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Abstract
This paper investigates the impact of attending college in a state on the probability of working in the state. I use information on the set of colleges students applied to as a way to account for selection in college-attendance patterns. For two samples of U.S. undergraduate students, I find a modest link between attending college in a state and working in the state. The magnitude of the effect raises doubts that location-choice considerations alone can justify state merit-scholarship programs, an increasingly popular form of student financial aid.
... From a local perspective, an attractive feature of a successful cluster of TEIs is their apparent ability to shape economic geography by drawing into the region and retaining research and development (R&D) activities (Andersson, Gråsjö, & Karlsson, 2009;Jaffe, 1989) and highly skilled workers (Abel & Deitz, 2012;Ahlin, Andersson, & Thulin, 2018;Beeson & Montgomery, 1993;Bound, Groen, Kézdi, & Turner, 2004;Groen, 2004;Winters, 2011). Crucially, unlikely, say, human capital effects, location effects are a zero-sum game where one region's success draws in resources from another. ...
... Evidence is mixed as to what attracts students to regions and the extent to which they are subsequently retained in the region as graduates. In a study of US graduates, Groen (2004) finds a significant link between studying in a state and working in it, although the magnitude of the impact was quite modest with approximately 10 of every 100 students living in the state of study 10-15 years after graduation. Bound et al. (2004) point out that graduates are quite mobile and find that at a state level in the United States there is only a modest link between production of graduates within a state and the build-up of a graduate workforce. ...
... This group is composed almost entirely of regions within North Western Europe, typically second-tier regions outside capital regions and major commercial centres. This is consistent with previous findings, such as by Groen (2004) and Venhorst et al. (2011), that the availability of stronger job markets may influence the ability of regions to retain and to attract students but that this is counteracted by house prices Table 4. Persistence model. ...
The economic impact of tertiary education is important for regional development, and whilst participation rates have increased, it is unclear whether this has benefited regions equally. The paper analyses a panel of European regions to determine how the geography of tertiary education has evolved between 2002 and 2012. The results show a mixed picture. Overall, the system is characterized by path dependency, with the past being the best predictor of the future. There are some signs that the most lagging regions in 2002 are catching up, with some benefiting from recently opened institutions. Meanwhile, the very top-performing regions are breaking away from the rest, showing above-average growth, especially in the case capital regions. This work contributes to the ongoing research on the role of higher education in fostering regional economic development, and the emerging inequalities across European regions.
... Other studies, however, argue that mobility between states and smaller levels of geography have been shaped by more than economic arguments, as individuals have returned despite the lack of economic opportunities (Haley 2018). Researchers have found that social identities (Foulkes and Schafft 2010;Ishitani 2011;Parsad and Gray 2005), place (Clark 2017;Spring et al. 2017), and educational pathways (Groen 2004;Ishitani 2011) also play roles in residential mobility. Exploring noneconomic factors related to migration patterns provides a more nuanced view of the sociocultural dynamics that individuals experience in their hometowns and during college. ...
... Migration patterns differ by gender, due to experiences that follow gendered patterns. In studies of college graduates, men have been more likely than women to migrate to another state (Groen 2004;Parsad and Gray 2005), though this finding may be due to the program of study. Parsad and Gray noted men were more likely to major in engineering or science, which was where mobility occurred at higher rates. ...
... Although these college factors have been examined in decisions regarding college choice, very little research explores how attending different institutions might impact postgraduation mobility. Groen (2004) utilized the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 to investigate the relationship between college attendance and working in the same state. He found that students who graduated from public universities were more likely to remain in the same state than those from private universities. ...
Many rural communities throughout the United States have experienced brain drain, or the out-migration of educated young people. Explanations for why college-educated adults leave rural communities have relied on economic rationales; however, the effects of social identities, community context, and place attachment have also been shown to influence migration decisions. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), this study examines factors experienced during adolescence as well as postsecondary characteristics that promote college graduates' return to their rural communities when they are between the ages of 34 and 43. We find that among college graduates who had attended a rural public K-12 school, those who had higher levels of school attachment were significantly more likely to return home compared to graduates who had lower levels of school attachment. The findings also suggest that graduates who came from a lower college-educated community were more likely to return home than those from average or highly college-educated communities. By analyzing long-term outcomes, this study extends our understanding of the strengths of adolescent experiences and neighborhood context influencing the pull to return home and the support for policies strengthening rural communities as there may be long-term effects to returning home, even if youth leave for college.
... Quite a number of authors have studied both the migration to and from higher education (McGregor, Thanki, and McKee 2002;Yue 2010;Panichella 2013;Liu et al. 2016). Whilst particular attention has also been paid to the link between the two (Faggian, McCann, and Sheppard 2007;Haapanen and Tervo 2012;Tano 2014;Rérat 2014), aside from few exceptions such as Groen (2004) and Ma and Pan (2014), little work has been attempted to tackle the possible selection bias or endogeneity bias. Migration to receive higher education and migration upon graduation may be endogenously determined, that is, decisions concerning the place of study and the place of employment are simultaneous. ...
... In their analysis of inter-regional migration of university graduates in Finland, Haapanen and Tervo (2012) report that, for those studying in large metropolitan regions, the probability of returning to their home region after graduation decreases with the distance from the home region to the university. To solve the problem of selection bias between attending college in a state and working in the state, Groen (2004) controls the variable of initial location preference and employs conditional logit model. It is found that the impact of attending college in a state on the probability of working in that state is significant but its magnitude is rather small. ...
... In China, university graduates have a great tendency to work in their places of study (Ma, Yue, and Min 2009;Liu et al. 2016). Following Groen (2004), Ma and Pan (2014) take into account students' preferred places of study to adjust the selection bias and find that graduates as a whole tend to work in either their birthplace or the place of study. Based on the above findings, I account for the endogeneity problem in this study and formulate the final hypothesis: ...
Along with its rapid economic growth, economic inequality rises and intergenerational mobility declines in China. Meanwhile, significant growth in HEIs’ enrolment has contributed to major migration flows across the country. This research investigates the impact of family background on the migration location choice of educated young people from peripheral China, based on data from a life-course survey of recent graduates of tertiary education institutions originating from Chaohu, China. Logistic models are employed to analyse young people’s migration to receive higher education, whether inside or outside the home province, and the location trajectories afterwards. While the findings confirm the association between university and post-university location choice, substantial interaction effects are found between location choice and family background. Young people from different family backgrounds adopt different strategies of geographical mobility in their transition to adulthood. In particular, young people from privileged families are more likely to leave the home province for higher education and return after graduation, whereas those from underprivileged families are more likely to study within the home province and then move away.
... The study of brain drain from high school to college to the workforce has been approached using multiple data sets at corresponding points in time (e.g., Groen, 2004), or by using one longitudinal data set that follows a sample of students across both transition points (e.g., Perry, 2001). These studies consistently found that students who attend college in their home state are more likely to work in their home state when compared to those who attend an out-of-state college. ...
... These studies consistently found that students who attend college in their home state are more likely to work in their home state when compared to those who attend an out-of-state college. Groen (2004) Perry also found that the majority of college graduates in her sample had graduated from a college in their original state of residence (i.e., most college graduates were in-state students). In addition, students who attended an in-state college were more likely to live in the state of the college from which they had graduated than were students who attended an out-of-state college (Perry, 2001). ...
... It is important to note that both Groen (2004) and Perry (2001) examined students' state of residence, and not employment status within the state. For the purpose of studying brain drain, state policymakers would be interested in students' eventual contribution to the workforce and ability to support the economy of the state, not just where they reside. ...
... Kodrzycki et al. (2001) find strong evidence that US college graduates are more likely to migrate than those without a college degree. Groen (2004) documents that the choice of studying in a particular state positively affects the probability of working in that state once the studies have ended; he solves for selection bias by treating endogeneity as an omitted variable, so he uses the set of colleges students apply to as a way to control for heterogeneous location preferences before students started college. 5 Moreover, Malamud and Wozniak (2010) study how college completion and attendance in the US affect the probability of a long-distance move from an individual's birthplace. ...
... 5 Essentially, in a data framework where the unit of observation for the regression is an individual/state, he includes an indicator variable for applying to college in a state. In this way, students who applied in a state but attended college elsewhere provide a control group for those who attended college in the state ( Groen, 2004 ). 6 It is also recognized that knowledge of foreign languages among natives has a strong positive effect on earnings ( Azam et al., 2013;Di Paolo and Tansel, 2015;Ginsburgh and Prieto-Rodriguez, 2013;2011;Stöhr, 2015;Williams, 2011 ) and employment ( Donado, 2017 ). ...
I investigate the effect of studying in English in a non-English speaking country, Italy, on international labor market mobility. I exploit the introduction of master's degrees offered in English by a university while students are already enrolled in a bachelor's program as an instrument for studying in English. I find that English-taught degrees increase an individual's probability of working abroad by 11.3 percentage points. The results are driven by students outside of the top-10 universities in Italy and students from universities in less-developed regions of the country.
... For example, see Long (1988), Bound and Holzer (2000), Kodrzycki (2001), and Schachter (2001). 2. Indeed, Groen (2004) and Bound et al. (2004) present evidence suggesting a weak relationship between states' college graduation and college attainment. ...
... The change in the supply of college graduates is (3) ΔS m,s,t = G m,s,t -DN m,s,t -M m,s,t , where G is the number of new graduates potentially entering the state's labor market, DN is the net number of graduates (both new and old) leaving the labor force, and M is the net interstate out-migration of (new and old) graduates. Tornatzky et al. (2001), Kodrzycki (2001), Groen (2004), and Gottlieb and Joseph (2006). 6. Bound et al. (2004) is the only study that (implicitly) quantifies the net effect of graduates on attainment. ...
A crucial issue in the debate on state support for higher education is the extent that a state's production of college graduates affects the state's education attainment. The view that many new graduates take their state-supported degrees to labor markets in other states undermines states' incentives to promote wider access to college. This study offers reasons to be skeptical of this view, and develops a simple framework to quantify the intrastate labor-market effects from the production of new college graduates. Data for years 1992–2005 from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and the Current Population Survey (CPS) are used to quantify the effects of new graduates on states' net migration, employment, unemployment, labor force nonparticipation, and wages of college graduates. The results indicate that a state's production of college graduates has a nearly proportionate impact on the state's college attainment.
... 648). Along the same lines, Groen (2004) and Groen & White (2004) find that attending college in a state increases the chances of an individual's living in that state several years after graduation. Huffman & Quigley (2002) and Blackwell et al. (2002) find similar results for the specific cases of graduates from the University of Berkeley (Haas School of Business and College of Engineering) and Xavier University in Cincinnati, respectively. ...
... This might be the case for the USA too. This is not incompatible with the findings by Gottlieb & Joseph (2006), Groen (2004) and Tornatzky et al. (2001) that college graduates have a high chance to stay in the area where they study. First of all, none of the above contributions classify students according to 'quality'. ...
... The literature has focused on the effects of the opening of universities in many possible dimensions such as R&D (Lehnert et al., 2020); educational attainment (Currie and Moretti, 2003); invention (Toivanen and Väänänen, 2016); migration (Groen, 2004); participation rates and graduate outcomes (Frenette, 2009), but there are few attempts to understand its impacts on high school students' incentives. In addition, most previous studies that focus on the establishment of new colleges assume that their placement is random, which has been shown to overstate the effect of the opening (Andrews, 2020). ...
... In contrast with previous works (Lehnert et al., 2020;Currie and Moretti, 2003;Toivanen and Väänänen, 2016;Groen, 2004;Frenette, 2009), those results represent a causal estimate of the establishment of the federal university, not relying on the assumption that their placement is random. Beyond that, the present analysis focuses on a short-term evaluation regarding the opening of a new university, considering the dimension of high school students' incentives -measured by their performance. ...
This paper studies the impact of an university opening on incentives for human capital accumulation of high school students in its neighborhood. The opening causes an exogenous fall on the cost to attend university, through the decrease in distance, leading to an incentive to increase effort $-$ shown by the positive effect on students' grades. I use an event study approach with two-way fixed effects to retrieve a causal estimate, exploiting the variation across groups of students that receive treatment at different times $-$ mitigating the bias created by the decision of governments on the location of new universities. Results show an increase of $0.028$ standard deviations in test grades, one year after the opening, and are robust to a series of potential problems, including some of the usual concerns in event study models.
... Beyond that, my research also contributes to the literature on long-term geographic sorting patterns of tertiary educated individuals, since the choice of a study location is a relevant precursor of subsequent location choices in the tertiary educated labour force (Belfield and Morris 1999;Groen 2004;Busch and Weigert 2010). Another contribution of this work is to shed some light on intra-national student mobility outside the Anglo-American realm, which is a rather sparsely discussed phenomenon (cf. ...
... The results highlighted in Fig. 9 insinuate that the choice of a study location might indeed already inform about subsequent location choices (cf. Belfield and Morris 1999;Groen 2004;Busch and Weigert 2010;Buenstorf et al. 2016). This also confirms the general findings of McHugh and Morgan (1984) and Dotti et al. (2013), who elaborated that economic conditions matter already at such a pre-labour market entry stage. ...
In this paper I investigate undergraduate students’ discrete location choices in presence of a plethora of potential destinations and psychic costs. I demonstrate how enrolment into institutions of tertiary education is influenced by personality and social preferences. More importantly, these individual traits are found to affect the valuation of location-specific conditions in alternative study locations. Eventually, the relevance of location attributes, such as urban or labour market characteristics, varies substantially with respect to distance and individuals’ personality. This has direct implications for student recruitment, since prospective students display distinct geographic sorting patterns along these traits: students featuring higher levels of patience integrate post-graduation opportunities into their decision-making. As a consequence, institutions in economically less prosperous regions might attract a specific subset of the overall student population, which might also have repercussions on student performance.
... As a result of these developments, the distance between the peripheral and central regions increased in university attendance [4] [5]. Furthermore, many young people who moved out of their original home areas to do their studies haven't returned afterward [6] [7]. However, in most peripheral regions, the labour market situation for new graduates was favourable before the university's establishment [8] due to a shortage of highly skilled human capital. ...
State Universities and Colleges (SUC’s) are among the state institutions that serve as change agents in the Philippines. These institutions help develop students' critical thinking. In carrying out their mandated four functions as outlined in law, SUC’s have faced challenges. In order to measure the success of its functions, graduates are measured for the improvement in their social and economic circumstances. The study utilized descriptive correlation research and the settings of the study were in the Northern, Southern, and Central Areas of Region XII, Philippines. The 196 respondents of the study were SUC’s alumni who were employed or graduates, and they were chosen regardless of social and economic status. It was concluded that instruction is a great factor in the social and economic development of graduates, which can be attributed to teachers' teaching in the classroom, such as well-prepared lessons, verbal interaction, library utilization, and coursework assignments. Furthermore, the research functions greatly help the social and economic development of graduates, which can be attributed to teachers’ research expertise, students' research involvement, and administrative support. The SUC's functions of instruction and research that are well-designed and well implemented can greatly enhance the positive social values and economic well-being of the graduates. The success of graduates is contingent on the SUC's curriculum, supervision of classes, research expertise, and administrative support. Overall, the SUC’s mandated functions are effective mechanisms for instilling desirable social attitudes, values, and strong confidence in students for their well being and the communities to which they belong.
... This work focuses on prospective university graduates, since high tertiary education participation rates (King and Ruiz-Gelices 2003) emphasise the relevance of tertiary educated workers as an integral part of the labour force. There is also evidence in favour of a strong interrelation between mobility preferences during studies and post-graduation migratory trajectories (Groen 2004;Busch and Weigert 2010;Parey and Waldinger 2011;Di Pietro 2012). This highlights that analysing mobility-related preferences of university students promises valuable insights into their prospective migration patterns, once they will have entered the labour market. ...
This paper addresses the question concerning the price of geographic mobility in various labour market and migration scenarios. Pivotal points are expected mobility premiums which are sufficient to tip the scales in favour of moving to a geographically distinct location. These premiums are first derived within a theoretical model, accounting not only for location-specific amenity levels or labour market conditions, but also for heterogeneous personality traits and preferences. Derived hypotheses demonstrate that—in presence of heterogeneous psychic costs or adjustment capabilities—expected mobility premiums can remain distinctly positive even in an unemployment scenario. Furthermore, adjustment capabilities are to a large extent related to earlier mobility experiences, implying that labour mobility is partially learnable.
... Medzi týmito dvoma rozhodnutiami existuje vzájomný vzťah. Viacero štúdií ukázalo, že absolventi vysokých škôl s vysokou pravdepodobnosťou ostanú pracovať v mieste štúdia (Groen 2004;Gottlieb, Joseph 2006), pričom pravdepodobnosť je vyššia u starších a absolventov v manželskom zväzku (Gottlieb, Joseph 2006). Autori to vysvetľujú vyššími psychickými nákladmi spojenými s migráciou, to znamená, že absolventi si chcú udržať vybudované sociálne vzťahy v mieste štúdia. ...
Growth of human capital is one of the main drivers of regional development. Regions that are able to attract students from other regions, and retain university graduates, derive the greatest benefit from human capital accumulation. 6is paper aims to explore the determinants for regional migration of Slovak students when pursuing higher education. Individual micro-data from the 2011 census in Slovakia were used, along with the socio-economic characteristics of home regions and higher education locations. 6e results of a spatial discrete choice model, based on logistic regression, indicate that the main factors pushing to study outside the domestic region are unfavorable socio-economic characteristics in their domestic region, coupled with students’ attraction towards better socio-economic conditions, amenities of other regions, and higher quality of education. Women and individuals from more peripheral parts of a region are also more likely to study outside their home region.
... Medzi týmito dvoma rozhodnutiami existuje vzájomný vzťah. Viacero štúdií ukázalo, že absolventi vysokých škôl s vysokou pravdepodobnosťou ostanú pracovať v mieste štúdia (Groen 2004;Gottlieb, Joseph 2006), pričom pravdepodobnosť je vyššia u starších a absolventov v manželskom zväzku (Gottlieb, Joseph 2006). Autori to vysvetľujú vyššími psychickými nákladmi spojenými s migráciou, to znamená, že absolventi si chcú udržať vybudované sociálne vzťahy v mieste štúdia. ...
Determinants of choice of the place of university study in Slovakia – Growth of human capital is one of the main drivers of regional development. Regions that are able to attract students from other regions, and retain university graduates, derive the greatest benefit from human capital accumulation. 6is paper aims to explore the determinants for regional migration of Slovak students when pursuing higher education. Individual micro-data from the 2011census in Slovakia were used, along with the socio-economic characteristics of home regions and higher education locations. 6e results of a spatial discrete choice model, based on logistic regression, indicate that the main factors pushing to study outside the domestic region are unfavorable socio-economic characteristics in their domestic region, coupled with students’ attraction towards better socio-economic conditions, amenities of other regions, and higher quality of education. Women and individuals from more peripheral parts of a region are also more likely to study outside their home region.
... Zgodnie z jedną z tez Ravensteina kobiety migrują częściej niż mężczyźni. W zależności od kraju wyniki badań potwierdzają (Wielka Brytania -Faggian i in., 2006) bądź nie (Finlandia - Groen, 2004; Haapanen i Tervo, 2012) powyższą tezę. Di Cintio i Grassi (2011) zauważają, że nawet jeśli migracja wpływa na poprawę sytuacji zawodowej kobiet, to "szklany sufit" na rynku pracy sprawia, że mają one niższą stopę zwrotu z migracji niż mężczyźni. ...
1. Ruchliwość przestrzenna mieszkających w Polsce osób w wieku do 30 lat jest niska. Około 75% badanych nigdy nie zmieniło
miejsca (miejscowości) zamieszkania. Na migrację stałą nieco częściej decydują się młode kobiety niż mężczyźni, natomiast
status społeczno-ekonomiczny rodziny, z której wywodzi się respondent, nie wpływa znacząco na skłonność do mobilności.
2. Mobilność przestrzenna jest silnie uwarunkowana wielkością miejscowości pochodzenia. Przynajmniej jedną zmianę miejsca
zamieszkania ma za sobą 40% młodych Polaków wychowanych w małych gminach (do 10 tysięcy mieszkańców). Wśród
osób pochodzących z miast o populacji przekraczającej 100 tysięcy przeprowadzało się tylko 17%.
3. Podjęcie studiów wyższych sprzyja mobilności przestrzennej, co widać dobrze na tle ogólnie niskiej skłonności do stałej
migracji. Wprawdzie tylko co dziesiąty maturzysta podejmując studia, zmienia jednocześnie miejsce zamieszkania, jednak
około 40% osób, które choć raz przeprowadziło się przed ukończeniem 30. roku życia, zrobiło to z powodu podjęcia nauki.
4. Tylko 17% maturzystów, przymierzając się do rozpoczęcia studiów, składało dokumenty rekrutacyjne w więcej niż jednym
mieście. Częściej rozważane były różne kierunki studiów (36%) oraz uczelnie (32%). Zaledwie 15% maturzystów decyduje się
na studia w innym województwie niż to, w którym uzyskało maturę.
5. Jednym z istotnych czynników związanych z niską mobilnością młodych Polaków jest koszt samodzielnego mieszkania. Blisko
60% respondentów pod koniec studiów nadal mieszkało we wspólnym gospodarstwie z rodzicami (lub przynajmniej
jednym z rodziców). Rodzina jest dla większości respondentów głównym źródłem utrzymania przez cały okres nauki.
6. Skala awansu społecznego, mierzonego osiągnięciami edukacyjnymi, jest w Polsce bardzo znaczna. Trzy czwarte absolwentów
wyższych uczelni osiągnęło wyższy poziom wykształcenia niż ich matki. Także ponad połowa absolwentów techników,
uzyskując maturę, osiąga wyższy poziom wykształcenia niż własne matki.
7. Mimo powszechności awansu społecznego wpływ pochodzenia społecznego na wybory edukacyjne i zawodowe nadal
pozostaje znaczący. Charakter wykształcenia oraz zawód rodziców, a także miejsce wychowania w istotnym stopniu, choć
mniejszym niż dawniej, determinują wybór kierunku kształcenia na etapie szkoły średniej, decyzję o kontynuacji nauki
w szkole wyższej, a także tryb studiowania.
8. Wyniki badania pokazują, że wykształcenie rodziców, ich zawód oraz wielkość zamieszkiwanej miejscowości wpływają na jakość
szkół, w których uczą się ich dzieci. W przypadku szkół średnich rodzinny kapitał wykształcenia, prestiżowy zawód matki
lub ojca i pochodzenie z dużego miasta pomagają uczniowi trafić do placówki o ponadprzeciętnych wynikach egzaminów
maturalnych oraz ponadprzeciętnej edukacyjnej wartości dodanej.
9. Wpływ pochodzenia społecznego na jakość otrzymanego wykształcenia jest znacznie silniejszy na poziomie szkoły wyższej
niż średniej. Powiązanie wyników badania z rankingiem uczelni opracowanym przez portal Perspektywy prowadzi do
wniosku, że zarówno wykształcenie matki, zawód rodziców, jak i wielkość miejscowości, w której student się wychował, mają
bardzo znaczący wpływ na jakość uczelni, w której się kształcił. Osoby z rodzin o niskim statusie społeczno-ekonomicznym
uzyskują dyplomy gorszych szkół wyższych. Częściej także niż osoby o wysokim SES studiują w trybie niestacjonarnym i są
zmuszone łączyć studia z pracą zawodową.
10. W Polsce nadal przeważa model rozwoju indywidualnego, w którym wiedzę akademicką i doświadczenie zawodowe zdobywa
się odrębnie. Tylko co piąty student pracuje zawodowo na początku pierwszego roku studiów, pod koniec ostatniego
roku studiów pracuje zawodowo 40% respondentów.
11. Najsilniejszą determinantą statusu zawodowego jest płeć. Ma ona silny wpływ na wybór profilu kształcenia w szkole średniej,
wybór przedmiotów maturalnych oraz kierunku studiów. Po zakończeniu edukacji kobietom trudniej jest znaleźć pracę,
także znacznie częściej niż mężczyźni znajdują się poza rynkiem (nie mają pracy i jej nie szukają). Kobiety, które pracują, uzyskują niższe miesięczne zarobki niż mężczyźni, nawet jeśli porównamy mężczyzn z wykształceniem średnim z kobietami
z wykształceniem wyższym.
12. Absolwenci wyższych uczelni, poszukując zatrudnienia, nie mają znaczącej przewagi nad osobami z wykształceniem średnim.
Odsetek poszukujących pracy, jak również struktura pracujących z uwagi na formę zatrudnienia są bardzo zbliżone
w obu grupach. Także tryb studiowania i rodzaj uczelni (publiczne versus niepubliczne) nie mają silnego wpływu na prawdopodobieństwo
zatrudnienia.
13. Jednak osoby z wyższym wykształceniem zarabiają średnio miesięcznie o 15,5% więcej niż respondenci z wykształceniem
maturalnym. Zróżnicowanie wynagrodzeń ze względu na pochodzenie społeczne wewnątrz populacji osób z wyższym
wykształceniem jest silniejsze niż między różnymi kategoriami wykształcenia respondentów. Osoby z dyplomem magistra
posiadające matkę z wyższym wykształceniem osiągają dochody o 19% wyższe od tych magistrów, których matki nie ukończyły
studiów.
... This applies, in particular, to prospective students without any previous mobility experiences. The ramifications of such constrained initial choice sets may not only restrict the final choice set but go far beyond the university choice: Study location choices are highly relevant precursors of post-graduation labour market entrance and mobility (Belfield and Morris, 1999;Groen, 2004;Busch and Weigert, 2010). Postgraduation mobility, in turn, is directly associated to higher labour market earnings of tertiary educated individuals (Lemistre and Moreau, 2009;Ham et al., 2011;Knapp et al., 2013). ...
This study investigates how personality and individual experiences influence decision-making processes during the transition into Higher Education (HE). It offers insights into application choices, where applicants employ different quantitative hedging strategies against non-admission. These strategies are assessed by the number of applications but also the search radius, leading to an alternative’s inclusion into the application set. An empirical analysis of the usually unobserved application stage shows how these hedging strategies depend on applicants’ perceptions of psychic costs and their socio-demographic backgrounds. This heterogeneity may explain varying participation rates for different subpopulations in a country with a large HE sector, such as Germany. An essential finding points to the relevance of earlier mobility experiences during adolescence, which may act as facilitators of subsequent student mobility. Providing adolescents with a stimulating mobility experience before they consider transitioning to university could thus be an avenue to increase participation chances of potentially disadvantaged groups.
... In the context of mass education, colleges and universities, especially the local colleges with a short history, are facing new challenges like how to maintain and improve the quality of education and teaching. In this regard, many researchers explored the ways to improve the employment quality from the demand side (Alm and Winters, 2009;Groen, 2004;Ma and Pan, 2013), but in recent years, more and more scholars have realized it is more important to discuss the training of employability on the supply side based on the market demand (Cuyper, Raeder, Van der Heijden & Wittekind, 2012;Cuyper, Mauno, Kinnunen & Mäkikangasb, 2011;Fugate and Kinicki, 2008;Wittekind, Raeder & Grote, 2010). There are two approaches on the study of the employability structure at home and abroad: the input-based approach and the output-based approach (Cuyper, Van der Heijden & Wittekind, 2012). ...
While colleges and universities keep providing more applied talents to the job market, they cannot ignore the importance of cultivating their employability and improving their employment efficiency and quality. This paper takes the regular college and junior college in Zhejiang as examples, and uses the DEA model to estimate the employment efficiency and job seeking efficiency of their graduate. The results of the model indicate that, for applied college students, their employment and job seeking efficiency is not at the optimal level. Through Tobit model regression, this paper further analyzes how other potential factors affect the employment efficiency and job seeking efficiency and the degrees of these impacts. The results show that: all the factors to employability investment and employment output can be the reasons for the low employment efficiency and job seeking efficiency of college students; the employment efficiency is easily affected by the family financial situation and is positively correlated to family social capital; and the job seeking efficiency is more susceptible to gender, number of practices and level of effort in job seeking. In the end, this paper proposes suggestions on how to improve the employability of college students from the perspective of education supply.
... Some who moved to the city for higher education end up staying after their education is complete. For example,Groen (2004) and ...
... Turning to college enrollment, the geographic pattern is complex, but the proportion of college graduates is generally lower in the Southern than in the Northern United States (Kennan, 2015). Having graduated college in a state increases the odds of staying in that state and states that produce more college graduates attract college graduates from other places (Groen, 2004;Winters, 2015). Taken together, there is a strong positive relationship between a state's production of college graduates and the proportion of college graduates living in the state (Winters, 2015). ...
... Therefore, the Kalamazoo Promise's college graduation effects would be expected to reduce the probability that local students remain in the area. However, attending college in one's home state increases the share of college attendees that remain in the state by roughly 10 percentage points (Groen, 2004). Because the Kalamazoo Promise successfully encourages students to attend college in Michigan rather than elsewhere, a greater share of Kalamazoo students would be expected to remain in Michigan, and some of these will stay in the Kalamazoo area. ...
As higher education costs rise, many communities have begun to adopt their own financial aid strategy: place-based scholarships for students graduating from the local school district. In this paper, we examine the benefits and costs of the Kalamazoo Promise, one of the more universal and more generous place-based scholarships. Building upon estimates of the program’s heterogeneous effects on degree attainment, scholarship cost data, and projections of future earnings by education, we examine the Promise’s benefit-cost ratios for students differentiated by income, race, and gender. Although the average rate of return of the program is 11%, rates of return vary greatly by group. The Promise has high returns for both low-income and non-low-income groups, for non-Whites, and for women, while benefit assumptions matter more for Whites and men. Our results show that universal scholarships can reach many students and have a high rate of return, particularly for places with a high percentage of African American students. They also highlight the importance of disaggregating benefits and costs by subgroup when performing benefit-cost analysis when the treatment is heterogeneous.
... Using follow-up surveys in 1994 and 1997 from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Perry (2001) found that 84% of students attending school in their home state remained in the state for the next four years compared to 63% of students who migrated out and returned to their home state. In a similar study that tracked students for 10 to 15 years postgraduation, Groen (2004) found a more modest effect with a 10-percentage point increase for those students who attended a school in their home state who were still residing in their state compared to those who attended a school in another state. ...
This chapter provides an explanation for the labor market behavior of individuals in different age groups,
with a focus on young adults. The majority of young adults between the ages of 19 and 24 are faced with important life events, such as college, employment, marriage, and birth of a first child. Based on evidence from the Wage Records administrative dataset, young adults tend to work in different industries than older adults. Also, job turnover is much higher for younger workers, and continuously employed males generally earn higher average wages than females, except in the educational & health services industry. Males in Wyoming find continuous employment largely in mining, construction, retail & wholesale trade, and educational & health services, while females find continuous employment primarily in educational & health services, leisure & hospitality, and retail & wholesale trade.
... Using follow-up surveys in 1994 and 1997 from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Perry (2001) found that 84% of students attending school in their home state remained in the state for the next four years compared to 63% of students who migrated out and returned to their home state. In a similar study that tracked students for 10 to 15 years postgraduation, Groen (2004) found a more modest effect with a 10-percentage point increase for those students who attended a school in their home state who were still residing in their state compared to those who attended a school in another state. ...
Understanding rates of compensation for essential occupations, like registered nurses, may help Wyoming employers attract and keep qualified workers. This analysis examines registered nurses (RNs) who worked in nursing and long term care facilities in Casper, Cheyenne, and Sheridan. Research & Planning (R&P) calculated median quarterly compensation, median hourly wages, median number of hours worked, median age, and number of RNs who were continuously employed during a given quarter. The data show that between 2011 and 2012, there was a 38.1% increase in the number of registered nurses working in long term care facilities and a corresponding decrease in median age of RNs, median number of hours worked, median hourly wage, and median quarterly wage during this time.
... Using follow-up surveys in 1994 and 1997 from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, Perry (2001) found that 84% of students attending school in their home state remained in the state for the next four years compared to 63% of students who migrated out and returned to their home state. In a similar study that tracked students for 10 to 15 years postgraduation, Groen (2004) found a more modest effect with a 10-percentage point increase for those students who attended a school in their home state who were still residing in their state compared to those who attended a school in another state. ...
As critical attention on postsecondary student outcomes and program evaluation continues to increase, Research & Planning (R&P) already plays a pivotal role in producing high-quality research. Nationally, most recent studies use observational data to estimate correlations between variables such as degree level and earnings. However, the extensive data to which R&P has access allows for high quality causational studies.
This chapter analyzes several questions, including, “Why is program evaluation important?,” “What does past research show?,” “Why is research needed for Wyoming students?,” and “What is the best way to evaluate student outcomes?”
... Brain drain is usually associated with skilled workers or university graduates. Research conducted in different settings (e.g., Ciriaci, 2014;Gottlieb & Joseph, 2006;Groen, 2004), however, demonstrates that students who move to a different region to progress into tertiary education are also unlikely to go back home once they have graduated. Moreover, the number of studies considering the consequences of migration at regional level still is extremely limited (Faggian et al., 2017). ...
Investigating how qualified human capital is spatially redistributed within a country, and what drives such process in the first place, is essential to understand which regions benefit from its concentration in terms of enhanced productivity and potential for growth. Applying structural equations modelling to the Italian National Institute of Statistics’ (ISTAT) Survey on Educational and Professional Paths of Upper Secondary School Graduates 2011, this paper evaluates the relationship between the propensity to experience interregional student mobility and individual skills in Italy. Findings confirm that the positive link between the two holds also controlling for family background and the characteristics of the region of origin.
... Furthermore, many of the youngster that moved to other regions for their study, did not return afterwards (Faggian & Mccann, 2009;Groen, 2004). ...
University establishments have become a common policy instrument to revitalize peripheral regions. By introducing a supplier of highly skilled graduates, firms in these regions get the access to human capital that is crucial for their development. However, it can turn out to be a cathedral in the dessert. Furthermore, graduates can feel forced in the absence of labour market demand to take a job below their skill level. To date there are just a few studies covering the mobility of younger universities, and these studies are limited to studying only mobility at one point in time. The importance that university establishments have as instrument to revitalize peripheral regions asks for detailed exploration of these dynamics.
The empirical analysis takes the form of a quantitative case study at the establishment of Aalborg University in 1974 in the North Denmark region. Although the wage analysis indicated some slight differences in the intra-regional graduate wages, they are negligible when taking the costs-of living into consideration. Furthermore, the retention rates of both local and incoming graduates have been stable over the last few decades, which implies in a context of fast rising graduate numbers an increasing absorbance of graduates. Over time, this development resulted in an increased share of graduates in the workforce of the Aalborg labour market, whose relative growth outpaces that of the other urbanized labour markets in Denmark. Therefore, we can conclude that the economy of a peripheral economy can adapt to and benefit from the establishment of a university.
... A simple graphical representation of the process is given in Figure 1. Increased number of students and tertiary educated people consequently in- fluences other demographic processes and structures, such as reproductive beha- viour ( Šprocha and Potančoková, 2010;Testa, 2012;Tesching, 2012), mortality (Sobotík and Rychtaříková, 1992;Rychtaříková, 2005), or migratory behaviour (Groen, 2004;Šprocha, 2011a;2011b;Striessnig and Lutz, 2014), or even religio- sity (Hungerman, 2011). ...
The study presents an empirical view on changes in educational pathways in the Slovak Republic, in relation to the changes in the economic activity of the population. The study is based on data from the three most recent population censuses carried out in 1991, 2001 and 2011. They represent a suitable data base for exploring the development of educational pathways. The study also provides a spatial view of regional differentiation at the level of administrative units LAU-I, districts. From the viewpoint of theory, the study is based on certain demographic and sociological theories, including the second demographic transition. The study tries to explain the changes in the phases of economic activity in relation to the changing educational pathways, which are primarily determined by altered reproduction pathways, i.e. by the timing of demographic processes. It originally combines labour market participation of various categories of economically active and inactive population, both in terms of age and at the level of the last three censuses.
... Higher productivity in an area will attract new workers and cause the area to grow in population [5,20,24,6]. Glaeser and Beary [7] and Waldorf [22] also suggest that the existing stock of human capital is especially important in attracting educated in-migrants. Furthermore, as new workers move in, they compete with existing residents for housing and bid up housing prices [19,3]. ...
... This corresponds to the difference in the log-populations of high-skilled and low-skilled workers. 21 While not conclusive, there is evidence that graduates are more likely to seek employment in the state where they went to college (Bound,Groen, Kezdi, and Turner, 2004;Groen, 2004). Abel and Deitz (2011) adopt an instrumental variable approach to measure the impact of the local production of degrees on a metropolitan area's college share. ...
This thesis studies the determinants of spatial variation and persistence of economic activity. The first chapter assesses the impact of the construction of the Interstate Highway System on the skill composition of metropolitan areas in the USA. Reduced-form estimates indicate that each additional highway caused an increase in the share of college-educated residents of 0.6 percentage points. Using a quantitative spatial model, the chapter also measures the welfare effects associated with a hypothetical removal of the interstate network. The effects are large for all skill groups. Graduates would nonetheless experience bigger losses in terms of welfare as they are more likely to relocate and incur the higher migration costs.The second chapter documents high persistence of regional development in England and Wales over the last 800 years. Using data on the establishment of medieval markets, the study highlights a strong correlation between commercial activity and agricultural productivity in the late Middle Ages. Places with successful medieval markets remain better developed nowadays. The evidence suggests that path dependence is the most likely explanation for the persistence of development over many centuries. The third chapter studies the relationship between asylum policies and international tensions. The main hypothesis is that European Union member states are more likely to admit refugees from states perceived as rivals rather than partners. Data on asylum applications from 1999 to 2017 bear this out. This result can rationalize a negative and robust correlation between asylum recognition rates and EU imports from the rest of the world.
... 32 Previous research has shown that only a small fraction of US graduates seek employment in the state where they went to college (Bound et al., 2004;Groen, 2004). 33 Appendix C.3 discusses these results in greater detail. ...
This paper studies the distributional effects of a major transport infrastructure project, the construction of the US Interstate Highway System. Using data from 1950 to 2000, it first provides reduced-form evidence of the impact of highways on the location choices of heterogeneous workers. In order to address the endogeneity of road placement, I adopt an instrumental variable approach that exploits an initial plan of the network and nationwide construction patterns. I find that a city’s share of college-educated residents increases by 1 percentage point with each additional highway. The associated welfare effects are estimated using a quantitative spatial model in which heterogeneous migration patterns are driven by differences in migration costs across skill groups. Counterfactual experiments show that a hypothetical removal of the Interstate Highway System decreases aggregate welfare by 4.3%. The effect exhibits, however, significant variation across cities and, within cities, across skill groups. These results highlight the potential of transport policies to alter the spatial patterns of welfare inequality.
... Second, College workers are vital for local and national economic development and understanding how inter-province migration of educated workers is shaped by college education is important for designing local public policies. Increasing enrollment locally could retain more college students (Groen, 2004;Winters, forthcoming); however, if college-educated workers are more responsive to labor market shocks (Wozniak, 2010), brain drain could happen to some local economies. Educated workers are attracted by different amenities (Su, Tesfazion and Zhao, 2017) and also make an area more desirable to live (Shapiro, 2006). ...
In this paper, I examine the causal impact of college education on young adults' out-province migration in China using China Family Panel Studies 2010 wave data. I use the number of colleges at the province-year level to identify the effect of college attendance on young adults' later life location choice. 2SLS estimates suggest that attending college significantly increases the likelihood of residing in a different province later in life by 7.5 percentage points. A series of tests shows that the impact of college on migration is heterogenous to people's childhood location, gender, hukou origin, and occupation.
... We admit that graduates may migrate back to their hometown or relocate to other locations. However, existing studies using U.S. data find that college towns gain a remarked increase in human capital when the college students graduate (Groen 2004;Winters 2011). This is even more likely in China, due to the fact that colleges adopt local preferential treatments in admission. ...
We study the response of non-housing consumption to housing price movements in urban China, which has been witnessing a real estate boom ever since 2003. Using Urban Household Survey data, we estimate an elasticity of consumption with respect to housing price of 0.06–0.07 for homeowners. Moreover, we find that the average marginal propensity to consume out of housing wealth is 0.025–0.03. We employ a novel instrumental variable associated with higher-education expansion to ensure that these estimates are causal effects. As for renters, we show that their consumption response to housing shocks is insignificant. We further reveal that the marginal propensity to consume is larger for homeowners who are more credit constrained.
... In addition, differences in fees for residents and non-residents at destination states for the same courses can also play decisive role in the inter-state mobility for HE (Groen, 2004). However, the decision for inter-state mobility for education can differ substantially by the socio-economic background of the students. ...
This article analyzes the socio-economic determinants of student mobility in India and evaluates the factors that hinder and promote higher educational mobility. It is argued that despite the mass expansion of higher education in India in recent times, student mobility is directed towards developed educational regions. India is a unique case because it consists of regions with a high variation in socio-economic development and has local higher education markets with different levels of competition between institutions. This study shows the importance of the socio-economic characteristics in student mobility. Drawing on the assumptions of human capital theory and the literature on international student mobility, we suggest that individual and family factors are important determinants of inter-state mobility for higher education in India. This article concludes by suggesting how this pattern of inter-state student mobility might have impact on recent policy focus on expansion of higher education in India.
... This study has provided new perspectives on scholarship regarding graduate migration and rural repopulation. Literature has indicated that college major is crucial in determining return migration (Groen 2004;Rérat 2014;Winters 2017). This finding is somewhat supported. ...
Many rural areas throughout the Great Plains, including Kansas, have been affected by “brain drain” or the out-migration of well-educated people. In response to this negative outlook, in 2012, Kansas implemented the Rural Opportunity Zone (ROZ) Program to encourage college-educated adults to move to the state’s rural counties. This brief aims to identify what influences individuals to participate in the program and what types of individuals are likely to participate. This study employed a survey of Kansas State University students and interviews with local officials who manage the program. Survey results reveal that most students do not view themselves as likely to participate in the program despite its financial incentives. Students likely to participate come from ROZ counties, are likely to find employment in rural areas, and hold positive views of rural life. Interviews with county officials revealed that the program primarily benefits individuals who had already intended to live in a rural area, and that the program rarely attracts newcomers. The program is poorly funded in many counties, and a lack of high-paying jobs limits growth in a way that the ROZ cannot outweigh. This brief also highlights the need for changes concerning the program’s benefits and awareness.
... His results indicate that higher education enrollment is a major driver of inmigration to these cities, many of whom are major hubs of higher education, and that many of those who attend college in one of these "smart" cities stay. This is consistent with the findings by Gottlieb and Joseph (2006) that college graduates have a tendency to stay in the location where they earned their college degree and those by Groen (2004), Groen and White (2004), and Winters (2018) that people are more likely to live in a state if they attend college there. However, attracting students to a region does not guarantee success (Hansen et al. 2003), and producing a lot of college graduates does not necessarily lead to a large supply, as graduates can leave (Bound et al. 2004). ...
Previous research has shown that understanding the migration habits of college graduates is important because there is evidence of a link between human capital, proxied by an educated workforce, and economic growth. While a number of papers have investigated the motivations for migration by college graduates in other countries or between US regions, few studies have examined US college graduate migration at the regional level or used individual-level data. To help understand the post-graduation location decisions of recent US college graduates, we surveyed graduates of California State University, Long Beach, a large, state-supported university in the nation’s second-largest metropolitan area. Long Beach, despite being the home to this large university, lags the region in numbers of college-educated residents. The region has also experienced substantial economic restructuring. The results suggest that amenities play a strong role in where graduates choose to locate and that cities should do more to build connections with students in order to retain their talents post-graduation.
... This development led to an increasing discrepancy in university attendance between peripheral and central regions owing to commuting distances (Frenette, 2004;Looker & Andres, 2001). Furthermore, many of the young people who moved to other regions to pursue their studies did not return afterwards to their original home areas (Faggian & McCann, 2009;Groen, 2004). ...
The establishment of a university can be used as policy instrument to revitalize peripheral regions. Such newly established universities tend to experience rapid growth, but little is known about how this affects the labour market for graduates in these regions over time. A quantitative case study, employing individual-level microdata, analyzed changes in the wage levels and mobility of graduates of Aalborg University, which was established in 1974 in the North Denmark region. The analysis shows that the establishment of Aalborg University contributed to the upgrading of the human capital in the region, fulfilling a demand in the labour market, as indicated by wage growth similar to that of the labour market in other regions and a growing percentage of local young people to stay in the region after graduation. Furthermore, the university increased its intake of students from outside the region, who then as graduates dispersed to other parts of the country, thereby serving to supply human capital at the national level. These insights add to our understanding of how a new university can play a role in the economic development of a peripheral region, while at the same time also having impact at the national level. Nevertheless, this instrument is not applicable to all regions in the same way, since local critical mass and regional embeddedness are required to enable a region to absorb a substantial number of graduates and benefit from the presence of the university.
... Postsecondary degrees afford graduates labor market mobility, which often means moving to higher paying areas (Dowd, 2008). Research has demonstrated a link, albeit modest, between attending college in a state and later working in that state (Groen, 2004), and attending a public university has a bigger effect on students' post-college location than attending a private one (Groen & White, 2004). While attending a public, instate university may increase the probability that students remain in-state after graduation, it does not guarantee that students will return to their hometowns. ...
Local-level, place-based scholarships – synonymous with “promise” scholarships – are a policy strategy to improve college completion in the United States by directing financial aid to students in a particular school, district, or geographical area. There are currently upwards of 90 place-based scholarship programs across the US, most of which share three broad goals: to increase postsecondary access by making college more affordable, to build a college-going culture, and to catalyse economic development by drawing middle- and upper-class families to an area and retaining existing residents. As place-based scholarships grow in popularity and more communities, especially ones seeking economic revitalisation, consider investing resources in their own scholarships, there is interest in what impact, if any, these programs have. This paper reviews the research on place-based scholarships, which demonstrates generally positive effects on district enrolment, postsecondary enrolment and persistence, and housing prices. While there is some evidence of improvement in teacher expectations and school climate, the scholarships have not been associated with fundamental changes inside schools. Although most programs have not been empirically studied, the 33 studies included in this review indicate that place-based scholarships have the potential to foster change within school districts and struggling cities and promote positive student outcomes.
... Extensive research work in the USA proposes that the essential factors influencing HE student decision are the location, academic reputation, program of study and career enhancements or employment opportunities (Connor, 2001;Connor, 1999;Litten and Hall, 1989;Shank and Beasley, 1998). Despite the fact that the program of study emerged to be the essential criteria for students to determine where to study (Ruben, Groen, 2004). Especially where students need to stay at home or within a certain distance from their home and drive day by day. ...
As education is quickly moving from the product driven to the market driven, it is vital for the marketers to draw attention and get nearer to their potential clients. Therefore, it is essential for an educational institution to identify the factors that affects the student's choice of higher education institution. Knowledge of those factors is imperative for competing and surviving in this competitive marketplace. Therefore, the objective of the current research is to explore the factors that affect the student's choice of higher educational institution in Indian context. Based on expert interview and literature review, the researcher identified six antecedents (Location, Public Image, Employability of Graduate, Promotions, Fee Structure and Quality of Academic Programs) that affect student's choice of higher educational institution. Data was collected from 454 students who were looking for a higher educational institution in Chandigarh Tricity region, India. Results of the structural equation modeling shows that location, public image, employability of graduates, promotions and academic quality has significant and positive impact on student's choice of higher educational institution in India. However, fee structure of the institute has negative impact on the choice of a student regarding higher educational institution. The implications and limitations of the study is also discussed. The present study examines the various factors that affect the student's choice regarding the selection of a higher educational institution in India context.
This paper examines the persistent effects of eliminating tariffs on Mexican imports, following the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), on Americans' human capital investment. We leverage quasi‐experimental changes in tariffs on Mexican imports across birth cohorts and within states. We show that NAFTA increases the probability of ever attending college and earning a degree. These results, however, mask important heterogeneous effects within the sample. We find white Americans drive these positive effects. In contrast, the educational attainment of racial and ethnic minorities, especially men, shrank under NAFTA, decreasing their probability of graduating from high school.
We take advantage of a major compulsory schooling reform in Turkey to provide novel evidence on the causal effect of education on both the incidence and timing of internal migration. In addition, we provide causal effects of education on different types of migration. We find that education substantially increases the incidence of ever-migrating by the mid-20s for men but not for women. However, using a dataset that comprises complete migration histories, including the reason for each migration, we show that women become more likely to migrate at earlier ages, and their migration reasons change. Women become more likely to move for human capital investments and employment purposes and less likely to be tied-movers.
Education markets are increasingly switching to centralized admission systems. However, empirical evidence of the effects of these transitions is scarce. We examine the consequences of introducing centralized admissions in the higher education market in Brazil. Using detailed administrative data, we exploit the staggered adoption of a centralized clearinghouse across institutions to investigate the impacts on student composition. Consistent with lower application frictions and higher competition, we find that centralization is associated with a decline in the share of female students and an increase in the average age of students. We also document that institutions under the centralized assignment attract students from other locations and with higher test scores. We present suggestive evidence that centralization increases stratification of institutions by quality, widening the gap between low and high quality institutions.
Hispanic high school graduates have lower college completion rates than academically similar white students. As Hispanic students have been theorized to be more constrained in the college search and selection process, one potential policy lever is to increase the set of colleges to which these students apply and attend. In this paper, we investigate the impacts of the College Board's National Hispanic Recognition Program (NHRP), which recognizes the highest-scoring 11th-grade Hispanic students on the PSAT/NMSQT, as a mechanism of improving college choice and completion. The program not only informs students about their relative ability, but it also enables colleges to identify, recruit, and offer enrollment incentives. Overall, we find that the program has strong effects on college attendance patterns, shifting students from two-year to four-year institutions, as well as to colleges that are out-of-state and public flagships, all areas where Hispanic attendance has lagged. NHRP shifts the geographic distribution of where students earn their degree, and increases overall bachelor's completion among Hispanic students who traditionally have had lower rates of success. These results demonstrate that college outreach can have significant impacts on the enrollment choices of Hispanic students and can serve as a policy lever for colleges looking to draw academically talented students.
Do social networks help firms recruit talented managers? In our setting, firms are randomly connected to prospective young managers through former employees. Under a discrete choice model, we find networks increase the likelihood firms hire high-ability managers, while having no effect on the hiring rate of low-ability managers. Effects are greatest for nonlocal firms, strong ties, and peers living in the same neighborhood. Survey evidence suggests social networks promote recruitment by providing information about firm fundamentals to potential applicants. Our results help rationalize why the majority of managers hold prior connections to the firm.
The sorting of high-ability workers is often advanced as one source of spatial disparities in economic outcomes. There are still few papers that analyze when human capital sorting occurs and whom it involves. Using data on 16 cohorts of university graduates in Sweden, we demonstrate significant sorting to urban regions on high school grades and education levels of parents, i.e., two attributes typically associated with latent abilities that are valued in the labor market. A large part of this sorting has already occurred in deciding where to study, because the top universities in Sweden are predominantly located in urban regions. The largest part of directed sorting on ability indicators occurs in the decision of where to study. Even after controlling for sorting prior to labor market entry, the “best and brightest” are still more likely to start working in urban regions. However, this effect appears to be driven by Sweden's main metropolitan region, Stockholm. We find no influence of our ability indicators on the probability of starting to work in urban regions after graduation when Stockholm is excluded. Studies of human capital sorting need to account for selection processes to and from universities, because neglecting mobility prior to labor market entry is likely to lead to an underestimation of the extent of the sorting to urban regions.
Higher education has a positive effect on students' and society's human and psychological capital. However, higher education funding is an issue for both students and Government. Qualitative study, using interviews, presents the views of 81 students at a technical vocational tertiary educational institution in Trinidad on the Government Assistance for Tertiary Education. Demographic information indicates that 47 students belonged to nuclear families, 62 students completed the Caribbean Secondary Schools Examination Council (CSEC), and 31 were first generation tertiary level students. Most participants indicated that their mothers were employed in the service industry and most participants indicated "none" for their fathers' occupations. Findings from the data, after coding, were: 1) improvement of human capital-relief from financial burdens, national service, continuation of GATE; 2) betterment of psychological capital-hope/self-improvement, career, and optimism. Recommendations made are for a more expansive study with students currently in the program as well as those who have benefitted from GATE.
Based on a representative survey of new college graduates in China, we present a job location choice model that allows for a self‐selection effect in college regions by considering region‐dependent heterogeneous preference for job locations and unobservable location features. We also treat endogenous housing costs using the method developed by Berry et al. (1995). Our estimation results show that college education significantly increases graduates' likelihood of working in the city where their college is located. However, a model that does not consider the self‐selection effect overestimates this impact. The impact of college location on a graduate's migration decision varies considerably across cities. There is significant heterogeneity between students from universities of different tiers and rural versus urban areas. Meanwhile, the graduates show a marked home preference when choosing their job locations, and they tend to avoid working in cities with high housing costs. These findings shed light on debates on place‐based higher education policies and spatial distribution of human capital with a high level of education.
Highly skilled human capital is usually also highly mobile. Concerns regarding interregional migration revolve around suboptimal public financing of higher education rooted in free-riding behaviour if budget responsibilities are decentralized. This investigation sets out to answer whether cross-state mobility of students in general and individual taste variation in the preference for ‘home’ and ‘university’ states in particular justify concerns about the free-riding behaviour of state governments. We analyse graduates’ location choices when leaving university using a mixed logit model and subsequently relate the revealed taste variation to individual characteristics. The results suggest some attachment to ‘home’ states that justify concerns about potential free-riding. However, substantial taste variation exists and is partly associated with the quality of human capital. State governments free-riding on the investment of others therefore may face a quality trade-off.
This study investigates the effects of parents’ social network (PSN) and job location on graduate wages by using a unique dataset from one Chinese college. First, PSN significantly increases wage premium. Secondly, although graduates who work in their hometowns do not earn higher incomes than those who work outside their hometowns, the former significantly benefit from their PSN. Thirdly, the nepotism channel of PSN may be more important than the information channel, and PSN is more important for female graduates. Our results exhibit robustness to endogeneity. This paper emphasizes the importance of social networks and provides evidence on the intergenerational immobility of socioeconomic status, which raises significant policy implications.
Purpose: The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with new graduate nurses' choices of local hospitals. Methods: Participants were 526 new graduate nurses from one of five universities located in Busan, Ulsan or Gyeongnam. The new graduates completed a self-report questionnaire survey during February and March, 2016. The questionnaire included questions about choices of local hospitals, satisfaction with nursing major, nursing professionalism and anticipated nursing practice environment. Multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with the new graduate nurses' choices of local hospitals. Results: Of the participants, 86.3% had their first jobs in their nursing school region (local hospitals). The choice of local hospitals among new graduate nurses was related to region of origin, type of nursing school, grade point average, and anticipated nursing practice environment. Conclusion: Local hospitals need to enhance the nurse practice environment and provide institutional benefits to new graduate nurses who choose local hospitals. For quality nursing care, reducing the geographical gap and improving policy is necessary.
African American, Latino, and Native Americans aspire to do well in school but often fall short of this goal. We use identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2007, 2015) as an organizing framework to understand how macro-level social stratification factors including racial-ethnic group membership and socioeconomic position (e.g. parental education, income) and the stigma they carry, matter. Macro-level social stratification differentially exposes students to contexts in which choice and control are limited and stigma is evoked, shaping identity-based motivation in three ways. Stratification influences which behaviors likely feel congruent with important identities, undermines belief that one’s actions and effort matter, and skews chronic interpretation of one’s experienced difficulties with schoolwork from interpreting experienced difficulty as implying importance (e.g., “it’s for me”) toward implying “impossibility.” Because minority students have high aspirations, policies should invest in de-stigmatizing, scalable, universal, identity-based motivation-bolstering institutions and interventions.
The main question addressed in this analysis is how the production of undergraduate and graduate education at the state level affects the local stock of university-educated workers. The potential mobility of highly skilled workers implies that the number of college students graduating in an area need not affect the number of college graduates living in the area. However, the production of relatively large numbers of college and university graduates in an area may lead to increases in the employment of university-trained manpower if local industries expand production of goods that use college-educated workers intensively. Using data from the U.S., we find a modest link between the production and use of BA degree recipients; states awarding relatively large numbers of BA degrees in each cohort also have somewhat higher concentrations of college-educated workers.
This is the book that has forever changed the debate on affirmative action in America. The Shape of the River is the most far-reaching and comprehensive study of its kind. It brings a wealth of empirical evidence to bear on how race-sensitive admissions policies actually work and clearly defines the effects they have had on over 45,000 students of different races. Its conclusions mark a turning point in national discussions of affirmative action--anything less than factual evidence will no longer suffice in any serious debate of this vital question. Glenn Loury's new foreword revisits the basic logic behind race-sensitive policies, asserting that since individuals use race to conceptualize themselves, we must be conscious of race as we try to create rules for a just society. Loury underscores the need for confronting opinion with fact so we can better see the distinction between the "morality of color-blindness" and the "morality of racial justice."
This paper tests the hypothesis that benefit spillovers from public higher educationproxied by out-niigration-led to lower higher education appropriations by state legislatures. A model addressing legislative appropriations, tuition and out-migration activity is developed and estimated. The results support the benefit spillover hypothesis, indicating that for each percentage point increase in out-migration, appropriations per student decline by $100. The results also reveal a bi-directional relationship between tuition and state appropriations. This is in contrast with the view that tuition is a 'residual' source of revenue representing the difference between the institutional budgets endorsed by educational policy-makers and the level of state appropriations.
There is an implicit general plan currently uniting federal and state financing policies, however, it is inefficient, inequitable, and ineffective, involving obsolete state financing policies and mistaken federal responses. Implementation of another plan available would require federal intervention in state financing policies. (MLW)
Policies toward nonresident students by public institutions of higher education are an increasingly important issue. This paper looks at the determinants of student migration and the interrelationship of student migration and tuition rates. Students are found to be attracted to schools in states that are attractive to migrants in general, specifically schools in states with favorable economic and environmental conditions, and high tuition rates are found to be a significant deterrent to nonresident students. Tuition rates for nonresident students are found to be largely determined by tradition, although states are found to have a tendency to increase nonresident tuition if they are strong net importers of students.
Economists have speculated for at least a century that the social return to education may exceed the private return. In this paper, I estimate spillovers from college education by comparing wages for otherwise similar individuals who work in cities with different shares of college graduates in the labor force. A key issue in this comparison is the presence of unobservable characteristics of individuals and cities that may raise wages and be correlated with college share. I use longitudinal data to estimate a model of non-random selection of workers among cities. I account for unobservable city-specific demand shocks by using two instrumental variables: the (lagged) city demographic structure and the presence of a land-grant college. I find that a percentage point increase in the supply of college graduates raises high school drop-outs’ wages by 1.9%, high school graduates’ wages by 1.6%, and college graduates wages by 0.4%. The effect is larger for less educated groups, as predicted by a conventional demand and supply model. But even for college graduates, an increase in the supply of college graduates increases wages, as predicted by a model that includes conventional demand and supply factors as well as spillovers.
We examine the relationship between urban characteristics in 1960 and urban growth between 1960 and 1990. Income and population growth move together, and both types of growth are (1) positively related to initial schooling, (2) negatively related to initial unemployment, and (3) negatively related to the initial share of employment in manufacturing. Racial composition and segregation are uncorrelated with urban growth across all cities, but in cities with large nonwhite communities segregation is positively correlated with population growth. Government expenditures (except for sanitation) are uncorrelated with growth; government debt is positively correlated with later growth.
This paper examines the divergence of interest between universities and state governments concerning standards for admitting in-state versus out-of-state students. We find that public universities set lower minimum admission standards for in-state than out-of-state applicants, presumably in response to state pressure, while private universities treat both groups equally. However, we also find that favoring in-state applicants goes against states' long-term financial interest. This is because marginal out-of-state students pay higher tuition than marginal in-state students, pay more in future state taxes, and are equally influenced in whether they locate in the state after graduation by attending public university there.
This paper examines the effects of Georgia's merit-based HOPE Scholarship on college enrollment. Introduced in 1993, the HOPE Scholarship covers tuition, fees, and book expenses for students attending Georgia public colleges, and provides a subsidy of comparable value to students attending in-state private colleges, without any income restrictions. Treating HOPE as a natural experiment, we contrast college enrollment in Georgia with those in the other member states of the Southern Regional Educational Board using IPEDS data for the period 1988-97. We estimate that the HOPE increased total freshmen enrollment by 5.9 percent, with the gains concentrated in 4-year schools. For freshmen recently graduated from high school attending 4-year colleges, two-thirds of the program effect is explained by a decrease in students leaving the state. Both white and black enrollments increased because of HOPE, with the state's historically-black institutions playing an important role. Finally, the total HOPE-induced enrollment increase represents only 15 percent freshmen scholarship recipients.
The federal government and the states have recently enacted a slew of aid policies aimed at college students from middle- and high-income families. I estimate the impact of aid on the college attendance of middle- and upper-income youth by evaluating Georgia's HOPE Scholarship, the inspiration of the new federal Hope Scholarship. The results suggest that Georgia's program has had a surprisingly large impact on the college attendance rate of middle- and high-income youth. Using a set of nearby states as a control group, I find that Georgia's program has likely increased the college attendance rate of all 18- to 19-year-olds by 7.0 to 7.9 percentage points. The results suggest that each $1,000 in aid ($1998) increased the college attendance rate in Georgia by 3.7 to 4.2 percentage points. Due to key differences between the federal and Georgia programs, these estimates should be treated as a generous upper bound on the predicted effect of the federal Hope Scholarship. Further, the evidence suggests that Georgia's program has widened the gap in college attendance between blacks and whites and between those from low- and high-income families. The federal Hope Scholarship, should it have its intended effect on middle- and upper-income attendance, will also widen already large racial and income gaps in college attendance in the US.
This paper presents theoretical and empirical evidence demonstrating the ways in which" the changing market structure of American higher education from 1940 to the present affected" college prices and college quality. Over this period, the market for baccalaureate education" became significantly more competitive, as it was transformed from a collection of local autarkies" to a nationally integrated market. I demonstrate that the results of increased competition were" what industrial organization models (with product differentiation and students being both" consumers of and inputs into higher education) would predict: higher average college quality and" tuitions, greater between-college variation in tuition, greater between-college variation in student" quality, less within-college variation in student quality, higher average subsidies to students greater between-college variation in subsidies. Changing market structure can explain real" tuition increases of approximately 50 percent for selective private colleges. Panel data from" 1940 to 1991 on 1121 baccalaureate-granting colleges are employed, including data on students'" home residences.
The question of this analysis is how the production of college graduates at the state level affects the stock of college-educated workers in the state. The potential mobility of skilled workers implies that the number of college students graduating in an area need not affect the number of college graduates living in the area. However, the production of relatively large numbers of college graduates in a state may lead to increases in the employment of university-trained manpower if industries expand production of goods and services that use college-educated workers intensively. We find at best only a modest link between the production and stock of baccalaureate degree recipients.
Enrollment eeects of merit aid: evidence from Georgia's HOPE Scholarship program. Working Paper
- C M Cornwell
- D B Mustard
- D J Sridhar
Cornwell, C.M., Mustard, D.B., Sridhar, D.J., 2002. Enrollment eeects of merit aid: evidence from Georgia's HOPE Scholarship program. Working Paper, University of Georgia.
Musical chairs in higher education: incentive effects of a merit-based state scholarship program
- M Binder
- P T Ganderton
Binder, M., Ganderton, P.T., 2002. Musical chairs in higher education: incentive eeects of a merit-based state scholarship program. Working Paper, University of New Mexico.
Beneÿts, Costs, and Finance of Public Higher Education How the changing market structure of U.S. higher education explains college tuition
- W L Hansen
- B A Weisbrod
Hansen, W.L., Weisbrod, B.A., 1969. Beneÿts, Costs, and Finance of Public Higher Education. Markham Publishing Company, Chicago. Hoxby, C.M., 1997. How the changing market structure of U.S. higher education explains college tuition. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6323.
More states try to stanch ‘brain drains,’ but some experts question the strategy
- P Schmidt
Schmidt, P., 1998. More states try to stanch 'brain drains,' but some experts question the strategy. Chronicle of Higher Education, 20 February, A36.
Merit Scholarships. Education Commission of the States
- C Krueger
Krueger, C., 2001. Merit Scholarships. Education Commission of the States, Denver, Colorado.
Fall Enrollment Survey [computer file
________, 1996. Fall Enrollment Survey [computer file].
National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 [computer file] (National Opinion Research Center
________, 1999. National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 [computer file]
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Political and Social Research, Ann Arbor, Mich. [distributor]).
Residence of First-Time Students [computer file
________, 1988. Residence of First-Time Students [computer file].