The article ends by arguing for language teacher well-being to receive the urgent and critical attention that it deserves across the whole range of contexts and individuals who identify as language educators.
... Freer (2009) found that flow characteristics in adolescent boys' descriptions of choral performances were interlinked with the ensemble, their ability to make adjustments, the conductor's sensitivity to student needs, repertoire selection, and rehearsal techniques. Relatedly, Bakker (2005) found that teachers' perspectives on their jobs played a role in their flow, and by applying emotion contagion theory, discovered that flow may transfer from teachers to students. ...
Music performance is a demanding activity requiring complex coordination of abilities from diverse domains. It can be perceived as a form of artistic expression and communication but experienced as a demonstration of personal competency with emotional ramifications that affect musicians' ongoing interest and motivations. Participating in music performance is often a key part of musical development; however, children's perspectives on formative experiences of music performance during early learning are largely unknown. Given the broad range of interacting factors and significant implications, understanding musicians' performance experiences, particularly for child learners, is vital to support sustained engagement. The present study investigated 14 seven-year-old beginner cellists' experiences of music performance during the first 18 months of tuition via a novel combination of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and Participatory Action Research methodologies. Three superordinate themes emerged: (1) feelings of arousal and emotional valence during performance, (2) the identification of four distinct performance environments, and (3) the impact of performance experiences in each environment on children's personal development, including fostering autonomy, agency, confidence, altruism, and social connection. The findings have pedagogical implications for how educators and parents of novice musicians in middle childhood can provide safe music learning environments with varied means of engaging in a range of supportive performance opportunities.
... Accordingly, we investigate how and when status loss affects work engagement. Although past studies have found job characteristics such as greater social support to be positively associated with work engagement (Bakker 2005;Christian, Garza, and Slaughter 2011), past research has not examined how coworker support may influence engagement in situations involving status loss. Despite the many benefits of coworker support, in the section below we draw on research on social ambivalence to suggest that losing status in the eyes of group members who have previously been more supportive may exacerbate disengagement following status loss. ...
People's needs for status and support are theoretically distinct, yet little research has considered how people cope with having one but not the other. We examine how people react to status loss as a function of whether they typically perceive their coworkers as supportive. Although social support is documented as a resource people can draw on to cope with failure at work, we argue that in the case of failures that implicate status (i.e., status loss), experiencing these events in a more supportive work group may not aid recovery and reengagement. Specifically, we predict that when the preexisting group context is one of more (rather than less) supportive coworkers, status loss may elicit greater ambivalence about those coworker relationships, triggering psychological reactions that undermine engagement. Consistent with this model, in a weekly experience sampling study of working adults (Study 1), having more supportive coworkers led to a stronger negative effect of weekly status loss on subsequent engagement. In scenario‐based (Study 2) and high‐involvement laboratory (Study 3) experiments featuring different manipulations of coworker support and status loss, we found that when individuals experienced status loss in more (rather than less) supportive work groups, status loss led to lower engagement because it heightened ambivalence about their coworker relationships, which triggered anxiety (Study 2), and self‐threat and hurt feelings (Study 3). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... The flow experience was originally investigated when highly skilled experts immerse in a highly specialized activity; for instance, an accomplished ballerina while dancing on a stage, a rock climber while climbing an arduous mountain, a surgeon while performing a surgical procedure, and so on. However, a short period of flow may occur in daily activities, such as during musical performance (Bakker, 2005), sports (Bakker et al., 2011;Jackson et al., 1998), Internet use (Pilke, 2004), and video game playing (Cowley et al., 2008;Voiskounsky & Wang, 2014). ...
We examined the relationship between the 10 factors of the Flow-Experience-Checklist (Ishimura, 2014) and the 12 factors of feeling state with regard to the difference between the perceived and actual duration during the execution of a typing game. Twenty participants typed each sentence as quickly but accurately as possible, and answered the duration required at the end of each trial. Flow was experienced in more than half of the trials. Of the trials in which flow was experienced, more than 60% of the underestimation of duration was explained by concentration, goal orientation, and sense of control, and more than 80% of the overestimation of duration was explained by concentration and vigorous feeling. These results suggest that extreme concentration is involved in generating the flow experience, and that goal orientation, sense of control, and vigorous feeling are involved in determining the direction of the duration-length illusion.
... Regarding the work engagement dimension absorption it seems logical that effortless tasks do not absorb employees and therefore effort should have a positive effect on absorption. Furthermore, as absorption parallels with the concept of flow, it is likely that also absorption emerges in situations where employees have to invest time and energy and which are characterized by considerable challenges and matching skills (Bakker, 2005). Previous research supports a positive connection between effort and absorption. ...
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory consentrates on the unique dyadic relationships between leaders and followers. Consistent evidence associates LMX relationships to employee work engagement, but research on the mechanisms explaining the connection has remain scarce. This study applies social exchange, LMX and effort-reward imbalance theories to examine whether the effort made by employee and the reward gained mediate the relationship between LMX and three dimensions of work engagement: vigor, dedication, and absorption. A large Finnish cross-sectional sample (M = 1701) collected from service-sector was analysed utilizing path modelling. The results indicate that high-quality LMX relationships were connected with employees’ greater reward and reduced effort, which in turn partially mediated the positive association to work engagement dimensions. Reward was positively connected with vigor, dedication, and absorption, while effort had a negative relationship with vigor and a positive association with absorption. There was no significant interaction effect between effort and reward on any work engagement dimension. This study contributes to literature by connecting LMX with work engagement dimensions and, more importantly, provides empirical evidence on the mechanism explaining these relationships. Reward had a particularly important role in explaining the relationships. Distinct associations with vigor, dedication and absorption encourages to examine them separately in future studies.
... They provided not only financial support for my piano education but also spiritual and emotional encouragement that bolstered my desire to continue learning. A child's musical motivation and consequent behaviour can substantially benefit from parental support (Bakker, 2005;Grolnick et al., 2002), parents' socio-economic background (Klinedinst, 1991), and parental support for practice and curriculum (Brokaw, 1983). This support was crucial, yet as I reflected, I realized that my own willingness to embrace their expectations and turn their external support into personal motivation played an equally important role. ...
This autoethnography explores the role of motivation in the piano learning and practice journey of the first author. The study is underpinned by understandings of how motivation evolves from extrinsic influences, such as parental support, teachers’ guidance, and peer influence, to intrinsic motivation that drives personal growth. Using a reflective and collaborative approach incorporating narratives, we examine key moments and emotional landscapes as the first author reveals the transformative power of motivation in shaping her piano learning experience. Our findings highlight the critical role of self-determination in fostering sustained engagement and success on the path of piano learning and practice. More broadly, this exploration enhances comprehension of the intricate connection between motivation and personal growth in the field of music instruction, informing both learner and educator.
... Ciarrochi, Kashdan, & Harris, 2013), as well as with a systems informed positive psychology perspective (Kern & Taylor, 2021;Kern et al., 2020). Unlike mechanistic approaches to school administration and teaching practices (Basom & Frase, 2004), these perspectives consider psychologically informed education processes -broadly defined -as aimed to promote expanded awareness, meaningful and virtuous contribution to surrounding society and culture, as well as education related flow experiences (Swenson, 2016) in both students and teachers (Bakker, 2005). ...
The dynamics of flow occurrence – an experience of absorbed attention and joyful engagement in ongoing activity - over time needs further exploration, especially in educational settings. To this purpose, data were collected across three years among school staff (baseline N= 327) in New South Wales, Australia, with the aim to test perceived strengths use, strengths knowledge, and positive climate as predictors of flow at work, and positive climate as a moderator of the relationship between strengths use/ knowledge and flow. Findings showed that strengths use/ knowledge and positive climate consistently predicted more flow at work, but the moderation effect was non-significant. We suggest that while perceived positive climate reflects the macro-contextual conditions helpful for flow to occur, individual level contextual factors that might synergistically interact with strengths use/knowledge are yet to be identified. Future research should include both macro and micro contextual factors that impact upon the flow experience.
... İş akış deneyimi ise Bakker (2005, s. 27) tarafından "işe dalma, işi sevme ve içsel çalışma motivasyonu ile karakterize edilebilen kısa süreli bir doruk deneyimi" olarak tanımlanmış, çalışanın yaptığı işten keyif alması, işin sürekliliği için içsel motivasyona sahip olması ve yaptığı işe tam olarak kendini vermiş olması gerektiği vurgulanmıştır. Yapılan araştırmalar, iş ortamında akışın deneyimlenmesinin işe yoğun bir şekilde odaklanılmasını sağlayarak bireye içsel motivasyon, öz kontrol ve öz yeterlilik kazandırdığını destekler sonuçlar ortaya koymaktadır (Bakker, 2005;Eisenberger vd., 2005;Demerouti vd., 2001). ...
Bu araştırma, havayolu pilotlarının emniyet kontrol odaklarının ekip kaynak yönetimine ilişkin tutumları üzerindeki etkisinin belirlenmesi ile bu ilişkide pilotların öz yeterlilik ve iş akış deneyimlerinin ayrı ayrı ve seri aracılık rollerinin sorgulanması amacıyla yürütülmüş, elde edilen sonuçlar ile uygulayıcılara EKY etkinliklerini geliştirici tavsiyelerde bulunulması amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma verileri Türkiye’de çalışmakta olan 410 havayolu pilotundan anket yöntemiyle toplanmıştır. Araştırma hipotezleri, oluşturulan yapısal eşitlik modellemeleri ve aracılık analizleri ile test edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular, havayolu pilotlarının emniyet kontrol odaklarının bu pilotların ekip kaynak yönetimi tutumları üzerinde yordayıcı etkisi olduğunu göstermiş olup, öz yeterlilik ve iş akış deneyiminin bu ilişkide ayrı ayrı ve seri çoklu aracılık rolüne sahip olduğunu, ayrı bağımsız değişkenler olarak da ekip kaynak yönetimini yordadıklarını ortaya koymuştur.
... In addition, boredom was a teacher emotion that also appeared to be contagious, suggesting that when teachers fail to create a stimulating and engaging learning environment, their students feel bored and not fully engaged in the learning process, and as a result may have lower levels of motivation and academic attainment. In a similar vein, Bakker (2005) concluded that positive emotion is contagious from teachers to students, claiming that students tend to imitate happy and cheerful emotions displayed by their teachers. Concerning academic boredom contagion between teachers and students, limited prior research exists in this area, although previous studies have investigated the reciprocal relationship between academic boredom and academic achievement (e.g., Pekrun et al., 2010Pekrun et al., , 2014Putwain et al., 2018). ...
... Menurut teori Csikzentmihalyi yang dikembangkan oleh Bakker Bakker (2005) Mengemukakan bahwa terdapat tiga aspek dalam flow akademik: Absorption (kondisi di mana seseorang bisa sepenuhnya berkonsentrasi pada aktivitas yang dilakukan), Work Enjoyment (perasaan nyaman saat melakukan aktifitas), dan Intrinsic WorkMotivation (keinginan dari dalam diri untuk melakukan aktivitas tanpa mengharapkan imbalan atau faktor eksternal lainnya). Flow akademik memiliki hubungan erat dengan proses pembelajaran mahasiswa, mengembangkan bakat dan minat serta memperoleh keterampilan baru memerlukan tantangan yang lebih tinggi untuk menjaga minat tetap ada. ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara motivasi berprestasi dengan flow akademik pada mahasiswa semester genap angkatan 2023/2024 di fakultas psikologi dan ilmu pendidikan universitas muhammadiyah sidoarjo. Flow akademik menggambarkan kondisi di mana mahasiswa tenggelam dalam aktivitas belajar dan menikmatinya, yang ditandai dengan meningkatnya konsentrasi dan kenyamanan. Survei terhadap 50 mahasiswa menunjukkan sebagian besar menghadapi kesulitan konsentrasi, kebosanan, dan tantangan dalam tugas akademik. Uji korelasi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara motivasi berprestasi dan flow akademik (r = 0.495, p < 0.001). Ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi motivasi berprestasi mahasiswa, semakin tinggi pula tingkat flow akademik yang mereka alami. Hasil ini menekankan pentingnya meningkatkan motivasi berprestasi untuk mencapai pengalaman belajar yang optimal. Penelitian menggunakan metode kuantitatif dengan sampel 205 mahasiswa, menggunakan skala likert untuk mengukur variabel-variabel yang diteliti.
... Family relationships naturally evoke heightened empathy over numerous repeated interactions, and so emotional contagion may be a particularly powerful process influencing familial shared experiences. Scholars have suggested that emotional contagion is an important process that allows for sharing of the flow experience in social and performance settings (Sawyer, 2003;Walker, 2021); some empirical evidence in musical education and general classroom environments supports this claim (Bakker, 2005;Culbertson et al., 2015). Additionally, emotional contagion has also been found to be an important systemic process in developing the therapeutic alliance in family therapy (Kivlighan et al., 2022). ...
Shared experiences are a fundamental aspect of couple and family life that impact both individual well‐being and satisfaction with close relationships. Optimal experience, also known as flow , is the state of complete absorption and fulfillment experienced when engaged in an intrinsically rewarding activity. The interdisciplinary concept of flow provides a sound basis to explore optimal shared experiences. Research on flow experiences in couple and family contexts is limited, presenting a gap in the literature. This article outlines a research program integrating flow theory into the relational sciences along three lines of inquiry. First, couple/family flow requires a clear definition and theoretical framework by building upon previous scholarly work on social flow. Second, the impact of flow experiences on relational variables (e.g., relationship quality, interpersonal commitment, sexual satisfaction) requires investigation. Lastly, flow theory presents an opportunity to develop new interventions aimed at improving the experiences couples and families share together.
... Surprisingly, results revealed that the piano had a significantly lower flow score (De Manzano et al., 2010). However, Bakker (2005) contradicts this, asserting that piano is the most flow-inducing musical activity. This discrepancy prompted the focus of our study on the distinct research direction of piano performance, aiming to investigate the patterns of flow state attainment among music undergraduates in piano performance situations. ...
Introduction
Flow, defined as a heightened state of consciousness characterized by intense concentration during an activity, is influenced primarily by the perceived challenge and the dynamic equilibrium of skills. This investigation focuses on the patterns of flow state attainment and its elicitation mechanisms within the context of piano performance among Chinese music college students.
Methods
Our study establishes a framework for accessing flow, utilizing quantitative data from music ontology to gauge the level of challenge and the level of music acquisition to assess skills. Additionally, we integrate external factors such as music culture heterogeneity and demographic variables to elucidate the causes and moderating effects of flow on piano performance.
Results
The findings reveal a positive correlation between flow and performance, with the model of challenge and skill induction partially explaining these results. Notably, melodic Shannon Entropy emerges as a potential indicator of challenge, suggesting its relevance in future studies on flow.
Discussion
This research provides multidimensional insights into the interplay between performance and flow in piano performance, guiding future investigations to explore the musical quantitative perspective more deeply.
... Flow theory characterizes the experience of flow as encompassing high enjoyment during an activity along with high intrinsic motivation to carry out the activity, but also complete absorption by and immersion in the activity (cf. Bakker 2005). Applied to the classroom context and to teachers' socio-emotional support, this would indicate that more enthusiastic teachers are particularly absorbed by their K teaching activities and thus have fewer attention and resources to be sensitive to and empathize with their students' socio-emotional needs compared to less enthusiastic teachers. ...
Research suggests that enthusiastic teachers show good teaching. At the same time, based on flow theory, it can be hypothesized that high enthusiasm is associated with a limited ability to perceive others’ needs. Hence, this study examines the relation between teaching enthusiasm and socio-emotional support. Based on questionnaire data from 89 mathematics teachers (61.8% women) and their 1716 students (50.0% girls), manifest multilevel analyses show that higher student-perceived teaching enthusiasm was associated with higher perceived socio-emotional support. In addition, the difference between student- and teacher-perceived support was lower for high student-perceived teaching enthusiasm. However, teacher-reported teaching enthusiasm was neither related to student-perceived socio-emotional support nor to the difference between teacher and student perceptions of teacher support. The study indicates that a multi-perspective assessment of motivation and teaching behavior may contribute to a better understanding of their correlates.
... Furthermore, when positive attitudes toward pre-performance arousal are developed and performing skills and performing challenges are balanced, musicians can access psychological flow-an optimal state of functioning during performance situations. Flow is attained when people are deeply absorbed in an activity, internally motivated, and filled with positive emotions (Bakker, 2005). Some scholars refer to this optimal performing state as being 'in the zone' (Stamatelopoulou et al., 2018;Swann et al., 2017) or gaining 'peak experience' ( Biasutti, 2017). ...
Psychology of Music is a flourishing area of research in the Western Balkans. However, much of its findings and insights have remained relatively unknown outside the region. Psychological Perspectives on Musical Experiences and Skills features recent research from the Western Balkans, foregrounding its specific topics, methods, and influences, and bringing it into productive conversation with complementary research from Western Europe and further afield.
The essays in this collection investigate the psychology of listening and performance and their relevance to music practice. Employing a range of research methodologies, they address divergent themes, from a cross-cultural understanding of aesthetic experiences and innovations to attract new audiences, to developmental perspectives on musical growth and the challenges of mastering performance skills. Authors reflect independently and collaboratively on how these psychological processes are shaped by the different traditions and geopolitical conditions inside and outside the Western Balkans. The result is a volume that emphasizes how musical experiences and practices happen not in isolation but in socio-cultural environments that contribute to their definition. This work will appeal to musicians, music educators, students, researchers, and psychologists with an interest in the psychology of music and exemplify ways forward in decolonizing academia.
... Altered perception of time passing is often reported, with people describing several hours going by as if just minutes had passed (Steele & Fullagar, 2009). Educational researchers (Bakker, 2005;Shernoff et al., 2003) have demonstrated the need for a significant task-based challenge skills, in order for the flow state to occur in learning activities. ...
Digital learning environments are increasingly prevalent in higher education. The flexible and less constrained nature of these environments, means students often need to be more autonomous in managing their own learning. This implies that students are sufficiently selfmotivated to successfully engage in autonomous learning. The concept of "student engagement" has shown promise in assisting researchers' and educators' understanding of how students' general involvement in study, and their more specific completion of learning tasks, can lead to beneficial outcomes in digital learning environments. However, student engagement has taken on multiple, diffuse definitions in higher education creating confusion about what engagement is and how best to promote it. In this paper we build on a model of engagement from organisational psychology that offers insight into task-level engagement. Established models in the area of student motivation are integrated to bring clarity to the construct at tasklevel in digital learning environments.
... This in turn leads to the employees acting towards achieving team identity [31][32][33]. Moreover, some studies of sports teams [34] show that a group's flow experience has a positive effect on team performance [35]. Furthermore, research by Silic et al. [3] suggests that the gamification of work processes can make a company more attractive and collaborative, which should also have an impact on the personal development of team identity. ...
... Moreover, in terms of the relationship between LMX and flow experience, the presence of a clearly defined and precise purpose, constructive feedback, and effective open communication channels in highquality LMX may correspond to an increased level of flow experience for focal subordinate (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). Likewise, the findings of a study conducted by Bakker (2005) indicate that music teachers who receive high levels of social support and feedback are more likely to experience flow. In summary, the present study posits that LMX possesses the motivational capacity to enhance focal subordinate's flow experience. ...
Previous research has provided evidence supporting a positive correlation between emotional intelligence (EI) and flow. However, intriguing findings in the liquor manufacturing industry prompt me to consider the necessity of examining the effects of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow. Therefore, this article begins with two questions: First, what is the impact of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow? Second, do two distinct congruent scenarios (i.e., high-high and low-low) exhibit significant nuances that differentially influence flow? To answer these questions, this study utilizes polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface analysis methods. A multi-source and three-phase investigation method was used to collect data from 279 subordinates and 56 leaders in the liquor manufacturing industry. Based on the person-environment (PE) fit theory, this study investigates the influence of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow while considering leader-member exchange (LMX) as a mediator in these processes. The current study not only demonstrates a positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and LMX, but also reveals that a high-high EI matching pattern can enhance the favorable dynamics of congruence and yield higher LMX compared to a low-low matching pattern. Furthermore, this study identifies LMX as a mediator in the positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow. Additionally, although the incongruent scenarios are beyond the scope of this study, the findings demonstrate that a high EI subordinate paired with a low EI leader has a more detrimental impact on the LMX than a low EI subordinate paired with a high EI leader. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
This weekly diary study advances research on strategic renewal by extending its scope into the home domain and integrating the Work–Home Resources (W‐HR) model. Drawing on 6 weeks of multilevel data from 147 matched dual‐earner couples in the United States, we examine how employees' strategic renewal at home fosters strategic renewal at work through the mediating effects of weekly flow at home and self‐efficacy. We also test the moderating roles of family and organizational climates for creativity. Our findings revealed that proactive home‐based renewal behaviours initiate gain spirals of personal resources, enhancing work outcomes and partner perceptions of work–family balance. This study contributes to theory by conceptualizing strategic renewal as a cross‐domain behaviour and identifying flow and self‐efficacy as dynamic mediators, while highlighting the amplifying effects of contextual climates in both domains.
Perceived overqualification has attracted increasing attention in the literature. However, less is known about its effect on teachers’ outcomes. Using conservation of resources (COR) theory as the theoretical basis, this study sheds light on why and when teachers’ perceived overqualification influences their intention to leave the profession. In doing so, we develop and test a moderated mediation model by investigating the mediating role of work enjoyment and the moderating role of competitive psychological climate. In a sample of 151 teachers from Greek public schools, results demonstrated that work enjoyment mediates the relationship between perceived overqualification and intention to leave the profession and, further, this indirect effect is contingent on competitive psychological climate. Implications and future directions are also discussed.
Çalışanlarına değer veren, iletişim halinde olan, motive eden ve eğitimler ile güçlendiren otel işletmeleri hem çalışanların hem de dış müşterilerin memnuniyeti konusunda başarı sağlamaları beklenir. Bu çalışmada otel yöneticileri tarafından gerçekleştirilen içsel pazarlama uygulamalarının çalışanların iş akışı yaşamalarına etkisi ve iş akışının iş tatminine etkisi incelenmiştir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda Antalya’da faaliyet gösteren beş yıldızlı konaklama işletmelerinde çalışan bireylerden elde edilmiş olan veriler analize tabi tutulmuştur. Elde edilen bulgular, içsel pazarlama uygulamalarının iş akış deneyimi üzerinde olumlu bir etkisinin olduğunu göstermiştir. Bulgular ayrıca iş akış deneyiminin çalışanların iş tatmini üzerinde olumlu bir etkisinin olduğunu göstermiştir. Bu çalışma, içsel pazarlama faaliyetlerinin akış deneyimi ve akışın iş tatmini üzerindeki rolünü inceleyerek literatürdeki boşluğu doldurmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Employee engagement (EE) has always been an important concept in positive organizational behavior (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). The emergence of positive psychology movement has made researchers shift their research from burnout (characterized by cynicism, exhaustion, personal inefficacy) to an opposite, positive state, namely work engagement (Schaufeli et al., 2006; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). The conceptualization of self-efficacy in the present study is based on domain specific variable termed as "occupational self-efficacy (OSE). The study aims to explore the effect of occupational self-efficacy on employee engagement which leads to employees' sustainability. Employees' intention to stay and organizational commitment reflected employees' sustainability. Data was collected from three different print media by 189 participants. The findings suggested that occupational self-efficacy is the most important predictor of employee engagement (R 2 =.49). The correlation between OSE and EE shows positive relation (r=.69**) and the organizational commitment was significantly high among these employee. The quantitative method was used in the present study.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the relationship between employees’ proactive personality and task performance, with playful work design (PWD) and work-related flow as sequential mediators. Integrating proactive personality theory and the self-determination theory of flow, the authors propose that employees with a proactive personality are more likely to playfully redesign their work tasks and to experience flow, resulting in improved performance.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were 466 Italian employees who filled out an online survey. The sample was well balanced regarding age and gender. Measurement models were tested, and sequential mediation analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling.
Findings
The proposed measurement model, including four latent factors, fits better to the data than alternative models. Proactive personality showed positive relationships with PWD, flow at work and task performance. As predicted, proactive personality was indirectly related to task performance through PWD and work-related flow, supporting sequential mediation.
Originality/value
This study expands previous knowledge regarding how proactive personality may be related to task performance through proactive behavior. The authors integrate proactive personality theory and the self-determination model of flow to show that proactive individuals may playfully redesign their work tasks and experience flow, and that this results in improved performance. The authors discuss several implications for organizational practice.
It is well known that teaching profession is one of the most stressful professions. In this study, through the lens of Self‑Determination Theory, we examined the relationship between teachers’ life goals and occupational burnout. Furthermore, it was examined if the work‑related basic psychological needs and flow serve as mediators between the previously mentioned variables. The study involved 476 primary school teachers from different parts of Croatia. Participants had an average of 17 years of work experience and were all females. The study results showed that extrinsic life goals led directly to a higher level of burnout. Intrinsic life goals led to a lower level of burnout indirectly through higher basic psychological needs satisfaction and more frequent flow experiences. The contribution of this paper lies in examining the relationship between the Self‑Determination Theory variables and the concept of flow. Also, the results can be used to change the working conditions so that they support the teachers’ well‑ being.
This chapter presents an overview of contested and evolving understandings of flow as a collection of components or dimensions, and associated definitional difficulties, including debates as to whether flow is a continuum or an all-or-nothing phenomenon; disagreements as to both how many components constitute flow and how they inter-relate; divergent perspectives with respect to core features of flow; and acknowledgement that existing models and measures might capture/conflate more than one psychological state. The discussion in this chapter initiates an argument for a reworked conceptualisation of flow that simultaneously tightens its focus on the significance of an imbalance in skills versus challenge and recalibrates the relationship between flow and control. Developing and presenting a ‘dimensional-depth’ model of flow that incorporates and integrates multiple and divergent perspectives even within componential constructs of flow, this chapter lays the groundwork for further conceptual reformulation through consideration of channel, process and dynamic understandings of flow in chapter “Channel and Process Models of Flow”.
In this chapter, I provide an overview of engagement with space and place in flow research, highlighting both key conceptual shortcomings in constructs of flow and various ways in which geographical terms and ideas are used in ways that are inconsistent with contemporary geographical thinking. With respect to the former, I draw out a mismatch between the lack of conceptualisation of flow in spatial terms despite the empirical evidence of the importance of place for flow experiences, and the tendency to think in unidirectional fashion about the influence of place on flow but not the other way around. With respect to the latter, I identify a conflation of place and activity in discussions of flowability, and essentialised notions of certain spaces as especially conducive to flow. Overall, this chapter encourages the adoption of more performative and emergent notions of place within flow research and sets the scene for more detailed discussion in the next chapter of how flow can be considered generative of both its own space and its own place as part-and-parcel of its transcendental quality.
This chapter introduces flow as both a psychological phenomenon and a field of academic scholarship, outlining what it is understood to be, its perceived role and value, and a host of difficulties surrounding both its theoretical and empirical formulations. Subsequently, I elaborate the need for a geographical perspective in flow research to make explicit the spatial aspect of its transcendental quality that has remained under-appreciated since the inception of flow research, to affirm flow as both space- and place-making, and to rescale flow research beyond the (inter-)personal and psychological to the global geopolitical scale. This chapter also provides an overview of the structure and arguments of the volume and characterises the work as synoptic, creatively critical and deliberately provocative in seeking to facilitate the evolution of a more coherent research field and re-invigorate flow research in new theoretical, critical, spatial and moral directions.
Algorithmic evaluations are becoming increasingly common among app‐workers. However, there is limited research on how app‐workers' perceptions of these evaluations (perceived algorithmic evaluation, or PAE) affect service performance. Our study addresses this gap in three ways: first, we introduce a new method to measure PAE among app‐workers. Second, building on flow theory, we explore how app‐workers' flow experience mediates the relationship between PAE and service performance. Third, by integrating the conservation of resources theory and flow theory, we examine how viability challenges might reduce the positive impact of PAE on app‐workers' flow experience. Using both interviews and surveys, our research reveals that PAE positively influences app‐workers' flow experience and, in turn, their service performance. Notably, we find that when workers face more viability challenges, the positive effects of PAE on their flow experience and service performance decrease. Our findings highlight the importance of algorithmic evaluation in shaping app‐workers' work experiences and outcomes in the gig economy and have significant theoretical and practical implications.
Purpose: Our study focuses on stress contagion in vocational school classes, examining how students’ stress experiences affect their spatial classmates. For this purpose, we apply a novel formal network model that allows us to differentiate between endogenousand exogenous peer effects in the stress contagion process. Using the network model, we investigate effects on students’ stress levels, considering the stress and Coping experiences of spatial peers as well as didactic-methodological context factors.
Methods: We test our statistical model using secondary data collected in a study involving 53 students from two classes at a public German vocational training school. The students’ experiences of stress (time pressure, pressure to succeed) and Coping strategies (understanding of the subject matter, self-confidence) were captured using the experience sampling method, while classroom characteristics (e.g., teacher instruction, cooperative work) were recorded through video-based analysis of lessons. Utilizing the panel data, we employ maximum likelihood estimation to assess the spatial peer effects model for both classrooms.
Results: Among other findings, all model specifications revealed significant peer effects for both stress measures, indicating that the higher the stress experience of immediate peers in the classroom, the higher the individual stress experienced by the students. Concerning the considered context factors, we found, for example, that increased cooperative work leads to higher levels of stress experience.
Conclusion: From a substantive perspective, our results underscore the role of peer-to-peer contagion in the vocational classroom and thus suggest a nuanced examination of cooperative practices. From a research methodology perspective, our Approach illustrates how various methods (such as experience sampling, video-based Classroom observation, and spatial network information) complement and enrich each other, highlighting the added value of our network analytical approach
Keywords: Stress contagion, Paradox of cooperation, Spatial network, Experience sampling, Video-based classroom observation, Network econometric approach
Objective/Background
Flow, a psychological state of intense engagement in and enjoyment of an activity, can arise during both solitary and socially interactive experiences. In the literature, whereas people high in extraversion have difficulty achieving flow in solitude, those with an autotelic personality—a combination of traits that make people prone to flow—readily experience flow in both solitary and interactive conditions. In this pre‐registered experiment, we investigated whether autotelic personality mitigates the negative association between solitary flow and extraversion.
Method
Participants and their romantic partners (final N = 368) played the game Perfection™ in three conditions (order was counterbalanced): alone ( solitary condition ), in the presence of their partner without interaction ( mere‐presence condition ), and collaboratively ( interactive condition ).
Results
There were independent, positive main effects of extraversion and autotelic personality on flow experience in mere‐presence and interactive conditions. However, the positive effect of extraversion on solitary flow was only significant among participants with high (vs. low) autotelic personality. In all conditions, flow experience was associated with greater low‐arousal positive affect and lesser high‐arousal negative affect.
Conclusions
The findings shed light on the role of personality in promoting solitary flow experiences, and particularly how traits might interact to determine optimal and non‐optimal conditions for achieving flow.
Studies investigating the crossover of job stress and strain between partners have shown that job demands are transmitted from job incumbents to their partners, affecting their psychological and physical health. Based on the crossover literature and on models of job stress and the work-family interface, this study develops a comprehensive framework to integrate the literature conceptually delineating the mechanisms that underlie the crossover process. Key constructs include job stress, life events, strain, personal attributes and interpersonal factors, The literature pertaining to each construct in the model is reviewed and summarized. Gaps in the literature are identified, recommendations for future research are proposed, and the implications for organizational theory and practice are discussed.
Self-managing teams are rapidly approaching the popularity of Quality Circles in both the popular and organizational literature. However, before this promising notion becomes the next panacea for the ills of our declining international competitiveness, we must investigate the fundamental question of how superior managed professionals become transformed into self-managers. This paper presents a model of a leadership-making process which purports to produce the transformation of superior manager professionals into self-managing and partially self-designing units. The focus of this paper is on the upper end of the self- managing category of Hackman’s (1986) authority matrix. A life cycle model of leadership-making is outlined, and emphasis is placed on the process by which teamwork is built from within and the activities which allow individuals to (a) outgrow their dependence on outside direction and control and (b) realize that a more effective strategy for accomplishing their own (“I”) needs is through satisfying learn (“We”) needs (i.e., the “transformation”). This model for the process of becoming a self-managing team player provides a data-grounded rationale (covering over 20 years of programmatic research) in order to facilitate hypothesis-testing research.
SAMENVATTING
Leefbaarheid van landen wordt meestal beoordeeld aan het aanbod van zaken waarvan men denkt dat ze goed zijn voor mensen, zoals welvaart, werkgelegenheid, opleiding en gezondheidszorg. Dat aanbod wordt dan gemeten met puntenstelsels. Een voorbeeld daarvan is de Human Development Index, die jaarlijks wordt opgesteld door de Verenigde Naties. Er kleven veel nadelen aan deze methode. De criteria zijn nogal discutabel en meer van het goede is niet altijd beter.
Een alternatieve methodeis om leefbaarheid niet af te meten aan maatschappelijk aanbod, maar aan levensuitkomsten. Als belangrijkste uitkomst geldt daarvoor de mate waarin mensen lang en gelukkig leven. Als dat het geval is, is het land kennelijk leefbaar, ook al zijn de omstandigheden misschien niet allemaal even ideaal in ieders ogen.
De mate waarin mensen lang en gelukkig leven kan worden bepaald door combinatie van gegevens over gemiddelde levensduur in landen met gegevens over gemiddelde levensvoldoening. Gegevens over levensduur in landen zijn beschikbaar uit bevolkingsregistraties. Gegevens over subjectieve levensvoldoening komen uit grootschalige enquêtes.
Op grond hiervan is voor 48 landen berekend hoeveel gelukkige levensjaren de doorsnee burger er beleeft. Daarbij treden grote verschillen aan het licht. De gelukkige levensverwachting is momenteel het laagst in Bulgarije met slechts 32 jaar en het hoogst in IJsland met 62 jaar. Nederland is met enkele maanden minder een goede tweede.
De gelukkige levensverwachting blijkt het hoogst in de meest moderne en welvarende landen van deze tijd. De maatschappelijke ontwikkeling leidt dus niet tot een steeds minder leefbare samenleving.
Naast welvaart speelt zelfbestemming een grote rol. De gelukkige levensverwachting is ook hoger naarmate het land meer vrijheid biedt. Het gaat daarbij niet alleen om de bekende politieke vrijheden, maar vooral om vrijheid in de privé-sfeer, zoals mogelijkheden tot geboorteregeling en acceptatie van homoseksualiteit. Het positieve effect van vrijheid lijkt groter naarmate de opvoeding meer op zelfstandigheid gericht is en mensen beter geïnformeerd zijn.
Gelijkheid is ook van invloed, maar niet alle gelijkheid evenzeer. Inkomensgelijkheid blijkt niet veel uit te maken, maar man-vrouw-gelijkheid wel. De gelukkige levensverwachting is hoger, naarmate de achterstand van vrouwen in opleiding, werk en inkomen kleiner is.
In tegenstelling tot wat communitaristen zouden verwachten blijken mensen niet langer en gelukkiger te leven in landen met een sterke kerk en traditionele familiewaarden. Evenmin is er een verband met vertrouwen in instituties. Dat beeld verandert niet als parallelle verschillen in welvaart in aanmerking worden genomen.
De leefbaarheid van het land is waarschijnlijk niet gediend met steeds maar meer welvaart, vrijheid en gelijkheid. In het geval van materiële welvaart is het punt van de verminderende meeropbrengst al gepasseerd. In het geval van vrijheid is dat punt nog niet in zicht.
In covariance structure modeling several estimation methods are available. The robustness of an estimator against specific violations of assumptions can be determined empirically by means of a Monte Carlo study. Many such studies in covariance structure analysis have been published, but the conclusions frequently seem to contradict each other An overview of robustness studies in covariance structure analysis is given, and an attempt is made to generalize their findings. Robustness studies are described and distinguished from each other systematically by means of certain characteristics. These characteristics serve as explanatory variables in a meta-analysis concerning the behavior of parameter estimators, standard error estimators, and goodness-of-fit statistics when the model is correctly specified.
Two studies were conducted to examine the relationships among different dimensions of empathy, communication, and prosocial behavior. Study one provides a test of three models hypothesized to explain this process. Results of this study indicated support for altruism as a motivator of prosocial behavior and suggest that the egoism and dual‐process models are unlikely explanations. Study two was conducted in hopes of identifying additional support for the model that emerged from study one. The second study fully replicated the findings of the first study. Results from both studies suggest that prosocial behavior is motivated primarily by concern for others. Moreover, emotional reactions to the perceived distress of others are preceded by a concern for others. Together, these findings strongly support an altruistic interpretation of prosocial behavior and suggest that the egoistic model be reformulated.
Over the past several years, researchers have used data from the experience sampling method to operationalize flow and non-flow experiences in people's daily lives, including leisure, as indicated by the theory of optimal experiences (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). The challenge-skill ratio that is central to that theory has been found to explain only a small portion of the variance of measures of subjective experience (e.g., affect, arousal). The purposes of the present study were to review potential factors that may limit the percentage of variance explained in studies of the flow phenomenon, propose alternative methods of analysis, and compare the explanatory power of the different approaches to analysis. Findings are reported from two separate data sets. The discussion focuses on considerations for future analyses of ESM data and the refinement of the theory of optimal experiences.
This article builds on job characteristics and optimal flow theory to describe the experience of individuals using computers in the workplace. A model was developed and tested with linear structural relationship modeling (LISREL) with data from 149 professionals employed in a variety of organizations. Flow, which is characterized by intense concentration and enjoyment, was found to be significantly linked with exploratory use behavior, which in turn was linked to extent of computer use. Flow was itself determined by the individual's sense of being in control and the level of challenge perceived in using computers. Perceived control was more important for individuals with high task-scope jobs, that is, jobs with high variety, identity, autonomy, and feedback. Challenge played a greater role for low task-scope individuals. Practical and theoretical implications of the model are discussed, and suggestions for further research are offered.
32 White, middle-class couples with 5-mo-old infants were shown videotapes depicting infants who were, in turn quiescent, crying, and quiescent. Half of the parents viewed a normal (full-term) newborn, while half viewed a premature infant. Sound tracks were dubbed so that half of the normal and half of the premature infants "emitted" the cry of a normal infant, while the other half emitted the cry of a premature infant. Physiological (heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, and skin conductance) and self-report measures (a mood adjective checklist and an infant temperament measure) were gathered. The cry of the premature infant elicited greater autonomic arousal and was perceived as more aversive than the cry of the normal infant. The effect was especially pronounced when the premature cry was paired with the face of a premature infant. There were few sex differences. Results are discussed with reference to demographic evidence indicating that prematurely born children are "at risk" for child abuse. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The job demands-resources (JD-R) model was tested in a study among 3,092 employees working in 1 of 4 different home care organizations. The central assumption in the model is that burnout develops when certain job demands are high and when job resources are limited because such negative working conditions lead to energy depletion and undermine worker motivation and learning opportunities, respectively. A series of multigroup structural equation modeling analyses provide strong evidence for the JD-R model. Specifically, results showed that job demands are primarily and positively related to the exhaustion component of burnout, whereas job resources are primarily related to cynicism (negatively) and professional efficacy (positively). The theoretical and practical implications of the JD-R model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
objective and subjective measures of stress at work
discuss the consequences of using longitudinal designs
problems of longitudinal studies / different models of the time course of cause and effect / different kinds of stressors and of dysfunctioning and the time course of the models / person and environmental parameters and their mediating and moderating effect on the time course and the models
problem of small correlations in stress research (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Determined, using meta-analysis procedures, the relation between job characteristics and job satisfaction in 28 studies. The role of growth need strength (GNS) as a possible moderator of this relation was also investigated. Results indicate a moderate relation between job characteristics and job satisfaction. This relation was stronger for employees high in GNS. It is suggested that situational characteristics were more important in determining satisfaction for employees low in GNS. A model based on these findings is proposed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
recently, we have begun to explore . . . [the] process of emotional contagion / people's conscious analyses give them a great deal of information about their social encounters / [people] can also focus their attention on their moment-to-moment emotional reactions to others, during their social encounters / this stream of reactions comes to them via their fleeting observations of others' faces, voices, postures, and instrumental behaviors / further, as they nonconsciously and automatically mimic their companions' fleeting expressions of emotion, people also may come to feel as their partners feel / by attending to the stream of tiny moment-to-moment reactions, people can gain a great deal of information on their own and their partners' emotional landscapes
begin by defining emotion and emotional contagion and discussing several mechanisms that we believe might account for this phenomenon / review the evidence from a variety of disciplines that "primitive emotional contagion" exists / examine the role of individual differences in emotional contagion / outline some of the broad research questions researchers might profitably investigate (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Extending previous qualitative research, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of pre-performance readiness factors, (pre-round confidence, positive thinking, motivation, level of relaxation, mental focus, and physical readiness) to post-game reports of the intensity and frequency of flow. One hundred and sixty three recreational golfers were administered a questionnaire which assessed pre-round readiness variables immediately before a round of golf, and flow frequency and intensity immediately before a round of golf, and flow frequency and intensity immediately after the round. Canonical correlation analyses indicated that pre-round readiness variable as well as golfer's skill level were significantly related to the experience of flow. Results point to the importance of pre-performance psychological state on the quality of the sport experience and underline the potential value of athletes' mastering self-regulation techniques.
Studies investigating the crossover of job stress and strain between partners have shown that job demands are transmitted from job incumbents to their partners, affecting their psychological and physical health. Based on the crossover literature and on models of job stress and the work-family interface, this study develops a comprehensive framework to integrate the literature conceptually, delineating the mechanisms that underlie the crossover process. Key constructs include job stress, life events, strain, personal attributes and interpersonal factors. The literature pertaining to each construct in the model is reviewed and summarized. Gaps in the literature are identified, recommendations for future research are proposed, and the implications for organizational theory and practice are discussed.
The most striking development in modern work organizations is the changing nature of work itself and its increased mental and emotional workload. Since the early sixties, many attempts have been made to gain more insight into the particular relationship between work-related psychosocial risks and employee health by means of theoretical models. One of these models is the Demand-Control-Support (DCS) Model. The DCS Model distinguishes itself from other work stress models by its simplicity and the extent to which it has gained a paradigmatic function in research in the field of work and health. The aim of the current paper is to examine its theoretical and empirical status from a work psychological perspective. Studies into the DCS Model can roughly be divided into (1) epidemiological studies, (2) cross-sectional, homogenous, or heterogenous studies, (3) psychophysiological studies, and (4) intervention studies. It is concluded that (1) epidemiological studies offer the most support for the DCS Model, (2) its interaction hypothesis is not often supported, and (3) examples of carefully examined evaluations of interventions are rather scarce. Furthermore, nine critical comments on the model are discussed. In conclusion, although there are various relevant comments on the model, the core structure of the model still holds. Directions for future research are depicted.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Divergent Realities: The Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents. Reed Larson & Maryse H. Richards. New York: Basic Books. 1994. 256 pp. ISBN 0-465-01662-6. $26.00 cloth. Family researchers, and social scientists generally, are often frustrated by the limitations of the methods available to them. Questionnaires rely on people's notoriously unreliable memories. Laboratory studies always beg the question of how much they resemble real life. A fantasizing family researcher might ask, wouldn't it be nice to be there during family interactions, as they occur naturally, and ask people about their moods and perceptions of those interactions as they occur? Remarkably enough, this idea turns out to be more achievable than it might seem, and the results of its fruition have been presented in a new book on adolescents and their families by Reed Larson and Maryse Richards. The authors used a unique methodological approach known as the experience sampling method, or ESM, in which participants carried "beepers" around and were beeped at eight random times during the day between 7:30 a.m. and 9:30 p.m. for 7 days. When beeped, family members would report in a booklet what they were doing, thinking, and feeling just before the beep, on rating scales as well as in their own words. The study included 55 two-parent, middle-class families living in suburban Chicago, all with an adolescent in fifth through eighth grade. All members of a particular family were beeped at the same time, so that more than one perspective was obtained when they were beeped while together. The result is what authors call "an emotional photo album of their family life, a set of snapshots of what one young adolescent and her parents go through in an average week" (p. 9). These snapshots are fascinating and revealing. Most striking is the disparity in moods and perceptions that family members often experience when together, and how oblivious they can be to one another's emotional realities. For example: Mom is shopping for clothes at the mall with her adolescent daughter, and reports thoroughly enjoying herself and thinking that her daughter is, too; at the same time, the daughter reports being bored and thinking about a prospective boyfriend. Family members often do not even agree about whether they are together; the wife cooking dinner in the kitchen reports being with her husband, who is watching TV; he reports watching TV, alone. Husbands and wives disagreed one-third of the time about whether or not they were together; mothers and children disagreed one-half of the time about this. …
32 White, middle-class couples with 5-mo-old infants were shown videotapes depicting infants who were, in turn quiescent, crying, and quiescent. Half of the parents viewed a normal (full-term) newborn, while half viewed a premature infant. Sound tracks were dubbed so that half of the normal and half of the premature infants "emitted" the cry of a normal infant, while the other half emitted the cry of a premature infant. Physiological (heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, and skin conductance) and self-report measures (a mood adjective checklist and an infant temperament measure) were gathered. The cry of the premature infant elicited greater autonomic arousal and was perceived as more aversive than the cry of the normal infant. The effect was especially pronounced when the premature cry was paired with the face of a premature infant. There were few sex differences. Results are discussed with reference to demographic evidence indicating that prematurely born children are "at risk" for child abuse. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Videotaped responses of 48 term and preterm neonates to determine if the processes of discrimination and imitation of facial expression present in full-term newborns were as well-developed in preterm neonates. Models held Ss and fixed a happy, sad, or surprised expression on their faces. Alertness of Ss had been induced by the administration of the Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale and was sustained by the model who used 4-sec vestibular and auditory stimulation before each trial. Data show that habituation and dishabituation were more pronounced in term than preterm Ss. However, both groups appeared to imitate components of the expression being modeled, and their expressions were more accurately guessed more frequently than would be expected by chance. Ss appeared to fixate on the mouth or alternately the mouth and eye regions more frequently than the eye region alone. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using a stratified sample of 506 occupationally heterogenous employees of a large County government in the United States, this study assessed the extent to which the perceived fairness of pay procedures are related to voluntary turnover. Controlling for the effects of demographic characteristics and distributive justice, the perceived fairness of procedures for pay determination, performance appraisal and appeals were related to voluntary turnover. Over-all, the results indicate that pay procedures are valued for their utility in predicting future pay decisions by the organization. The perceived fairness of pay-related procedures were also better predictors of which individuals will remain employed with the organization than of the individuals who will leave the organization.
To test Harackiewicz and Sansone's prediction that task-specific target goals would enhance intrinsic motivation when they were congruent with higher order purpose goals, we varied performance and mastery-oriented target goals in neutral and performance-oriented purpose goal contexts and included a no-goals control group. Results provided strong support across three measures of intrinsic motivation, indicating that performance target goals undermined interest relative to mastery target goals in a neutral context but that performance target goals enhanced intrinsic motivation relative to mastery target goals in performance purpose goal contexts. Process analyses revealed that competence valuation and task involvement mediated these effects.
Athletes' subjective states and experience generally are neglected by sport psychology research due to an emphasis on performance and competitive outcomes. The purpose of this paper was to discuss how the concept of flow—an optimal psychological state—can be studied in the sport context to increase an understanding of athletes' subjective experience. Conceptual issues with respect to conducting flow research in sport were presented, followed by a discussion of the methodological concerns to consider for researchers who want to study flow in sport. Two major conceptual questions were addressed: What is flow and how do flow states occur? The latter question was discussed taking into account both the person and situation factors that may underlie athletes' flow experiences. The section on methodological concerns highlighted the pros and cons of conducting flow research with qualitative or quantitative approaches, explained the experience sampling form, and briefly discussed the complexity of analyzing flow data.
Myers and Diener (1995) asked “Who is happy?” but examined the question of who is more and who is less happy In fact, most people report a positive level of subjective well-being (SWB), and say that they are satisfied with domains such as marriage, work, and leisure People in disadvantaged groups on average report positive well-being, and measurement methods in addition to self-report indicate that most people's affect is primarily pleasant Cross-national data suggest that there is a positive level of SWB throughout the world, with the possible exception of very poor societies In 86% of the 43 nations for which nationally representative samples are available the mean SWB response was above neutral Several hypotheses to explain the positive levels of SWB are discussed
This study examined two versions of the person-environment (P-E) fit approach to stress, one representing the fit between environmental supplies and employee values (S-V fit), and another the fit between environmental demands and employee abilities (D-A fit). Hypotheses based on three competing models derived from the P-E fit literature were tested with a procedure that overcomes problems with the measurement and analysis of fit. Results indicated that the relationships of S-V and D-A fit with strain combined aspects of the models with other relationships suggested by P-E fit theory and the organizational stress literature. Also, S-V fit was linked primarily to dissatisfaction and D-A fit to tension, but both versions were related to both forms of strain.
The effect of job enrichment on employee responses was investigated in a field experiment conducted in a federal agency among clerical employees, who were randomly assigned to either an enriched or unenriched condition. In the enriched condition, a systematic attempt was made to increase the extent to which the jobs of the employees possessed each of the dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. In the unenriched condition, the employees performed their original duties and tasks. After a 6-month experimental period, the effect of enrichment was examined. The results showed that: (1) Employees in the enriched condition perceived their jobs as more enriched than before; (2) enrichment caused significant increases in employee job satisfaction, job involvement, and internal motivation; (3) enrichment led to significant decreases in absenteeism and turnover; but (4) enrichment had little impact on performance, whether assessed by superiors' ratings or by actual output. These findings, which are described in terms of the Hackman-Oldham theory of job design, are regarded as suggestive evidence that enrichment can cause substantial improvements in employee attitudes, but that these benefits may not lead to greater productivity. It is argued that in order to explain the effect of enrichment on performance, it is necessary to consider other factors besides the psychological states produced by jobs which are seen to have certain characteristics.
The study examined the relationships between different types of situational motivation and flow and situational motivational determinants (perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and the experience of flow. Immediately following a swim practice, 203 Canadian master's-level swimmers completed a questionnaire that assessed different variables. Results indicated that situational self-determined forms of motivation (intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation) and perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were positively related to flow, whereas amotivation was negatively related to flow.
This article is concerned with measures of fit of a model. Two types of error involved in fitting a model are considered. The first is error of approximation which involves the fit of the model, with optimally chosen but unknown parameter values, to the population covariance matrix. The second is overall error which involves the fit of the model, with parameter values estimated from the sample, to the population covariance matrix. Measures of the two types of error are proposed and point and interval estimates of the measures are suggested. These measures take the number of parameters in the model into account in order to avoid penalizing parsimonious models. Practical difficulties associated with the usual tests of exact fit or a model are discussed and a test of “close fit” of a model is suggested.
shows how the Milanese team operationalized the new conceptual model
when the model was reformulated this way, the ESM [Experience Sampling Method] data fell beautifully in line with the theoretical expectations
people reported the most positive states when the challenges and skills were in balance and when both were above their mean levels for the week of testing
in the sample of Milanese teenagers, for instance, 18 of the 27 dimensions of experience were significantly more positive in this condition than in any other
teenagers concentrated much more, felt more in control, were more happy, strong, active, involved, creative, free, excited, open, clear, motivated, and satisfied with their performance when both challenges and skills were in balance above the mean (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The principal aim of this book is to propose and apply a broad-ranging model of some environmental determinants of mental health. The features to be considered may be studied in any environment, but particular attention will be paid to the settings of paid work and unemployment. It will be argued that mental health in both these settings is determined by the same environmental characteristics. The harmful features of some jobs are also those which cause deterioration in unemployment, and the factors which are beneficial in jobs can also enhance mental health during unemployment.
The framework to be developed has three major parts. The first two are what McGuire (1983) has described as "categorical" and "process" theories.
The third part of the overall framework addresses the interaction between persons and situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
structural equation modeling (SEM) is a comprehensive statistical approach to testing hypotheses about relations among observed and latent variables / outline the basic elements of the SEM approach / provide researchers and students trained in basic inferential statistics a nontechnical introduction to SEM approach / refers to concepts from standard statistical approaches in the social and behavioral sciences such as correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed and validated the Flow State Scale (FSS), a measure of flow in sport and physical activity settings. The 9 FSS scales of the 36-item instrument represent the dimensions of flow, and each scale is measured by 4 items. Internal consistency estimates for the 9 FSS scales were reasonable for administration of the scale to 394 athletes (aged 14–50 yrs) from the US and Australia. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the 9 scales. Consistent with the theoretical basis of the FSS, there was also support for a hierarchical model in which 1 global (higher order) flow factor explained correlations among the 9 first-order FSS factors. The FSS is appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents 3 scenarios that illustrate how music therapy could be used with elderly people living independently, receiving day care or care at home, or living in extended care facilities. Implications for training music therapists to work with these elderly populations are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Experience Sampling Method was employed to collect data from a sample of 35 sixth-form college students over a period of one week. This methodology involved the subjects answering questions printed in a diary on receipt of signals from a pre-programmed watch. They also completed a package of questionnaires related to psychological well-being. The aim of the study was to investigate whether the experience of situations where high challenge is matched by skill (termed ‘flow’) can be classed as ‘optimal experience’. The results showed that the positive poles of subjective experience tended to cluster in ‘control’ (skills exceeding moderate challenge) rather than flow. However, more optimal experience (considered as high enjoyment) occurred in flow than expected. In addition, optimal experience in flow was characterized by high cognitive involvement. Subjects who experienced flow as optimal experience were found to score significantly higher on measures of psychological well-being than those who did not experience flow as highly enjoyable. The implications are discussed with respect to college students' quality of life and educational experiences.
The main focus of the study was the crossover of burnout and of coping resources from husbands to wives and vice versa. The study was carried out on 101 couples, male military officers and their wives, who were randomly selected by the Israel Defense Force computer. They filled out questionnaires that measured their level of burnout, job stress, work support, family support concerning work problems, and their sense of control. Findings reveal that the husbands' sense of control and burnout were positively related to the corresponding variables measured for their wives. To establish the crossover effect, the theoretical model was tested by structural equation analysis (LISREL), which showed a positive effect of wives' burnout on husbands' burnout, after controlling for the husbands' own job stress and coping resources. The husbands' burnout likewise affected their wives' burnout. Thus, a crossover of burnout was exhibited from husbands to wives and vice versa. Furthermore, for both sexes, sense of control had the highest impact on their own burnout and on their spouse's burnout, after controlling for their own job stress and resources. Thus, the spouse's sense of control was found to be an additional resistance resource working to the benefit of the other partner. The relevance of these findings to burnout prevention is discussed.
The Job Demand-Control (JDC) model (Karasek, 1979) and the Job Demand-Control-Support (JDCS) model (Johnson, and Hall, 1988) have dominated research on occupational stress in the last 20 years. This detailed narrative review focuses on the JDC(S) model in relation to psychological well-being. It covers research from 63 samples, published in the period 1979-1997. In the review a distinction is drawn between two different hypotheses prevailing in research on the models. According to the strain hypothesis of the JDC model, employees working in a high-strain job (high demands-low control) experience the lowest well-being. The buffer hypothesis states that control can moderate the negative effects of high demands on well-being. Translating these hypotheses to the expanded JDCS model, the iso-strain hypothesis predicts the most negative outcomes among workers in an iso-strain job (high demands-low control-low social support/isolation), whereas the buffer hypothesis states that social support can moderate the negative impact of high strain on well-being. Although the literature gives considerable support for the strain and iso-strain hypotheses, support for the moderating influence of job control and social support is less consistent. The conceptualization of demands and control is a key factor in discriminating supportive from nonsupportive studies. Only aspects of job control that correspond to the specific demands of a given job moderate the impact of high demands on well-being. Furthermore, certain subpopulations appear to be more vulnerable to high (iso)strain, whereas others benefit more from high control. On the basis of the results of this review, suggestions for future research and theoretical development are formulated.
The validity of Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model was assessed by conducting a comprehensive review of nearly 200 relevant studies on the model as well as by applying meta-analytic procedures to a large portion of the data. The evidence indicated that the available correlational results are reasonably valid in light of the issues examined. Results tended to support the multidimensionality of job characteristics, but there was less agreement on the exact number of dimensions. The corrected correlational results of the meta-analysis indicated that job characteristics related both to psychological and behavioral outcomes. Concerning psychological states, the results tended to support their mediating (e.g., intervening) role between job characteristics and personal outcomes. The pattern of correlations between the job characteristics and psychological states was less supportive of the model. Meta-analytic results demonstrated that most of the cross-study variance was due to statistical artifacts. True variance across studies was found for the job characteristics-performance relationship, however, and subsequent analyses suggested that growth-need strength moderates this relationship. Implications for potential revisions of the model and for practice are discussed.
This study of 154 Dutch high school teachers examined processes by which occupational burnout may transfer from one person to another. Two conditions that may increase the probability of burnout contagion were investigated; namely, individual teachers' susceptibility to emotional contagion, and the frequency with which teachers are exposed to colleagues with student- and work-related problems. Consistent with hypotheses derived from theories about emotional contagion, the results suggest that bumout contagion was most pronounced under these 2 high-risk conditions. Specifically, the prevalence of perceived burnout among participants' colleagues was most strongly related to individual teachers' burnout (i. e., emotional exhaustion and depersonalization), when the teachers were highly susceptible to the emotions of others and when they frequently communicated with each other about work-related problems.
This study focuses on burnout and its positive antipode—engagement. A model is tested in which burnout and engagement have different predictors and different possible consequences. Structural equation modeling was used to simultaneously analyze data from four independent occupational samples (total N = 1698). Results confirm the hypothesized model indicating that: (1) burnout and engagement are negatively related, sharing between 10 per cent and 25 per cent of their variances; (2) burnout is mainly predicted by job demands but also by lack of job resources, whereas engagement is exclusively predicted by available job resources; (3) burnout is related to health problems as well as to turnover intention, whereas engagement is related only to the latter; (4) burnout mediates the relationship between job demands and health problems, whereas engagement mediates the relationship between job resources and turnover intention. The fact that burnout and engagement exhibit different patterns of possible causes and consequences implies that different intervention strategies should be used when burnout is to be reduced or engagement is to be enhanced. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
