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Why night owls are more intelligent
Abstract
The origin of values and preferences is an unresolved theoretical problem in social and behavioral sciences. The Savanna–IQ Interaction Hypothesis suggests that more intelligent individuals are more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values and preferences than less intelligent individuals, but general intelligence has no effect on the acquisition and espousal of evolutionarily familiar values and preferences. Individuals can often choose their values and preferences even in the face of genetic predisposition. One example of such choice within genetic constraint is circadian rhythms. Survey of ethnographies of traditional societies suggests that nocturnal activities were probably rare in the ancestral environment, so the Hypothesis would predict that more intelligent individuals are more likely to be nocturnal than less intelligent individuals. The analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) confirms the prediction.
... For instance, circadian rhythmwhich influences whether one is a morning or evening person-has a heritability of around 0.50, meaning that roughly 50% of individual differences in "morningness versus eveningness" can be attributed to the influence of genetic factors while the remaining variance relates to shared (e.g., within-family) and non-shared environmental factors. Thus, while individuals can be predisposed toward different circadian phenotypes due to combinations of personal genetic and environmental factors working in concert, such individuals are not constrained by these determinants (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). Indeed, "evening people" may not like having to awaken at 6am, but they can do so if their livelihoods depend on waking and going to work early. ...
... Consequently, individuals with higher intelligence are more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values and act in evolutionarily novel ways than less intelligent individuals. For instance, higher intelligence is associated with preferences for activities that were likely unusual or unavailable in ancestral settings, such as staying up at night (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009), listening to non-vocal instrumental music (Kanazawa & Perina, 2012;Račevska & Tadinac, 2019), and substance use (Kanazawa & Hellberg, 2010). More intelligent individuals also do less of what would be considered evolutionarily familiar and typically rewarding, including enjoying spending time with friends (Li & Kanazawa, 2016) or in the sunshine (Kanazawa et al., 2022), kissing and making love (Halpern et al., 2000), and having children (Kanazawa, 2014b). ...
... The current findings constitute an important validation of ENT (Kanazawa, 2004), which illuminates the role of general intelligence in the acquisition and espousal of evolutionarily novel preferences and values (e.g., Kanazawa & Hellberg, 2010;Kanazawa & Perina, 2009Kanazawa et al., 2022;Kanazawa, 2014b;Li & Kanazawa, 2016). This perspective carries significant implications for understanding where our species is headed, particularly in terms of global fertility, evolutionary mismatch, and the Flynn (1999) effect. ...
Purpose
Research using system integrity theory (SIT) has shown that more intelligent men have higher-quality semen, which is puzzling because although reproductive capability should predict fertility, more intelligent men have fewer children. The current research addresses this puzzle by highlighting the distinct obligate and facultative outcomes that emerge when SIT is integrated with life history theory (LHT) and evolutionary novelty theory (ENT). Specifically, we propose that SIT accounts for more rigidly obligate physiological traits whereas LHT encompasses both obligate traits and flexibly facultative behaviors and, thus, permits the ENT-driven expectation that brighter individuals would act in evolutionarily novel ways—e.g., slower reproduction despite possessing capacities for faster reproduction.
Methods
We examined this logic using another obligate reproductive trait: the timing of puberty. Based on our proposed synthesis of SIT, LHT, and ENT, we tested the prediction that more intelligent people would experience puberty earlier and yet have sex later, engage in less sexual activity, and have fewer children using two nationally representative and generationally distinct samples from the NCDS and Add Health.
Results
Data across both samples confirmed that higher intelligence predicted earlier puberty and indicators of slower reproduction over and above several potential confounds, thus constituting a robust validation of our propositions.
Conclusions
Findings are discussed with regards to the importance of considering the interplay between obligate and facultative traits, particularly when opposing directions might occur due to evolutionarily novel preferences associated with intelligence, as well as in the context of evolutionary mismatch in modern settings. Future directions inspired by this novel synthesis are offered.
... In the current environment with abundant artificial illumination, some individuals are more nocturnal than others (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). However, humans are evolutionarily designed to be diurnal, not nocturnal. ...
... For navigation, humans depend almost entirely on vision, rather than smell, sound, taste, or touch as with other species, and sunlight and moonlight were the only natural sources of illumination during human evolutionary history until the domestication of fire. As a result, in traditional societies, individuals typically rise right before sunrise and go to sleep right after sunset (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). They cautiously avoid nocturnal activities because in darkness they may be vulnerable to physical danger presented by nocturnal predators. ...
... The fact that more intelligent individuals get comparatively less happiness benefit from sunshine might be related, either as a cause or an effect, to their tendency to be more nocturnal; more intelligent individuals spend significantly more time in darkness than less intelligent individuals do (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). However, there is no evidence that individuals necessarily seek to engage in behaviour that makes them happy. ...
The savanna theory of happiness proposes that, due to evolutionary constraints on the human brain, situations and circumstances that would have increased our ancestors' happiness may still increase our happiness today, and those that would have decreased their happiness then may still decrease ours today. It further proposes that, because general intelligence evolved to solve evolutionarily novel problems, this tendency may be stronger among less intelligent individuals. Because humans are a diurnal species that cannot see in the dark, darkness always represented danger to our ancestors and may still decrease our happiness today. Consistent with this prediction, the analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) data shows that exposure to sunlight was associated with happiness but the association was significantly weaker among more intelligent individuals.
... There is a reasonably large extant literature on the relationship between circadian preference and intelligence. A large pioneering study (Kanazawa and Perina 2009) using the longitudinal ADD Health sample found later weekday and weekend bedtimes and wake-up times (self-reported as a single item) in young adults as a function of higher scores on a verbal ability test (the Peabody test) in childhood. A large study of over 100000 middle-aged participants (mean age ~56 years, SD = 7) (Kyle et al. 2017) reported that those with later selfreported single-item CP had higher test results on the cognitive assessments of the UK Biobank, which are reasonably correlated with intelligence tests scores (Fawns-Ritchie and Deary 2020). ...
... Somewhat surprisingly, we were unable to replicate the result of the previous Preckel et al. meta-analysis and several large individual studies (Kanazawa and Perina 2009;Kyle et al. 2017; Kirkegaard 2020) about a generally negative relation between early CP and high cognitive ability. Averaged across all studies, we found that the relation between CP (based on questionnaire or behavior assessments) and intelligence is not significantly different from zero. ...
... A moderating effect of age, indicating stronger effects in older samples, was also reported, similar to what we found in our analysis of a much wider age range. A previous large study of slightly older young adults (Kanazawa and Perina 2009) found higher (childhood) intelligence in 18-28 year olds who reported later bed-and wake-up times. We found a nonsignificant effect in the same direction in 18-25 year olds, and a significant effect in those older than 25 years of age. ...
A large number of previous studies reported a link between circadian preference and psychometric intelligence with mixed results and various hypotheses about the source of this correlation. In this study, we aimed to update a previous meta-analysis about the correlation between circadian preference and intelligence. Our literature search identified a large number of new studies, resulting in an increase of over 100% in the number of studies and over 400% in the number of involved participants (total k = 30, total N = 11160) over the previous meta-analysis, sampling a much wider age range from children to adults in late middle age. Our meta-analysis revealed no significant link between morningness and intelligence (r = −0.008) when the entire sample was studied, and no evidence for publication bias. This overall effect, however, obscured the moderating effect of age. The morningness-intelligence correlation decreased with mean sample age (R² = 54%), ranging from a non-significant positive trend in children and adolescents to a significant negative correlation after young adulthood. Eveningness was positively correlated with intelligence (r = 0.056), but this finding is based on a more age-restricted sample and only reached significance with some model specifications. We hypothesize that the age-moderated correlation between circadian preference and intelligence reflects social effects, where more intelligent individuals are more able to adjust their daily schedules to their natural circadian rhythm.
... Moreover, Piffer et al. (2014) found that evening-types had significantly greater GMAT scores (an admission test for Business Schools) than morning-types in both male and female business graduate students. Kanazawa and Perina (2009) have also shown that evening-types tend to have greater verbal intelligence than morning-types. In all of these studies, the effects are not due to differences in hours of sleep (this variable is usually controlled for in the analyses) but to chronotype itself. ...
... Until recently (Kanazawa and Perina, 2009;Piffer, 2010), investigations of the psychological, cognitive, and behavioral correlates of morningness and eveningness did not include any functional considerations concerning the possible adaptive value of these traits. New information about differences in sociosexuality associated with morningness and eveningness, however, has led to the formulation of specific functional hypotheses concerning these traits, as well as to some speculation about their possible evolutionary history. ...
... Thus, hypotheses concerning the evolution of chronotype should mainly address the evolution of eveningness, under the assumption that this trait evolved relatively recently in the human lineage. Piffer (2010) was the first to propose a hypothetical scenario for the evolution of eveningness in which this trait is specifically linked to sociosexuality and mating-related fitness benefits (see Kanazawa and Perina, 2009, for a different evolutionary hypothesis, focusing on eveningness-related intelligence). In this scenario, increased safety from predation and other ecological dangers during early human evolution may have increased opportunities to engage in social and mating activities in the late evening hours, when adults are less burdened by work or child-rearing. ...
... Eveningness has been related to slightly higher intelligence or general cognitive ability (Preckel et al. 2011), although associations between test performance and chronotype may also be moderated by time of day in the typical synchrony fashion (Goldstein et al. 2007). Researchers reported small albeit significant correlations showing that E-types tend to score higher in IQ tests then M-types (Song and Stough 2000;Kanazawa and Perina 2009). Despite this moderate cognitive advantage, E-types usually obtain lower grades during education process compared to M-types (Goldstein et al. 2007;Preckel et al. 2011;Rahafar et al. 2017). ...
... We replicated the reliable, positive correlation between morningness and conscientiousness (DeYoung et al. 2007;Hogben et al. 2007;Randler 2008). We also found that morningness was negatively associated with both cognitive ability tests, again replicating previous findings (Song and Stough 2000;Kanazawa and Perina 2009;Preckel et al. 2011). Conscientiousness predicted lower scores on the test of g c although its correlation with g f was non-significant. ...
Several studies show that intelligence and conscientiousness are negatively related. One of the most popular explanations of this effect is the compensation hypothesis. It posits that less intelligent people may become more conscientious to compensate for their relative lack of intelligence, whereas more intelligent individuals tend to rely on their cognitive effectiveness rather than organization or persistence. In the present study, we aimed to test a hypothesis that the morningness-eveningness dimension, an indicator of diurnal preferences, may act as a moderator of the association. We propose that Morning-types are conscientious regardless of their intelligence level, whereas the compensation effect is particularly marked among Evening-types. The study was conducted on a group of 383 individuals aged 18–69 years. Controlling for age and gender, we obtained a significant moderation effect, showing that magnitude of the negative association between intelligence and conscientiousness increases with eveningness. Bivariate associations between morningness-eveningness, intelligence and conscientiousness are also reported. Results suggest that it may be important to provide appropriate support to high-ability Evening-types in educational and work settings.
... On the basis of the Savanna principle, this hypothesis rests on a consensus among the majority of evolutionary biologists that the human brain has not experienced significant changes since the Pleistocene. The reason for this is attributed to the insufficient stability of the human environment (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). According to the Savanna principle, modern humans' environment consists of two types of stimuli: the evolutionarily familiar-the stimuli that have been present in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) and the evolutionarily novel-the stimuli that have not been present in the EEA. ...
... If true, this will be reflected in a higher likelihood of preference for the evolutionary novel stimuli among people with higher scores on intelligence tests. Previous research has confirmed the relationship between intelligence and substance use (Kanazawa & Hellberg, 2010), liberal political views and atheism (Kanazawa, 2010b), circadian rhythms (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009), homosexuality (Kanazawa, 2012), childlessness (Kanazawa, 2014), enjoyment of TV programs (Kanazawa, 2006a), health (Kanazawa, 2008), wealth of states (Kanazawa, 2006b), and music preferences (Kanazawa & Perina, 2012). ...
Music is a component of human culture of a historically universal presence. Enjoyed by many and irrelevant to few, music continuously receives interest from academia and the public alike. Capable of uniting, as well as dividing, music is often in a focus of individual comparisons. In this study, we combine the approaches of evolutionary and social psychology to investigate the relationship between intelligence, music preferences, and uses of music. We collected data from 467 high school students. We used the Nonverbal Sequence Test, the Uses of Music Questionnaire, and the Scale of Music Preferences. Confirming our expectations based on the Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis, we found intelligence to be a significant predictor of the preference for instrumental music, but not of the preference for vocal-instrumental music. Furthermore, we revealed the significant role of cognitive use of music as a predictor of the preference for instrumental music. We conducted factor analysis of the Scale of Music Preferences, and revealed five factors: reflective, popular, conservative, intense, and sophisticated. We also found the cognitive use of music to be significantly correlated with the preference for instrumental music, as well as music of reflexive, intense and sophisticated factors. Taken together, our findings support the Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis.
... This could be attributed to genetic factors or lifestyle habits, as some people are naturally "night owls". For individuals like novelists or artists, who often feel more creative and productive at night, engaging in midnight activity may help them feel more at ease, thus lowering their risk of mental disorders (Kanazawa and Perina, 2009). ...
Physical activity is crucial for human health. With the increasing availability of large-scale mobile health data, strong associations have been found between physical activity and various diseases. However, accurately capturing this complex relationship is challenging, possibly because it varies across different subgroups of subjects, especially in large-scale datasets. To fill this gap, we propose a generalized heterogeneous functional method which simultaneously estimates functional effects and identifies subgroups within the generalized functional regression framework. The proposed method captures subgroup-specific functional relationships between physical activity and diseases, providing a more nuanced understanding of these associations. Additionally, we introduce a pre-clustering method that enhances computational efficiency for large-scale data through a finer partition of subjects compared to true subgroups. In the real data application, we examine the impact of physical activity on the risk of mental disorders and Parkinson's disease using the UK Biobank dataset, which includes over 79,000 participants. Our proposed method outperforms existing methods in future-day prediction accuracy, identifying four subgroups for mental disorder outcomes and three subgroups for Parkinson's disease diagnosis, with detailed scientific interpretations for each subgroup. We also demonstrate theoretical consistency of our methods. Supplementary materials are available online. Codes implementing the proposed method are available at: https://github.com/xiaojing777/GHFM.
... Neuroticism, as well as propensity to depression and anxiety, are associated with motivation-related deficits, which are reflected in decreased responsiveness to rewarding stimuli, reduced approach-related behaviors, enhanced sensitivity to punishment, and increased avoidance behavior 10 . In addition, previous research revealed that, despite the people with evening chronotype showing higher intelligence [11][12][13] and cognitive ability 14 , they have worse academic achievements 15,16 . These findings suggest that incentive motivation is modulated by the morningness-eveningness dimension of the circadian system. ...
The dataset contains structural T1-weighted and functional magnetic resonance brain imaging data, from 37 men (aged 20-30), along with questionnaire-assessed measurements of trait-like eveningness, distinctness, sleep quality, personality type, anxiety levels, sensitivity to punishment and rewards, behavioral inhibition and activation system, attention deficits. In this study fMRI version of Monetary Incentive Delay task (MID) was used. The recruitment criteria excluded individuals with self-reported history of psychiatric or neurological conditions and current medication use. All the brain imaging sessions were performed between 1 PM and 5 PM in order to control the effect of time of day on acquired images. To control the seasonal effect, all scans were performed during 2 weeks in summer. This dataset is particularly valuable for researchers investigating circadian rhythmicity and may contribute to large-scale multicenter meta-analyses exploring structural brain correlates of eveningness and distinctness. Additionally, it can support studies focused on affective processing.
... The abovementioned result observed in high school students regarding word comprehension is the opposite to the one observed in the current study; in the current research, evening preference (indicated by CSM) was related to better word comprehension. This result is in line with other findings in university students and adults showing that eveningness is related to higher intelligence (Kanazawa andPerina 2009, Piffer et al., 2014;Preckel et al. 2011;Roberts and Kyllonen 1999;Zajenkowski et al. 2019). It can be therefore hypothesized that: (1) associations between chronotype and intelligence are very weak, therefore show up inconsistently across studies; (2) better performance in intelligence tests is related to eveningness in adults regardless of testing time, but to morningness in children and adolescents during morning hours, as suggested by studies on the synchrony effect (Goldstein et al. 2007, Hahn et al. 2012Jankowski et al. 2023). ...
Existing studies report contradictory findings regarding the association between chronotype and intelligence, particularly for morning testing. This study aimed to shed more light on the association by employing a multivariate approach and considering variables that can potentially provide more insight into the nature of the relationship. A sample of university students (N = 123) completed Composite Scale of Morningness followed by an 8-day sleep diary and actigraphy recording. At the last morning of the recording, participants sampled their saliva five times for cortisol assays and took part in a testing session (8:30–10:15) consisting of completion of five intelligence tests, Dundee Stress State Questionnaire, and sleepiness-alertness scales at the beginning and at the end of the session. Results showed no association between general intelligence and chronotype, but eveningness was related to better word comprehension. The strongest predictor of general intelligence was task engagement, followed by task-related distress. Eveningness was related to lower absolute cortisol levels during 45 minutes since awakening, unrelated to cortisol awakening response, and linked to higher cortisol and lower subjective alertness during the testing session. It is concluded that eventual effects of chronotype on intellectual performance are very weak and can be outweighed by task engagement.
... ativas durante a noite. Quanto mais inteligente for a criança maior a probabilidade dela se tornar um adulto noturno e que dorme tarde (Kanazawa, 2009). ...
Durante muito tempo se acreditava que a personalidade e a inteligência eram constructos que necessitavam de estudos independentes. Hoje já é possível perceber as influências de uma sobre a outra na formação do indivíduo e das características da sua personalidade e habilidades cognitivas. O objetivo desse artigo é compreender as relações entre inteligência e personalidade e apresentar de maneira sucinta os traços da personalidade que se desenvolvem a partir dessa relação.
... Although there are studies in the literature that generally show lower cognitive performance in eveningness types, there are also studies that argue that this is a result of the synchronicity effect and that evening people have a higher cognitive capacity (Kanazawa andPerina 2009, Ujma andScherrer 2021). It was reported in the meta-analytic study of Preckel et al. that although evening people have a higher cognitive capacity, morning people show higher academic achievement (Preckel et al. 2011). ...
The chronotype, which reflects the circadian rhythm preferences of individuals in their daily activities and sleep�wake cycles, can be considered on a dimension of extreme morningism and extreme eveningism. Individuals with
extreme morning and extreme evening chronotypes face many physical and psychological dangers due to
accumulated sleep debt, short total sleep time and insufficient sleep efficiency. In extreme chronotypes, especially
in extreme evening people, the social jet-lag effect due to the mismatch between social and circadian clocks is
thought to exacerbate these dangers. More recent studies have suggested that social jet-lag and chronotype have
many negative effects on cognitive functioning. The aim of this article is to review the impact of social jet-lag and
chronotype on cognitive functioning.
... Our results revealed neither an effect of eveningness nor a synchrony effect on fluid intelligence. These results do not support observations of evening chronotypes exhibiting higher performance on tasks related to fluid intelligence that have been made in adults in some studies (Kanazawa and Perina 2009;Preckel et al. 2011). At the same time, we must acknowledge that studies of adults have shown inconsistent results (e.g., Zajenkowski et al. 2019). ...
Research suggests the existence of an association between chronotype and intellectual performance , but the nature of this link remains unclear. Studies conducted in a laboratory setting point to the synchrony effect (better performance at a person's preferred time of day) for fluid intelligence, but not for crystallized intelligence, whereas studies that have analyzed students' grades suggest that the effect exists for both. In the present study, we aimed to verify the synchrony effect by applying direct measures of crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence, and subjective sleepiness-alertness in a sample of high school students during their morning or afternoon class. The results revealed a synchrony effect for crystallized, but not for fluid intelligence. During morning class, students with a morning chronotype performed better than evening chronotypes on a test of crystallized intelligence, whereas during afternoon class there was no difference between chronotypes. The association resulted from decreased performance during morning class in evening chronotypes that improved during afternoon class and constant performance in morning chronotypes. These effects were independent of sleepiness-alertness levels. The results suggest that individual differences between chronotypes may be important for tasks performed during morning classes, but not during afternoon ones, and that performance across school days may depend on time of day in evening chronotypes.
... 33 According to the theoretical hypothesis in evolutionary psychology, more intelligent individuals are more likely to be nocturnal than less intelligent individuals. 34 However, the mechanisms for the association of cognitive function with chronotype are still unclear. Future studies about the origin of preference in circadian rhythms are clearly necessary. ...
Background
Association has been found between chronotype and cognitive function in conventional observational studies but whether this association is causal and if so, its direction, is uncertain. There are also concerns among people with later chronotype that their habits may be detrimental to cognitive function.
Methods
We analyzed the association between chronotype (measured as sleep midpoint) and cognitive function (measured by Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE) and Delayed Word Recall Test (DWRT)) using multivariable linear regression on 14,582 participants in the Guangzhou biobank cohort study (GBCS) from 2008 to 2012. Using bidirectional Mendelian randomization, we used 207 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with chronotype from the combination of UK Biobank and 23andMe (n = 697,828), and 127 SNPs associated with cognitive function from the combination of UK Biobank and COGENT consortium (n = 257,841).
Findings
Observationally in GBCS, later chronotype was associated with better cognitive function (MMSE scores: β = 0.14 per hour; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.09–0.19; DWRT scores: β = 0.07 per hour; 95% CI, 0.04–0.11). Bidirectional MR showed genetic predisposition to early, versus later, chronotype was not associated with cognitive function using inverse-variance weighted (β = −0.02; 95% CI, −0.05 to 0.01). However, better cognitive function was associated with decreased odds of early chronotype (UK Biobank: odds ratio = 0.88 per standardized score; 95% CI, 0.83–0.93; 23andMe: 0.87 per standardized score; 95% CI, 0.80–0.95).
Interpretation
It is a reassuring finding for adults with later chronotype who may be concerned if such a habit has a negative impact on cognitive function.
Funding
The National Natural Science Foundation of China; Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong; The University of Hong Kong Foundation for Educational Development and Research; The Health Medical Research Fund in Hong Kong; The University of Birmingham, UK.
... In the scientific literature, most studies suggested that the students expressing an evening chronotype (E-types) show worse academic performance than colleagues expressing a morning chronotype (M-type) (Enright & Refinetti 2017;Beşoluk et al. 2011;Gomes et al. 2011;Önder et al. 2014;Preckel et al. 2011;Taylor et al. 2011;Tonetti et al. 2015;Valladares et al. 2018). Our recent publication (Montaruli et al. 2019) confirmed the best M-types academic performance; however, N-types received the lowest grades in theoretical exams, while E-types the lowest in practical exams. ...
... It should be noted that we did observe a marginally significant association between night activity and educational attainment, such that adults with college level degrees were more likely to be more active during the night. This is consistent with claims that "night owls" are more likely to have higher IQs (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). However, given the marginal effect, this finding clearly requires replication and further examination. ...
This study examined sleep and its cognitive and affective correlates in adults with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD), utilizing UK Biobank data. There were no group differences in subjective sleep duration [n = 220 ASD; n = 2200 general population (GP)]. Accelerometer measures of sleep duration or nighttime activity did not differ by group, but sleep efficiency was marginally lower in ASD (n = 83 ASD; n = 824 GP). Sleep efficiency was associated with wellbeing and mental health, and pathways between accelerometer sleep measures and wellbeing and mental health were significantly stronger for adults with ASD (who also reported substantially poorer wellbeing and > 5 × likelihood of experiencing mental distress). These findings highlight the need to monitor sleep to maintain good mental health in adult ASD.
... As people have been hunter-gatherers for 99% of the evolutionary history of our species and they remained in Africa for most of this period, it is reasonable to ask questions on the selective advantages that "owls" might have over "larks" in thee conditions, i.e., not far from the equator, when, for example, the dark part of the day starts at 6 pm and ends at 6 am (bearing in mind that people become absolutely helpless in the dark). Several explanations proposing particular selective advantages of "owls" have been put forward [Kanazawa and Perina, 2009;Piffer, 2010;Randler et al., 2012;Jonason et al., 2013;Putilov, 2014b;Samson et al., 2017], though obtaining empirical support for these, as for other explanations developed in the framework of the evolutionary psychology approach to understanding psychological phenomena, is a diffi cult task. ...
This is the first review in chronopsychology, a relatively new interdisciplinary area of research which has developed rapidly at the junction of chronobiology, somnology, and psychology. Chronopsychology studies the mechanisms of rhythmicity in behavior and the mind based on methods of chronobiology, somnology, and psychometry. In particular, chronobiology studies biological clocks, while somnology addresses their influences on regulatory processes directly controlling the sleep–waking cycle, impairments to which have adverse impact on mental activity. Psychometric and differential psychology methods are widely used, for example, in studies of the chronotype and its relationship with a great diversity of human characteristics – genetic, psychophysiological, behavioral, cognitive, personality, and psychopathological. Particular attention is paid to sleep, drowsiness, fatigue, work/study productivity, and healthy/unhealthy lifestyles in people of different sexes and ages. Applied research includes the development – taking account of the chronotype of each specific person – of recommendations supporting preservation of good quality sleep and health in specific temporal situations, optimizing work/rest patterns, efficient assimilation of new skills, and preventing accidents during vigorous activity at times of day unsuitable for these activities.
... Some studies have suggested a link between eveningness and intelligence, despite A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 22 evening persons' worse academic performance. 12,83,84 This interpretation does not receive support from our study. We also find a contrasting view to this interpretation from contemporary models of intelligence in which adaptation to the environment is seen as an important aspect of intelligence. ...
Study objectives
We set out to examine how chronotype (diurnal preference) is connected to ability to function in natural conditions where individuals cannot choose their sleep schedule. We conducted a cross-sectional study in military conscript service to test the hypothesis that sleep deprivation mediates the adverse effects of chronotype on cognitive functioning. We also examined the effects of time of day.
Methods
140 participants (ages 18-24 years) completed an online survey, including the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) and a Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Most (n=106) underwent an actigraphy recording. After bivariate analyses, we created a mediation model (self-reported sleepiness and sleep deprivation mediating effect of chronotype on cognition) and a moderation model (synchrony between most alert time and testing time).
Results
Reaction times in inhibition task correlated negatively with sleep efficiency and positively with sleep latency in actigraphy. There was no relation to ability to inhibit responses. More significantly, spatial working memory performance (especially strategicness of performance) correlated positively with morning preference and negatively with sleep deprivation before service. Synchrony with most alert time of the day did not moderate these connections. No other cognitive task correlated with morningness or sleep variables.
Conclusions
In line with previous research, inhibitory control is maintained after insufficient sleep but with a tradeoff of slower performance. The connection between morning preference and working memory strategy is a novel finding. We suggest that diurnal preference could be seen as an adaptive strategy, as morningness has consistently been associated with better academic and health outcomes.
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
Jedna z najczęściej pojawiających się w literaturze definicji inteligencji opisuje ją jako zdolność, która ułatwia człowiekowi przystosowanie do środowiska. Badania psychologiczne prowadzone już od drugiej połowy XIX w. (m.in. przez Francisa Galtona) zdają się potwierdzać adaptacyjny charakter inteligencji. Od samego początku badacze łączyli sprawność intelektualną z funkcjonowaniem szkolnym. W kontekście badania uczniów szkoły średniej zrodziła się koncepcja czynnika inteligencji ogólnej zaproponowana przez Charlesa Spearmana. Nowo powstałe testy inteligencji u progu XX w., początkowo stworzone dla celów edukacyjnych przez Alfreda Bineta, szybko wzbudziły zainteresowanie pracodawców, ponieważ stanowiły efektywne narzędzie wyboru najlepszych kandydatów do pracy. Proces rozpowszechniania się testów inteligencji przyspieszyła I wojna światowa i potrzeba szybkiej selekcji kandydatów do służby wojskowej na różnych stanowiskach. Szkoła i praca, niewątpliwie ważne obszary aktywności człowieka, nie wyczerpują jednak dziedzin, w których inteligencja okazała się ważna. Późniejsze badania, prowadzone m.in. przez zespół szkockiego badacza Iana Deary’ego, pokazały znaczenie inteligencji dla zdrowia i długości życia. Inteligencja jest ogólną zdolnością, która przesądza o sprawności funkcjonowania poznawczego człowieka. Praktycznie każda aktywność ludzka angażuje w jakimś stopniu procesy poznawcze. Nie dziwi zatem fakt, że inteligencja ma znaczenie w niemal każdej sferze życia, od samoregulacji, osobowości, przekonań o świecie, kontroli niepożądanych zachowań i emocji, po aktywność fizyczną, preferencje dobowe i funkcjonowanie w związkach. W niniejszym zbiorze przyglądamy się niektórym z tych obszarów, wskazując na różnorodność wątków związanych z inteligencją. (...)
W pierwszej części książki znalazły się rozdziały odwołujące się bezpośrednio do adaptacyjnego charakteru inteligencji oraz związanymi z nią funkcjami poznawczymi. Pierwszy rozdział autorstwa Marcina Zajenkowskiego stanowi wprowadzenie do całego zbioru i przedstawia rys historyczny dociekań nad inteligencją, jej definicję oraz przegląd badań nad znaczeniem inteligencji dla osiągnięć szkolnych, funkcjonowania w pracy oraz zdrowia i długości życia. Następne trzy rozdziały opisują rolę zdolności poznawczych dla adaptacyjnego zachowania w zakresie samoregulacji (Jan Jędrzejczyk), agresywnego zachowania (Marta Bodecka) oraz uzależnień (Iwona Nowakowska, Karolina Lewandowska, Karol Lewczuk).
Druga część zbioru obejmuje teksty, w których przedyskutowano związki inteligencji i zdolności poznawczych z przekonaniami i emocjami. Marcin Zajenkowski i Oliwia Maciantowicz wskazują na wagę przekonań o własnej inteligencji dla różnych obszarów życia. Kinga Szymaniak przedstawia badania nad związkami gniew–poznanie, wskazując na najnowsze teorie z zakresu psychologii emocji. Paweł Łowicki omawia powiązania inteligencji i zdolności emocjonalno-społecznych z przekonaniami religijnymi. Maria Ledzińska prezentuje obszerny przegląd badań nad metapoznaniem, a więc wiedzą na temat własnych procesów poznawczych, jej związkami z inteligencją i codziennym funkcjonowaniem.
W trzeciej części zbioru przedstawiono rozdziały opisujące rolę inteligencji w specyficznych obszarach życia. Wojciech Waleriańczyk i Maciej Stolarski zebrali informacje na temat roli inteligencji w sporcie. Konrad Jankowski przedstawia badania nad związkami zdolności poznawczych z chronotypem, cechą opisującą preferencje pory dnia dla aktywności człowieka. W ostatnim rozdziale Maria Leniarska i Marcin Zajenkowski dokonują przeglądu badań nad inteligencją ogólną oraz inteligencją emocjonalną i funkcjonowaniem osób w bliskich związkach.
... Teniendo en cuenta que, por lo general, a los estudiantes se les enseña y exige durante el día, especialmente en horas de las mañanas, los horarios matutinos parecen ser una ventaja para los tipos M (matutinos o morningness) (Escribano y Díaz Morales, 2014;Vollmer, Pötsch y Randler, 2013). Otras investigaciones encuentran relaciones específicas entre el cronotipo y el RA, informando que los tipos E (vespertinos o eveningness) son quienes obtienen peores resultados escolares (Beşoluk, Önder y Deveci, 2011;Escribano, Díaz-Morales, Delgado y Collado, 2012;Preckel, Holling y Vock, 2013;Randler y Frech, 2009) aunque en las pruebas de inteligencia obtengan puntuaciones más altas (Díaz-Morales y Escribano, 2015;Kanazawa y Perina, 2009), sin importar el tiempo de asistencias a clases (Vollmer et al., 2013). ...
El rendimiento académico (RA), también conocido como desempeño académico, es una variable que interesa a estudiantes de todos los niveles, a profesores, padres de familia e investigadores. Es decir, todos aquellos que son afectados en cualquier medida y dimensión de actuación en el sistema educativo se interesan por esta variable, que siempre se ha tornado como desafiante para la formación de los jóvenes, especialmente los universitarios. Los autores discurren por los diferentes tópicos que sugiere el título de la obra, presentando, inicialmente, el carácter multimodal del RA; luego, se presentan las evidencias científicas acerca de las inteligencias múltiples con sus diferentes tipos y su implicación con el RA; después, el RA, en el cual se incluyen los estilos de aprendizaje, la autorregulación y la teoría de la emoción; posteriormente, continúa el capítulo que vincula aspectos biológicos tales como la preferencia circadiana o cronotipo, que incluye y explica el ciclo sueño-vigilia y el RA, así como la preferencia circadiana y el desempeño cognitivo, lo cual es un factor de estudio en los últimos años. Termina el libro con el capítulo dedicado a cómo los síntomas depresivos y la ideación suicida intervienen en el desempeño académico.
... Notably, we also found a modest positive relationship between cognitive ability and chronotype (β = .05), in line with a previous meta-analysis (Preckel et al., 2011) and a large study (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). This demonstrated the validity of our methods of estimating chronotype and cognitive ability and allowed further fine-grained global analyses about the possible moderating effects of geography, sex and age. ...
Chronotype and cognitive ability are two human phenotypes with an uneven geographic distribution due to both selective migration and causal environmental effects. In our study, we aimed to examine the relationship between geographic variables, cognitive ability and chronotype. We used a large anonymized sample (n = 25,700, mostly from the USA, UK, Canada and Australia) of dating site users to estimate chronotype and cognitive ability from questionnaire responses using item response theory. We matched each user to geographic coordinates and city size using the reported locations and geographic databases. In line with previous research we found that male sex, younger age, residence in a more populous locale, higher cognitive ability and more westward position within the same time zone were associated with later chronotype. Male sex, younger age, residence in a more populous locale, later chronotype and higher latitude were associated with higher cognitive ability, but the effect of population on chronotype and latitude on cognitive ability was only present in the USA. The relationship between age and chronotype was stronger in males, and the relationship between chronotype and cognitive ability was stronger in males and in older participants. Population density had an independent association with cognitive ability, but not chronotype. Our results confirm the uneven geographic distribution of chronotype and cognitive ability. These findings generalize across countries, but they are moderated by age and sex, suggesting both biological and cultural effects.
... Wyniki te tłumaczone są efektem treningu w przezwyciężaniu codziennych trudności, na które wystawione są osoby o chronotypie wieczornym ze względu na funkcjonowanie w porannie zorientowanym społeczeństwie (Preckel i in., 2011). Wyniki te są również źródłem inspiracji dla teorii tłumaczących owe relacje w nurcie ewolucyjnym (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009), w których spekuluje się, że wysoka inteligencja sprzyjała podejmowaniu nowych wyzwań ewolucyjnych, spośród których jednym z ważniejszych było rozszerzenie aktywności do godzin nocnych, możliwe dzięki opanowaniu ognia. ...
... In older students already attending university, this relationship was reversed with evening types scoring higher on a standardized test for admission to university that correlates with a measure of general intelligence (Piffer, Ponzi, Sapienza, Zingales, & Maestripieri, 2014). In another study, verbal IQ scores obtained during adolescence were shown to be a predictor of circadian preference, with more intelligent students preferring eveningness as adults (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). Although not in the context of school performance, the study of Goldstein, Hahn, Hasher, Wiprzycka, and Zelazo (2007) specifically investigated the relationship between chronotype and intelligence, taking into account time of day. ...
Sleep is essential for health and performance and its timing and consolidation are regulated by the biological clock. There is a rich variety in sleep timing (chronotype) that is often disregarded by society when imposing uniform school/working starting times. This leads to a phenomenon called social jetlag, the mismatch between biological and social clocks. The main objectives of this thesis were to describe the consequences that arise from social jetlag, to explore possible solutions to reduce it, and to better understand entrainment (the process that keeps the biological clock synchronized with the external light-dark cycle). We found that the impact of chronotype on school grades (late chronotypes usually obtain lower grades) was stronger in the early morning and for scientific subjects. Late chronotypes were more often absent from class, which, in turn, was associated with lower grades. We tested simple protocols to decrease social jetlag involving room light and blue light blocking glasses. Although social jetlag was not reduced, our findings show that simple ‘in-home’ light interventions are potentially effective in modifying the phase of entrainment and sleep timing. Finally, we have shown that season can influence school attendance and school performance, and that the weekly structure (workdays vs work-free days) has an impact on the sleep-wake cycle and on the melatonin rhythm, especially in late chronotypes. The findings of this thesis have potential applications for society. Suggestions to improve school policies and practical solutions to delayed sleep phase derive from this work.
... Поскольку 99% от всего временного промежутка эволюционной истории нашего вида люди оставались охотниками-собирателями и большую часть от этого времени они не покидали Африки, резонно задать вопрос о селективных преимуществах, которые могли иметь "совы" перед "жаворонками" в тех условиях, то есть неподалеку от экватора, когда, например, темное время суток начинается в 6 вечера и заканчивается в 6 утра (при том, что, оказавшись в темноте, человек, как известно, становится абсолютно беспомощным). Было выдвинуто несколько объяснений, предполагающих определенные селективные преимущества "сов" (Kanazawa, Perina, 2009;Piffer, 2010;Randler et al., 2012;Jonason et al., 2013;Putilov, 2014b;Samson et al., 2017), эмпирически поддержать которые, как и другие объяснения, развиваемые в рамках эволюционно-психологического подхода к пониманию психологических явлений, представляется сложной задачей. ...
QUŌ VĀDIS, CHRONOPSYCHOLOGY?
A. A. Putilov
This is the first review on chronopsychology, a relatively new interdisciplinary research field that is
rapidly developing at the crossroads of chronobiology, sleep science, and psychology. By applying
the methods of chronobiology, sleep science, and psychometry, it explores the mechanisms of
rhythmicity of behavior and psychic activity. In particular, chronobiology studies the biological
clocks, and sleep science explores their influence on the regulatory processes governing the sleep-
wake cycle which disturbance negatively affects mental and physical activity. Chronopsychology al-
so relies on the methods developed by personality psychologists in the framework of psychometrics,
for example, in the study of chronotype and its relationship with a variety of other human charac-
teristics – genetics, psychophysiological, behavioral, cognitive, personality and psychopathologi-
cal. Special attention is devoted to sleep, sleepiness, fatigue, productivity of work/study,
healthy/unhealthy lifestyles of people of different sex and age. Applied research includes the devel-
opment – with taking into account the chronotype of a particular person – recommendations for
getting adequate sleep and maintaining good health in a specific temporal environment, optimizing
work and rest schedules, effective learning new skills, preventing accidents associated with activity
at inappropriate time of the day.
Это первый обзор по хронопсихологии, относительно новой междисциплинарной области исследований, которая быстро развивается на стыке хронобиологии, сомнологии и психо-логии. Хронопсихология изучает механизмы ритмичности в поведении и психике, опира-ясь на методы хронобиологии, сомнологии и психометрии. В частности, хронобиология изучает биологические часы, а сомнология-их влияние на регуляторные процессы, непо-средственно контролирующие цикл сна и бодрствования, нарушения которого отрица-тельно влияют на психическую деятельность. Mетоды психометрии и дифференциальной психологии широко применяются, например, при изучении хронотипа и его взаимосвязи с самыми разными особенностями человека-генетическими, психофизиологическими, поведенческими, когнитивными, личностными и психопатологическими. Особое внима-ние уделяется сну, сонливости, усталости, продуктивности работы/учебы, здоровому/не-здоровому образу жизни людей разного пола и возраста. Прикладные исследования вклю-чают разработку-с учетом хронотипа каждого конкретного человека-рекомендаций по сохранению полноценного сна и здоровья в конкретной временной среде, оптимизации режима работы и отдыха, эффективному усвоению новых навыков и предотвращению не-счастных случаев при активной деятельности в неподходящее для такой деятельности вре-мя суток. Ключевые слова: хронотипология, сомнология, хронобиология, психология личности, ин-дивидуальные различия, циркадианные ритмы, регуляция сна-бодрствования, сонли-вость, сменный труд ВВЕДЕНИЕ Слово "chronopsychology" ("хронопсихо-логия") не сложно обнаружить на просторах интернета. Оно на слуху уже не одно десяти-летие, а с 1999 г. японская hip hop группа M-Flo исполняет небезызвестную песню с таким названием. Парадокс, однако, состоит в том, что намного сложнее ответить на вопрос о том, что же из себя представляет область на-учных исследований, обозначенная словом "хронопсихология". Причем ответ не дает не только прослушивание этой песни, но и бо-лее серьезное изучение всех научных источ-ников, содержащих данное слово. Среди них, в частности, нельзя обнаружить обзор по ис-тории и современному состоянию хронопси-хологии как на английском, так и на русском языке. Так что данный обзор, похоже, станет первым. Будучи относительно молодой областью междисциплинарных исследований, хроно-психология стремительно развивается в по-следние годы на стыке хронобиологии, сомно-логии и психологии. Она изучает механизмы и проявления ритмичности в поведенческих и психологических процессах. Ее теоретиче-скими фундаментами являются две биологи-ческие дисциплины-хронобиология и со-мнология. В сферу экспериментальных ис-следований первой входят биологические часы, а в сферу интересов второй-их влия-ние на те регуляторные процессы, которые непосредственно контролируют цикл сна и бодрствования. Серьезные нарушения этого цикла-а с этим знаком практически каждый человек-отрицательно влияют на психиче-УДК 57.034+159.91 ОБЗОРЫ И ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ СТАТЬИ
... The Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis proposes that more intelligent individuals will be more likely to engage in evolutionarily novel behaviors and have evolutionarily novel values (Kanazawa, 2014). Previous studies have shown that this is true for staying up late at night (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009), holding liberal values (Kanazawa, 2010b), having fewer children (Kanazawa, 2014), and liking classical music (Kanazawa & Perina, 2012). ...
The present study investigates and provides support for the Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis regarding pro-environmental values. Study 1 showed that the highest attained education level is a significant predictor of pro-environmental concern, while Study 2 showed that the trait of openness to experience plays a unique role in predicting biospheric values, but not other values, lending support for the Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis. Acting to preserve the natural environment is an evolutionarily novel challenge, and therefore, is more actively addressed by individuals who more readily adopt novel ideas and seek out new ways of behaving. Kodėl aukšto intelekto žmonės labiau rūpinasi aplinka? Santrauka. Šis tyrimas nagrinėja ir pateikia empirinį pagrindimą Savanos ir intelekto sąveikos hipotezei gamtai drau-giško elgesio vertybių atžvilgiu. Pirmasis tyrimas parodė, kad aukščiausias įgyto išsilavinimo lygis yra reikšmingas susirūpinimo aplinkos problemomis prognostinis kintamasis. Antrame tyrime buvo atskleista, kad atvirumo bruožas turi unikalų vaidmenį prognozuojant biosferos vertybes, bet ne kitokias vertybes, taip suteikiant empirinį pagrindą Savanos ir intelekto sąveikos hipotezei. Gamtai draugiškas elgesys yra evoliuciškai naujas iššūkis, kurį noriau priima asmenys, linkę į naujoves, patirti naujų dalykų, priimti naujas idėjas ir atrasti naujų būdų elgtis. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: gamtai draugiškas elgesys, vertybės, asmenybė, atvirumas patyrimui, intelektas.
... Miner (1961) concluded that the correlation between 20-word vocabulary tests and general cognitive ability was at least .75, and Wolfle (1980) found a correlation of .71 between the WORDSUM and measures of general intelligence. WORDSUM had been used as a measure of cognitive ability in many GSS based studies (e.g., Hauser & Huang, 1997;Kanazawa & Perina, 2009), as well as research based on other large national databases (e.g., the American National Election Study; see Brandt & Crawford, 2016;Carl, 2015). Cor, Haertel, Krosnick, and Malhotra (2012) provided a recent comprehensive survey of the use of the WORD-SUM in social research. ...
In this article we examine intolerance toward ideological outgroups, conceptualized as the negativity of the attitudes of liberals and conservatives toward their ideological outgroup. We show that conservatives are more ideologically intolerant than liberals and that the more intelligent are more ideologically intolerant than the less intelligent. We also show that the differences between liberals and conservatives and the differences between the more and less intelligent depend on ideological extremity: They are larger for extreme than for moderate ideologists. The implication of these results to questions regarding the relationship between intelligence and ideological intolerance and regarding the relationship between ideology and prejudice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... Specifically, we successfully replicated previous findings about the relationship between age, sex and chronotype [;-7, 16, 53], relative longitude and chronotype [1;-16] as well as city population and both chronotype and cognitive ability [16, 33-37, 5;, 55]. Notably, we also found a modest positive relationship between cognitive ability and chronotype (β~0.05), in line with a previous meta-analysis [38), resi ] and a large study [56]. This demonstrated the validity of our methods of estimating chronotype and cognitive ability and allowed further fine-grained global analyses. ...
Chronotype and cognitive ability are two psychological phenotypes with an uneven geographical distribution due to both selective migration and causal environmental effects. In our study we aimed to unravel the relationship between geographical variables, cognitive ability and chronotype. We used a large anonymized sample (N=25700) of dating site users to estimate chronotype and cognitive ability from questionnaire responses using item response theory. We matched each user to geographical coordinates and city size using the reported locations and geographical databases. In line with previous research we found that male sex (β=0.029), younger age (β=-0.178), residence in a more populous locale (β=0.02), higher cognitive ability (β=0.05) and more westward position within the same time zone (β=-0.04) was associated with later chronotype. Male sex (β=0.065), younger age (β=-0.04), residence in a more populous locale (β=0.149), later chronotype (β=0.051) and higher latitude (β=0.03) was associated with higher cognitive ability, but the effect of population on chronotype and latitude on cognitive ability was only present in the United States. The relationship between age and chronotype was stronger in males, and the relationship between chronotype and cognitive ability was stronger in males and in older participants. Population density had an independent association with cognitive ability, but not chronotype. Our results confirm the uneven geographical distribution of chronotype and cognitive ability. Country-wise analyses distinguish universal cultural/biological and country-specific effects. The moderating effect of age on the cognitive ability-chronotype relationship suggests that cultural rather than biological effects underlie this relationship.
... However, there is contradictory evidence regarding the relationship between chronotype and academic performance. Higher academic performance was attributed to both morning [27,28,31] and evening chronotypes [32][33][34][35]. To date, these studies have mostly focused on homogenous samples, i.e., students from one school or university [23,36]. ...
Shorter sleep is known to be negatively associated with academic performance. However, this result has mostly been found in homogenous samples (e.g., students from one university) or when using relative measures of academic performance, such as grade point average. Consequently, the relationship between academic performance and sleep patterns at the population level is not well understood. In this paper, we examined the relationship between academic performance as measured by a standardized test and sleep patterns using data from a Russian panel study (N = 4,400) that was nationally representative for one age cohort (20-21 years old). In addition to self-reported sleep patterns, the data set contained information about participants' online activities over a period of up to 10 years, which allowed us to track the evolution of this relationship over time. We found that high academic performance was associated with shorter sleep, later bedtime, and increased online activity at night. The relationship between high academic performance and online activity at night was stable over a period of 5 years. Our findings suggest that the relationship between academic performance and sleep patterns can be more complex than previously believed and that high performance may be achieved at the expense of individual well-being.
... Combining work day and weekend sleep timing into a general chronotype measure offers a limited opportunity to distinguish individual differences due to biological preferences (most prominent on weekends) and those due to societal pressure (most prominent on work days). Notably, the study of Kanazawa et al. 2 , which enquired about work day and free day bedtimes separately, is an exception to this. This contradiction might arise from several factors, including self-report inaccuracy (as wake times were quite late, on average 10:00 AM or later on weekends and later than 7:00 AM on work days, with some inaccuracies such as frequent 12:00 PM [noon] bedtimes manually corrected by the authors) and age-specific effects as all respondents were very young (<30 years old). ...
Sleep-wake patterns show substantial biological determination, but they are also subject to individual choice and societal pressure. Some evidence suggests that high IQ is associated with later sleep patterns. However, it is unclear whether the relationship between IQ and later sleep is due to biological or social effects, such as the timing of working hours. We investigated the association between habitual sleep timing during work days and work-free days, working time and membership in Mensa, an organization of highly intelligent individuals (IQ ≥130) using a sample of 1,172 adults split between Mensa members and age- and sex-matched volunteers from a large web-based database. We found no difference in chronotype, and the later sleep timing of Mensa members on work days was fully accounted for by later work start times. Our results indicate that later sleep timing in those with higher IQs is not due to physiological differences, but rather due to later work schedules. Later working times and the resulting lower social jetlag may be one of the reasons why higher IQ is associated with lower prospective morbidity and mortality.
... Kanazawa and Perina [25] used the large National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY) longitudinal sample (N > 10000) to match the self-reported circadian preferences of young adults to childhood IQ scores. They found that respondents had consistently later circadian preferences as a function of higher childhood IQ, a pattern which persisted both on weekdays and weekends. ...
General cognitive ability — or intelligence — is a key psychological phenotype. Individual differences in intelligence may either cause or be a consequence of individual differences in the macrostructure of sleep, such as timing or duration. Furthermore, biological measures of sleep, especially highly trait-like sleep EEG oscillations may provide insights about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. Here we review the current state of research on the association between sleep measures and intelligence. We concluded that the macrostructure of sleep has a small but consistent correlation with intelligence, which is possibly moderated by age. Sleep spindle amplitude and possibly other sleep EEG measures are biomarkers of intelligence. We close by discussing methodological pitfalls of the field, and give recommendations for future directions.
... Ahora bien, como los estudiantes suelen ser enseñados y probados durante el día escolar de la mañana, a pesar del cambio hacia la noche durante la adolescencia, los horarios matutinos parecen ser una ventaja para los tipos M, que tienden a obtener grados más altos y mejores niveles de atención (Escribano y Díaz, 2014;Vollmer, Pötsch y Randler, 2013). Otros investigadores han mostrado relaciones específicas entre el cronotipo y el rendimiento académico, informando que los tipos E obtienen peores resultados escolares (Beşoluk, Önder y Deveci, 2011;Escribano, Díaz, Delgado y Collado, 2012;Preckel, Holling y Vock, 2013;Randler y Frech, 2009), aunque tienden a obtener puntuaciones más altas en las pruebas de inteligencia (Díaz y Escribano, 2015, Kanazawa y Perina, 2009, aparte del tiempo en el que asisten a clases (Vollmer, et al., 2013). ...
El Nobel de Fisiología y Medicina del 2017, otorgado a tres cronobiólogos, reintrodujo una discusión que se viene dando desde hace varias décadas entre la comunidad científica, acerca de cómo los relojes biológicos controlan los ritmos diarios e influencian el comportamiento, el aprendizaje y la salud. El funcionamiento de un conjunto de genes participa del control de los ritmos biológicos, y está asociado a los horarios de sueño, cuya restricción se vincula a problemas de la salud y del desempeño académico. Se propone tener en cuenta esta temática en la política educativa.
... Eveningness has also been related to higher intelligence, although associations between the constructs appear weak (Kanazawa and Perina 2009;Preckel et al. 2011;Roberts and Kyllonen 1999). Moreover, this relation seems to be unaffected by time of day (Song and Stough 2000). ...
Morningness-eveningness, or chronotype, reflects the timing of sleep-wake patterns across a 24-hour day. Extant research has revealed that chronotype correlates with numerous psychological constructs including cognitive ability. In the current research, we examined how people with different chronotypes perceive their intelligence. We expected eveningness to be positively associated with subjectively assessed intelligence (SAI) because evening chronotypes demonstrate slightly higher intelligence than morning individuals. Furthermore, we considered personality traits (Big Five and narcissism) and objective intelligence (measured with standardized tests of fluid and verbal IQ) as potential variables that could account for this relationship. Across two studies (N = 504 and 232), we found that eveningness was associated with higher SAI. This relationship remained significant even after controlling for objective intelligence. In Study 1, we also found that when conscientiousness and neuroticism were analyzed together with chronotype, the magnitude of positive association between eveningness and SAI increased. Furthermore, Study 2 revealed that evening individuals exhibited higher narcissism, which fully accounted for their intelligence self-views. In the discussion, we speculate that daily struggles of evening chronotypes to function in morning-oriented society give them a basis to think positively about their intelligence to the extent of positive bias.
... Some previous studies likewise observed a benefit of morningness irrespective of testing time, for example in academic achievement [64][65][66][67][68][69][70], while others found divergent results, e.g. general cognitive ability showing a positive association with eveningness [64,[71][72][73] and a negative association with morningness [64]. The overall better performance in participants with a morning preference may be explained by the observation that morning/neutral types show higher alertness scores in the second half of the day, possibly to compensate for a decline in subjective alertness in the evening and to maintain reactions to upcoming cues [36]. ...
... In the scientific literature, most studies suggested that the students expressing an evening chronotype (E-types) show worse academic performance than colleagues expressing a morning chronotype (M-type) (Enright & Refinetti 2017;Beşoluk et al. 2011;Gomes et al. 2011;Önder et al. 2014;Preckel et al. 2011;Taylor et al. 2011;Tonetti et al. 2015;Valladares et al. 2018). Our recent publication (Montaruli et al. 2019) confirmed the best M-types academic performance; however, N-types received the lowest grades in theoretical exams, while E-types the lowest in practical exams. ...
Circadian rhythms play an important role in biological function; their expression differs across individuals; three chronotypes are distinguished: Morning- [MT], Evening- [ET], and Neither- [NT] type. MT achieve peak activation in the first part of the day and are generally more conscientious and achievement-oriented than ET, which reach their best during the second half of the day and express a higher intelligence. University class schedules can sometimes conflict with ET circadian preferences, compromising their academic performance compared with their MT classmates. Conversely, MT students, being more aligned with their daily schedule, might be more advantaged in their mental performance. The attitudes and performance of NT students are little considered. No studies to date have investigated academic achievement in relation to chronotype in an Italian student population. To fill this gap, this study examined the relationship between chronotype and academic performance in a population of Motor Science Faculty in Milan, differentiating achievement in theoretical and practical subjects by chronotype. The study population was 423 university students (290 males and 133 females) and categorized by chronotype according to Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) scores. Student transcripts were reviewed to obtain exam grades on three practical and three theoretical subjects. The interaction between MEQ score or chronotypes and mean exam grade was evaluated using one-way ANOVA. The mean grades on the theoretical and practical exams were higher for the MT than for either the ET or the NT students. The NT students (24.8 ± 0.1) had lower mean grades for the theoretical subjects than either the MT (26.3 ± 0.4) or the ET (25.3 ± 0.2) students, while the ET (26.6 ± 0.2) performed worse than either the MT (27.8 ± 0.2) or the NT students (26.9 ± 0.1) on the practical exams. The same trend was observed for the total sample and when subdivided by sex. In the total sample, significant differences in theoretical and practical exam grades were noted between chronotypes: MT vs ET (p < .002, p < .0006) and MT vs NT (p < .04, p < .003). The differences between the males were significant for the theoretical (p < .006, MT vs NT, p < .002) and the practical subjects (MT vs ET p < .004, MT vs NT, p < .01), but no significant differences were noted between the females. Our findings indicate overall better academic achievement by the MT students, whereas the NT had lower exam grades for the theoretical subjects and the ET performed worse on the practical exams. We speculate that the higher intelligence expressed by the ET students might have helped them compensate the disadvantage on the theoretical but not on practical exams, in which the effect of misalignment between circadian preferences and university class schedule was more evident.
... What are the consequences of this drastic change? First, as noted by Kanazawa and Perina (2009), higher IQ individuals tend to stay up later than their lower IQ counterparts. This extra waking time could be filled with other "unnatural" PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). ...
Using a variety of different and often provocative examples, this chapter illustrates how evolutionary theory can be used to think about things in new and sometimes even counterintuitive ways. Examples include how semen sampling may be an evolved mate-choice mechanism, why pubic hair removal may promote pedophilia, why we owe our existence to the moon, why the risk of conception is higher as a result of being raped, why bottle-feeding your previous child may put your next child at risk of becoming autistic, and why smart people are attracted to evolutionary studies. The chapter argues that evolutionary theory enables people to think about human behavior and human existence in ways that are outside the box.
... In older students already attending university, this relationship was reversed with evening types scoring higher on a standardized test for admission to university that correlates with a measure of general intelligence (Piffer, Ponzi, Sapienza, Zingales, & Maestripieri, 2014). In another study, verbal IQ scores obtained during adolescence were shown to be a predictor of circadian preference, with more intelligent students preferring eveningness as adults (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). Although not in the context of school performance, the study of Goldstein, Hahn, Hasher, Wiprzycka, and Zelazo (2007) specifically investigated the relationship between chronotype and intelligence, taking into account time of day. ...
Sleep is essential for health and performance and its timing and consolidation are regulated by the biological clock. There is a rich variety in sleep timing (chronotype) that is often disregarded by society when imposing uniform school/working starting times. This leads to a phenomenon called social jetlag, the mismatch between biological and social clocks.
The main objectives of this thesis were to describe the consequences that arise from social jetlag, to explore possible solutions to reduce it, and to better understand entrainment (the process that keeps the biological clock synchronized with the external light-dark cycle).
We found that the impact of chronotype on school grades (late chronotypes usually obtain lower grades) was stronger in the early morning and for scientific subjects. Late chronotypes were more often absent from class, which, in turn, was associated with lower grades. We tested simple protocols to decrease social jetlag involving room light and blue light blocking glasses. Although social jetlag was not reduced, our findings show that simple ‘in-home’ light interventions are potentially effective in modifying the phase of entrainment and sleep timing. Finally, we have shown that season can influence school attendance and school performance, and that the weekly structure (workdays vs work-free days) has an impact on the sleep-wake cycle and on the melatonin rhythm, especially in late chronotypes.
The findings of this thesis have potential applications for society. Suggestions to improve school policies and practical solutions to delayed sleep phase derive from this work.
... We found an inverse relationship between participants' IQ and their sleep-wake behavior. This result replicated previous reports indicating that higher cognitive abilities are related to later bedtimes and shorter sleep duration; however, our correlational findings were weaker (Geiger, Achermann, & Jenni, 2010;Kanazawa & Perina, 2009). One possible explanation is provided by Geiger et al. (2010). ...
Objective: Relationships between sleep, screen-based media, and ADHD symptomatology were investigated using a case- and community-based approach. Method: N = 357 healthy and N = 61 children with ADHD (12.72 ± 2.83 years) completed a sleep and media questionnaire. To measure ADHD symptomatology, parents filled out the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD symptoms and Normal behavior (SWAN) scale. Two samples were formed: a matched (N = 61 patients and N = 61 controls) and a community sample (N = 357 healthy participants and N = 20 patients). Results: Compared with controls, participants with ADHD reported delayed sleep onset and more screen time on school days. Adolescent patients showed more behavior promoting delayed sleep phase. In the community sample, media time, sleep deviation, and circadian rhythm were correlated with ADHD symptomatology. Furthermore, media time, sleep-wake behavior, and sleep deviation were predictive of ADHD symptomatology (variance explained = 4%-15%). Conclusion: Longer media time and inadequate sleep-wake behavior increase the risk of ADHD-like symptoms. However, research using objective assessments is needed to disentangle this distinct association and to provide possible directions for intervention.
... While there are some individual differences in the circadian rhythm, where some individuals are more nocturnal than others (Kanazawa & Perina, 2009), humans are basically a diurnal (as opposed to nocturnal) species. Humans rely very heavily on vision for navigation but, unlike genuinely nocturnal species, cannot see in the dark or under little lighting. ...
Objectives
Chronotype impacts our state at a given time of day, however, chronotype is also heritable, trait-like, and varies systematically as a function of age and sex. However, only a handful of studies support a relationship between chronotype and trait-like cognitive abilities (i.e., intelligence), and the evidence is sparse and inconsistent between studies. Typically, studies have: (1) focused on limited subjective measures of chronotype, (2) focused on young adults only, and (3) have not considered sex differences. Here, using a combination of cognitive aptitude and ability testing, subjective chronotype, and objective actigraphy, we aimed to explore the relationship between trait-like cognitive abilities and chronotype.
Design
Participants (N = 61; 44 females; age = 35.30 ± 18.04 years) completed the Horne-Ostberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) to determine subjective chronotype and wore an activity monitor for 10 days to objectively assess bedtime, rise-time, total sleep time, inter-daily stability, intra-daily variability, and relative amplitude. Cognitive ability (e.g., Verbal, Reasoning and Short-Term Memory) testing took place at the completion of the study.
Results
Higher MEQ scores (i.e., more morning) were associated with higher inter-daily stability scores. Superior verbal abilities were associated with later bedtimes, younger age, but paradoxically, higher (i.e., more morning) MEQ scores. Superior STM abilities were associated with younger age only. The relationships between chronotype and trait-like cognitive abilities were similar for both men and women and did not differ between younger and older adults.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrates that chronotype, measured by the MEQ, is highly related to inter-daily stability (i.e., the strength of circadian synchronization). Furthermore, although evening types have superior verbal abilities overall, higher (i.e., more morning) MEQ scores were related to superior verbal abilities after controlling for “evening type” behaviours.
Alloparenting by and with genetically unrelated individuals is evolutionarily novel; thus, the Savanna–IQ Interaction Hypothesis predicts that more intelligent parents are more likely to resort to paid childcare by strangers. Analyses of individual data (National Child Development Study) in the United Kingdom (Study 1) and macrolevel data from the United States (Study 2) and economically developed Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations (Study 3) confirmed the hypothesis. Net of education, earnings, sex, current marital status, and number of children, more intelligent British parents were more likely to resort to paid childcare at ages 33 and 42; net of female labor force participation rate, median household income, median cost of childcare, and mean education, U.S. states with higher average intelligence had higher proportions of children (ages 0–4) in paid childcare; and net of maternal employment, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, cost of childcare, and female educational attainment, OECD nations with higher average intelligence had higher proportions of infants (ages 0–2) in paid childcare. The results were remarkably consistent; both across the 50 U.S. states and 45 economically developed OECD nations, a one IQ point increase in the average intelligence of the population was associated with a 1.8% increase in the proportion of children in paid childcare. Contrary to earlier findings, there was some suggestive evidence that the experience of paid daycare might harm the cognitive development of children. The studies point to the importance of evolutionary perspective in developmental psychology and child development.
There are conflicting reports about the association between chronotype and academic achievement. Eveningness persons tend to have lower academic achievement, but have higher cognitive abilities. We hypothesized that sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness, which are known to affect academic achievement, will interact with this association. To investigate the association, a sleep survey and covariance structure analysis was performed on high-school students. Among a total of 344 first-year high-school students, 294 students validly completed the questionnaire. The association between the recent change in their academic achievement, chronotype, daytime sleepiness, and sleep disturbance were analyzed. A simple comparison demonstrated that not chronotype but sleep disturbance and excessive daytime sleepiness were significant associated factors. Chronotype affects academic achievement through sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness. Chronotype did not have a significant total effect on the reduction in academic achievement, whereas morningness had a significant direct effect and a significant indirect inverse effect through better sleep and less daytime sleepiness. This model accounted for 13.0% of the variance of the reduction in academic achievement. When discussing the association between chronotype and academic achievement, the effect of sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness should be considered. Reducing sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness with consideration to the chronotype of each person would be beneficial for the improvement of academic achievement.
While there is abundant evidence to indicate that students make significant gains in verbal skills within school, surprisingly little is known about cognitive outcomes once individuals are separated from educational institutions. This paper develops a working causal model of the enduring effects of education which extends and elaborates Hyman, Wright and Reed's (1975) analysis. Unlike previous studies, the model developed here includes the estimated effects of intelligence measures. The data necessarily consist of a correlation matrix combined from several difference sources, primarily cross-sectional, which confound age with cohort differences. The results indicate that previous studies have seriously overestimated the enduring effects of education.
Present conditions and selection pressures are irrelevant to the present design of organisms and do not explain how or why organisms behave adaptively, when they do. To whatever non-chance extent organisms are behaving adaptively, it is 1) because of the operation of underlying adaptations whose present design is the product of selection in the past, and 2) because present conditions resemble past conditions in those specific ways made developmentally and functionally important by the design of those adaptations. All adaptations evolved in response to the repeating elements of past environments, and their structure reflects in detail the recurrent structure of ancestral environments. Even planning mechanisms (such as “consciousness”), which supposedly deal with novel situations, depend on ancestrally shaped categorization processes and are therefore not free of the fast. In fact, the categorization of each new situation into evolutionarily repeating classes involves another kind of adaptation, the emotions, which match specialized modes of organismic operation to evolutionarily recurrent situations. The detailed statistical structure of these iterated systems of events is reflected in the detailed structure of the algorithms that govern emotional state. For this reason, the system of psychological adaptations that comprises each individual meets the present only as a version of the past.
A questionnaire was distributed to 300 students and 175 workers of the same mean age to determine their morningness-eveningness preferences. Morning and evening type samples obtained from these larger populations were requested to keep logs of bed and rising time for each day of a 2 week period. In comparison to students, workers had a distribution significantly skewed towards the morningness scores. Differences were found between the expressed preferences and the sleep-waking diary data in workers, but not in students. The acquisition of a regular job seems to induce a change in sleep-wake behaviour, particularly in evening workers.
This report presents findings for the Intrinsic (IR) and Extrinsic (ER) religiousness scales from the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. The scales were shown to be internally consistent, sufficiently distinct from the scales of the California Psychological Inventory and the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire and unrelated to a number of measures of response style to justify treating them as distinct traits. The I scales also showed considerable evidence of construct validity in its correlations with religious fundamentalism and authoritarianism as assessed by the MMPI and Altemeyer's Right-Wing Authoritarianism scale. Data on IR and ER from 35 pairs of monozygotic twins reared apart (MZA) and 37 pairs of dizygotic twins reared apart (DZA) were fitted to a biometric model and demonstrated significant heritability (0.43 and 0.39), with a model containing genetic plus environmental factors fitting significantly better than a model containing only an environmental component. Twin similarity could not be explained by placement on a self-reported measure of family Moral Religious Emphasis as measured by the Family Environment Scale.
The daily light-dark cycle governs rhythmic changes in the behavior and/or physiology of most species. Studies have found that these changes are governed by a biological clock, which in mammals is located in two brain areas called the suprachiasmatic nuclei. The circadian cycles established by this clock occur throughout nature and have a period of approximately 24 hours. In addition, these circadian cycles can be synchronized to external time signals but also can persist in the absence of such signals. Studies have found that the internal clock consists of an array of genes and the protein products they encode, which regulate various physiological processes throughout the body. Disruptions of the biological rhythms can impair the health and well-being of the organism.
General intelligence (g) poses a problem for evolutionary psychology's modular view of the human brain. The author advances a new evolutionary psychological theory of the evolution of general intelligence and argues that general intelligence evolved as a domain-specific adaptation for the originally limited sphere of evolutionary novelty in the ancestral environment. It has accidentally become universally important merely because we now live in an evolutionarily novel world. The available data seem to support the author's contention that intelligent people can solve problems better than less intelligent people only if the problems are evolutionarily novel, and they have no advantage in solving evolutionarily familiar problems. This perspective can also solve some empirical anomalies, such as the "central theoretical problem of human sociobiology" (D. R. Vining, 1986, p. 167) and the geographic distribution of general intelligence throughout the world.
Estimates of the degree of genetic and environmental influences on religiousness have varied widely. This variation may, in part, be due to age differences in the samples under study. To investigate the heritability of religiousness and possible age changes in this estimate, both current and retrospective religiousness were assessed by self-report in a sample of adult male twins (169 MZ pairs and 104 DZ pairs, mean age of 33 years). Retrospective reports of religiousness showed little correlation difference between MZ (r=.69) and DZ (r=.59) twins. Reports of current religiousness, however, did show larger MZ (r=.62) than DZ (r=.42) similarity. Biometric analysis of the two religiousness ratings revealed that genetic factors were significantly weaker (12% vs. 44%) and shared environmental factors were significantly stronger (56% vs. 18%) in adolescence compared to adulthood. Analysis of internal and external religiousness subscales of the total score revealed similar results. These findings support the hypothesis that the heritability of religiousness increases from adolescence to adulthood.
Fowler, Baker, and Dawes (2008) recently showed in two independent studies of twins that voter turnout has very high heritability. Here we investigate two specific genes that may contribute to variation in voting behavior. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we show that individuals with a polymorphism of the MAOA gene are significantly more likely to have voted in the 2004 presidential election. We also find evidence that an association between a polymorphism of the 5HTT gene and voter turnout is moderated by religious attendance. These are the first results ever to link specific genes to political behavior.
A detailed account of the !Kung San of northern Botswana. Drawing on the theoretical traditions of cultural ecology, historical materialism and ecological systems theory, applies the evidence of fieldwork to the historical evolution of the group structure, subsistence technology, nutrition, land use, control of violence and socioeconomic transformations central to !Kung San life. -Jennifer Clayton
Macy's work offers a potential solution to the paradox of voter turnout. The stochastic
learning theory of voter turnout (Kanazawa 1998) posits that citizens perceive a
correlation between their behavior (voting versus abstention) and the outcome of
collective action (win versus loss for their candidate), and that they interpret the
outcome as a reinforcer or a punisher. The theory can solve the paradox of voter
turnout because now p, the probability that one's vote is or appears decisive, equals
approximately .500 in the calculus-of-voting model (instead of p 0). I use General
Social Survey data to test the theory. The empirical results indicate that citizens
make their turnout decisions according to the "Win-Stay, Lose-Shift" pattern predicted
by the stochastic learning theory, especially if there are no strong third-party
candidates.
This book is about differences in intellectual capacity among people and groups and what those differences mean for America's future.(preface) The major purpose of this book] is to reveal the dramatic transformation that is currently in process in American society---a process that has created a new kind of class structure led by a "cognitive elite," itself a result of concentration and self-selection in those social pools well endowed with cognitive abilities. Herrnstein and Murray explore] the ways that low intelligence, independent of social, economic, or ethnic background, lies at the root of many of our social problems. The authors also demonstrate the truth of another taboo fact: that intelligence levels differ among ethnic groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(jacket)
Putnam [J. Democracy 6 (1995) Putnam, R. D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000). New York: Simon & Schuster.] claims that Americans are socially and civically disengaged because they watch too much TV. I contend that, because evolved psychological mechanisms have difficulty comprehending entities that did not exist in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA), humans should fail to distinguish between real friends and the imaginary ones they see on TV. Consistent with my contention, the analysis of the US General Social Survey (GSS) data indicates that people who watch certain types of TV are more satisfied with their friendships as if they had more friends and socialized with them more often.
This essay is structured as follows. First, I describe the adaptationist program, or teleonomy, in biology. Second, I review the methodologies of this program. Third, I discuss the role that the environment of evolutionary adaptedness plays in the adaptationist program. Fourth, I argue that studies of the “adaptiveness” of human behavior have not been conceptually anchored in the adaptationist program. Fifth, I analyze two studies of adaptiveness and show why they neither test nor inspire novel hypotheses about the design of the human brain/mind. Finally, I conclude that the “adaptivist” approach to human behavior does not begin with well formed hypotheses about the design of human brain/mind mechanisms and that it consists of procedures that could not test such hypotheses if they were proposed.
The Ache, whose life history the authors recounts, are a small indigenous population of hunters and gatherers living in the neotropical rainforest of eastern Paraguay. This is part exemplary ethnography of the Ache and in larger part uses this population to make a signal contribution to human evolutionary ecology.
While rational choice theorists have made great advances in their
study of institutions and structures (and how they affect behavior),
they have made less progress toward understanding the origins of
values. I propose that the emerging field of evolutionary psychology
complements rational choice theory by providing a theory of values, and
that current explanations of values and preferences, such as learning,
norms, and identities, are all compatible with evolutionary psychology,
which provides more ultimate explanations for these proximate causes
of behavior. The incorporation of evolutionary psychology into rational
choice theory can also solve some of the persistent puzzles of rational
choice theory: Why do so many players in Prisoner's Dilemma games make the
irrational choice to cooperate? Why do people participate in collective
action? Why do people sometimes behave "irrationally" by acting on their
emotions? Why does rational choice theory appear to be more applicable
to men than to women?
hy do people think and act politically in the manner they do? Despite the foundational nature of this question, answers are unfortu- nately incomplete and unnecessarily tentative, largely because political scientists do not take seriously the possibility of nonenvironmental influences. The sug- gestion that people could be born with political pre- dispositions strikes many as far-fetched, odd, even perverse. However, researchers in other disciplines—- notably behavioral genetics—-have uncovered a sub- stantial heritable component for many social attitudes and behaviors and it seems unlikely that political atti- tudes and behaviors are completely immune from such forces. In this article, we combine relevant findings in behavioral genetics with our own analysis of data on a large sample of twins to test the hypothesis that, con- trary to the assumptions embedded in political science research, political attitudes have genetic as well as en- vironmental causes. 1
How did human intelligence evolve to be so high? Lynn [Lynn, R. (1991). The evolution of race differences in intelligence. Mankind Quarterly, 32, 99–173] and Rushton [Rushton, J.P. (1995). Race, evolution, and behavior: A life history perspective. New Brunswick: Transaction] suggest that the main forces behind the evolution of human intelligence were the cold climate and harsh winters, which selected out individuals of lower intelligence. In contrast, Kanazawa [Kanazawa, S. (2004). General intelligence as a domain-specific adaptation. Psychological Review, 111, 512–523] contends that it is the evolutionary novelty of the environment which increased general intelligence. Multiple regression analyses support both theories. Annual mean temperature and evolutionary novelty (measured by latitude, longitude, and distance from the ancestral environment) simultaneously have independent effects on average intelligence of populations. Temperature and evolutionary novelty together explain half to two-thirds of variance in national IQ.
Fowler, Baker, and Dawes (2008) recently showed in two independent studies of twins that voter turnout has very high heritability. Here we investigate two specific genes that may contribute to this heritability via their impact on neurochemical processes that influence social behavior. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we show that a polymorphism of the MAOA gene significantly increases the likelihood of voting. We also find evidence of a gene-environment interaction between religious attendance and a polymorphism of the 5HTT gene that significantly increases voter turnout. These are the first results to ever link specific genes to political behavior and they suggest that political scientists should take seriously the claim that at least some variation in political behavior is due to innate predispositions.
Much of the debate over applying the theory of evolution to the study of human behaviour has died down because most critics now realize that the political ramifications of sociobiology are no more, or no less, than those of behaviourism, psychoanalysis or cognitive science. But controversy remains. It is scientific, and concerns the 'proper' way to do human sociobiology. I contrast the perspective of those sociobiologists who use the approach of behavioural ecology, and who have come to be known as 'darwinian anthropologists' or 'darwinian social scientists', with their critics, who refer to themselves as evolutionary or 'darwinian psychologists', describe the research methods that each uses, and ask if those issues must also be confronted by those studying animals.
The origin of values and preferences is an unresolved theoretical question in behavioral and social sciences. The Savanna-IQ Interaction Hypothesis, derived from the Savanna Principle and a theory of the evolution of general intelligence, suggests that more intelligent individuals may be more likely to acquire and espouse evolutionarily novel values and preferences (such as liberalism and atheism and, for men, sexual exclusivity) than less intelligent individuals, but that general intelligence may have no effect on the acquisition and espousal of evolutionarily familiar values (for children, marriage, family, and friends). The analyses of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Study 1) and the General Social Surveys (Study 2) show that adolescent and adult intelligence significantly increases adult liberalism, atheism, and men’s (but not women’s) value on sexual exclusivity.
The paradox of voter turnout is a major empirical puzzle that has been unresolved in rational choice theory. Why do rational actors contribute to the public good of electoral outcomes, especially since the likelihood that their vote will be decisive is nearly zero? I propose a possible solution to this paradox based on the stochastic learning model rather than the subjective expected utility maximization model. In the stochastic learning model, actors are conceived to be backward-looking adaptive learners, rather than forward-looking utility maximizers, and use the past correlations between their choices and collective action outcomes as a guide for their decision whether or not to vote. The stochastic learning model of calculus of voting can solve the paradox because now p ≅ .500 instead of p ≅ 0. The analyses of the 1972-74-76 panels of the American National Election Study largely support the hypotheses derived from the stochastic learning model.
Why do microeconomic theories (such as decision theory and game theory) often fail to predict human behavior despite their mathematical elegance and deductive rigor? I suggest that such empirical failures stem from the theory's misconception of how the human brain functions. Drawing on evolutionary psychology, I propose the Savanna Principle, which posits that a hypothesis about human behavior fails to the extent that its scope conditions and assumptions are inconsistent with the ancestral environment, and its experimental corollary, that the Savanna Principle holds (and the hypothesis fails) to the extent that the conditions of the experiment resemble the ancestral environment. I suggest that the Savanna Principle and its corollary might together explain the relative empirical failure of noncooperative game theory and public choice theory, and the relative success of network exchange theory and competitive price theory tested in double auction markets in experimental economics. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Recent gene discovery approaches have led to a new era in our understanding of the molecular basis of circadian oscillators in animals. A conserved set of genes in Drosophila and mammals (Clock, Bmal1, Period, and Timeless) provide a molecular framework for the circadian mechanism. These genes define a transcription-translation-based negative autoregulatory feedback loop that comprises the core elements generating circadian rhythmicity. This circadian core provides a focal point for understanding how circadian rhythms arise, how environmental inputs entrain the oscillatory system, and how the circadian system regulates its outputs. The addition of molecular genetic approaches to the existing physiological understanding of the mammalian circadian system provides new opportunities for understanding this basic life process.
Research examining various psychological correlates of circadian type (also known as diurnal preference) has been, over the years, quite expansive. A notable omission within this research program would appear a systematic exploration of the relation between intelligence and morningness-eveningness. The present study redressed this imbalance. 420 participants performed two self-report inventories assessing circadian type, as well as measures of intelligence from two psychometric batteries: CAM-IV and the ASVAB. The results indicate that, contrary to conventional folk wisdom, evening-types are more likely to have higher intelligence scores. This result is discussed in relation to current theories concerning the nature of human cognitive abilities.
A cross-sectional twin design was used to study the developmental nature of genetic and environmental influences on morningness-eveningness (M-E). A total of 977 South Korean twin pairs aged 9-23 years completed 13 items of a Korean version of the Composite Scale through the telephone interview. The total sample was split into three age groups: preadolescents, adolescents, and young adults. Twin correlations did not vary significantly with age, suggesting that genetic influences on M-E are stable throughout the developmental span. Results of model-fitting analyses indicated that genetic and environmental factors explained, respectively, 45% and 55% of the variance in all three age groups. Environmental factors were primarily those factors that twins did not share as a consequence of their common rearing; family environmental factors in M-E were consistently near zero in all three age groups. The present study is the first to demonstrate genetic influences on M-E in preadolescent children as young as 9 years old. In spite of differences in culture and frequencies of genes between South Koreans and Caucasians, genetic and environmental influences on M-E found in the present sample were remarkably similar to those reported by previous studies on the basis of late adolescent and adult Caucasian twins.
Encyclopedia of world cultures Morningness–eveningness preferences and sleep– waking diary data of morning and evening types in student and working samples
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Levinson, D. (Ed.), (1991–1995). Encyclopedia of world cultures (Vol. 10). Boston: G.K. Hall. Mecacci, L., & Zani, A. (1983). Morningness–eveningness preferences and sleep– waking diary data of morning and evening types in student and working samples. Ergonomics, 26, 1147–1153.
Yanomamö Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth The future of sociobiology: Counting babies or proximate mechanisms? Trends in Ecology and Evolution
- N Chagnon
Chagnon, N. (1992). Yanomamö (4th ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth.
Crawford, C. B. (1993). The future of sociobiology: Counting babies or proximate
mechanisms? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 183-186.
Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Genetic and environmental influences and personality correlates
- Bouchard