The effect of bicycle seat height variation upon oxygen consumption and lower limb kinematics

The effect of saddle height on pedalling mechanical efficiency during cycling

Article

Apr 2025

The Effect of Unequal Crank Arm Lengths and Cycling-Specific Prostheses for Recreational Riders with a Transtibial Amputation

Article

May 2024
MED SCI SPORT EXER

Recreational cyclists with a transtibial amputation (TTA) exhibit kinematic and kinetic asymmetries between their biological and affected legs, which may worsen efficiency. Use of unequal crank arm lengths and/or a cycling-specific prosthesis (CSP) could reduce mechanical asymmetries and improve efficiency. Purpose We determined the effects of shorter affected side crank arm lengths and cycling with two different prostheses on joint and crank power, asymmetry, and net efficiency. Methods 12 participants with a TTA rode at 1.5 W·kg ⁻¹ with equal (175 mm) and shorter affected side crank arms (160, 165, 170 mm) using a daily-use prosthesis and CSP. We used statistical parametric mapping to determine differences in instantaneous joint and crank power between prostheses, and linear mixed-effects models to compare average joint and crank power, asymmetry, and net efficiency. Results Shorter affected side crank arm lengths reduced the magnitude of peak positive (p ≤ 0.001) and negative (p < 0.001) crank power on the affected side. Use of a CSP increased the magnitude of peak positive knee power (p < 0.001) and decreased the magnitude of peak negative crank power (p < 0.001) on the affected side compared to a daily-use prosthesis. Shorter affected side crank arm lengths while using a CSP reduced average hip joint (p = 0.014) and hip transfer (p = 0.025) power asymmetry from 35% to 20% and 118% to 62%, respectively. However, we found no significant differences in affected side average joint or crank power, knee joint or crank power asymmetry, or net efficiency. Conclusions Cycling at 1.5 W·kg ⁻¹ with unequal crank arm lengths and CSPs improves hip joint power and hip transfer power asymmetry but does not alter crank asymmetry or net efficiency for recreational cyclists with a TTA.

Mindful Compassion and Psychological Flexibility Based Interventions to Sport Performance (Chapter 8).

Chapter

Jun 2020

Influence of Sex on Current Methods of Adjusting Saddle Height in Indoor Cycling

Article

Jul 2018

The popularity of indoor cycling has increased in fitness centers, and therefore, proper bike fitting is important to avoid biomechanical-related injuries. However, no previous studies have compared the biomechanical kinematics of various existing protocols of saddle-height adjustment in indoor cycling. Furthermore, it was not clear if these protocols were appropriate for both men and women, as these equations were primarily obtained in male cyclists. Therefore, lower-limb joint kinematics were compared among 4 different protocols of saddle-height adjustment (1-Preferred, 2-Ferrer-Roca et al., 3-Lemond & Guimard, and 4-Static Goniometry) in 30 experienced indoor-cycling participants (15 men and 15 women). Only 20–33% of the women had a knee extension while pedaling within the recommended range for each of the different protocols except for the preferred adjustment (73% were within). By contrast, all the protocols were moderately suitable for men (47–60% were within the recommended range). A multiple linear equation to estimate the recommended saddle height in both men and women (R 2 = 0.917, p = 0.001) was obtained from the following variables: inseam length, stature, foot length, and knee angle. The differences in the findings between men and women may be partially explained by differences in anatomical structures, as well as the male-based equations, which argues the need for future investigations in female cyclists.

Comparación de diferentes métodos de ajuste de la bicicleta en ciclistas entrenados: influencia de factores biomecánicos y energéticos. Comparison of different methods to adjust the bicycle in trained cyclists: influence of biomechanical and energetic factors

Book

Full-text available

Apr 2017

RESUMEN. En el ciclismo de ruta de alto nivel, pequeños detalles pueden definir el resultado final. Además, el margen en las modificaciones que se pueden realizar en la configuración de la bicicleta a este nivel es muy estrecho. Hasta la fecha, en la literatura, se ha demostrado que cambios amplios en el reglaje de la bicicleta pueden afectar a la cadena cinética y a la eficiencia de pedaleo. Pero sin embargo, no queda claro, si pequeños ajustes de factores como la altura del sillín o la longitud de la biela, asumibles por ciclistas de alto nivel, realmente afectan a la biomecánica y la eficiencia de pedaleo. Para intentar dar respuesta a estas cuestiones, la presente Tesis Doctoral ha propuesto los siguientes objetivos, desarrollados a través de cuatro estudios: 1- comprobar si el ajuste de la altura del sillín a partir del método antropométrico asegura un pedaleo dentro del rango articular recomendado (método de goniometría dinámica), 2- comparar los métodos de goniometría estática y goniometría dinámica para ajustar la altura del sillín y analizar si las posibles diferencias entre métodos dependen de la altura relativa del sillín 3- evaluar si pequeños cambios de la altura del sillín afectan a la cinemática y a la eficiencia de pedaleo, 4- comprobar los efectos de pequeños cambios en la longitud de biela en la biomecánica y en la eficiencia de pedaleo. En el primer estudio en el que participaron 23 ciclistas de alto nivel del mismo equipo, se demostró que el método antropométrico (106-109% de la longitud de entrepierna) no asegura un ángulo de flexión de rodilla óptimo (30-40º) durante el pedaleo (método de goniometría dinámica). De hecho, más de la mitad de los ciclistas (56.5%) estaban fuera del rango antropométrico recomendado. Probablemente, esta discrepancia se debió a que la mayoría de estudios que predicen la altura relativa del sillín a partir de la longitud de la entrepierna utilizaron mayormente los pedales con rastrales en vez de los utilizados en la actualidad, principalmente pedales automáticos. Además, se propuso una ecuación novedosa (HS = 22.1 + (0.896 · LE) – (0.15 · AR)) que relaciona la longitud de la entrepierna (LE) con el ángulo de flexión de rodilla (AR) durante el pedaleo para ajustar una altura de sillín óptima (HS), utilizando pedales automáticos. En un segundo estudio, realizado con 13 ciclistas entrenados, se observó que el método de goniometría estática (25-35º de flexión de rodilla) subestimaba la flexión de rodilla (9-12º), la flexión de cadera (4-7º) y la flexión plantar del tobillo (7-13º). Además, se constató que las diferencias encontradas entre el método de goniometría estática y el método de goniometría dinámica son dependientes de la altura del sillín, fundamentalmente en las articulaciones de la rodilla y el tobillo. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la utilización del método de goniometría estática podría llevar a interpretaciones erróneas sobre el grado de elongación de la musculatura implicada durante el pedaleo. Por lo tanto, para asegurar un rango de movimiento articular óptimo se recomienda el método de goniometría dinámica, basado en el análisis 2D de la extremidad inferior durante el pedaleo, que hoy en día, se puede realizar a bajo coste (cámaras de vídeo de alta velocidad y software libre). En el tercer estudio de esta Tesis Doctoral participaron 14 ciclistas entrenados a los que se les modificó aleatoriamente su altura del sillín habitual (± 2%) pedaleando a una intensidad submáxima (70-75% del VO2max) y a cadencia fija (~90 rpm). Se demostró que pequeños cambios en la altura del sillín afectaron más a la cinemática de la extremidad inferior que a la eficiencia de pedaleo. Las diferencias entre la menor y mayor altura del sillín para la cadera, rodilla y tobillo fueron de 4, 7 y 8º de mayor extensión, 3, 4 y 4º de menor flexión, y 1, 3 y 4º de mayor rango de movimiento, respectivamente. También se observaron cambios en la eficiencia de pedaleo, si bien fue necesario modificar un 4% la altura del sillín (comparación entre la posición más baja y más alta de sillín) para detectarlos. Por lo tanto, los cambios cinemáticos justificaron, sólo en parte, los cambios en eficiencia de pedaleo. Finalmente, en el cuarto estudio, se analizó a 12 ciclistas de ruta entrenados, pedaleando a intensidad submáxima (150, 200 y 250 W) y a una cadencia de pedaleo fija (~90 rpm) para comprobar los efectos de pequeñas variaciones aleatorias (± 5 mm) de la longitud preferida de biela. Se registraron simultáneamente la cinemática y cinética del pedaleo, así como la eficiencia. Una longitud de biela mayor produjo cambios significativos en la cantidad de impulso (0.9-1.9% mayor) que los ciclistas debían realizar para pedalear, lo que se debió a un mayor torque de pedaleo máximo (1.0-2.3 N·m) y mínimo (1.0-2.2 N·m). Al mismo tiempo, aumentó la flexión y el rango de movimiento en las articulaciones de la cadera y la rodilla (1.8-3.4º) sin cambios en el tobillo. La longitud de la biela no afectó al gasto metabólico del pedaleo (frecuencia cardiaca y eficiencia de pedaleo), posiblemente porque los cambios cinemáticos y cinéticos fueron demasiado pequeños para detectarlos. La realización de esta Tesis Doctoral ha permitido extraer las siguientes conclusiones generales: 1- los métodos estáticos podrían ser utilizados como un primer ajuste de la altura óptima del sillín, teniendo en cuenta las nuevas ecuaciones o correcciones propuestas, pero deberían ir seguidos de un análisis de goniometría dinámica para garantizar una correcta cinemática de pedaleo, 2- pequeñas variaciones en la altura del sillín y en la longitud de la biela producen cambios importantes en la biomecánica del pedaleo, que explican en parte los cambios metabólicos observados, si bien estos últimos son menos sensibles a las modificaciones efectuadas ABSTRACT The performance in road cycling depends on several factors such as physiology (VO2Max, intensity, pedalling efficiency, fatigue, age, gender), environment (air-wind, atmospheric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, and the slope of the terrain) psychology, (self-talk, focus and teleoanticipation), training (strength, endurance, altitude training, heat acclimation, technique and tapering), nutrition (competitive nutritional strategy) and biomechanics (resistive forces, propulsive forces, pedalling kinematics and bicycle set-up). Although, the actual influence of some of these factors is still unknown, some studies have demonstrated the influence of proper bicycle configuration on aerodynamic drag, muscular coordinative pattern, pedal forces profile and, consequently, on energy expenditure. Saddle height and crank length are key factors in the lower limb kinetic change thus can contribute significantly on pedalling efficiency. There is some controversy in the specific cycling literature concerning the optimal method to adjust saddle height. Anthropometric references (e.g. 106-109% of the inseam length) laid down on 70’s or 80’s (when toe-clip were mainly used) are still used today. The static goniometric method (cyclists should achieve a knee angle of 25-35º with the pedal located at the bottom dead centre) has been recommended in order to improve the anthropometric one. Furthermore, it has become increasingly frequent in recent years to use the dynamic goniometric method (2d analysis during pedalling), thanks to the introduction of new technologies. In this method, cyclists should achieve a knee flexion angle of 30-40º during pedalling) with the aim of optimizing muscle length and the lever arm, which vary with saddle height changes. In high-level cycling, small details can determine the final result. Moreover, at that level, the bicycle set-up is difficult to handle because the narrow range for possible modifications. To date, some studies have demonstrated the effect of wide changes in bicycle configuration on pedalling efficiency. However, the influence of small changes in factors such as saddle height or crank length remains unclear. The present Thesis would try to explain these issues by the following aims, addressed in four chapters: 1.- Verify if the anthropometric method (adjusting saddle height from 106% to 109% of the inseam length) ensure an optimal knee angle while pedalling (dynamic method), 2- Compare the static and dynamic goniometric methods in order to adjust the saddle height and analyse if the differences between methods are dependent of the relative saddle height, 3-evaluate the acute effects of small changes in saddle height on gross efficiency and lower-limb kinematics in well-trained cyclists, 4-analyse the acute effects of small changes in crank length on the energy cost of cycling and pedalling technique (kinetic and kinematic profiles) during submaximal pedalling Twenty three high-level male cyclists of the same team participated in the first study. Results support the view that adjusting saddle height from 106% to 109% of the inseam length (anthropometric method) does not ensure an optimal knee flexion angle (30-40º) while pedalling, because these references could be valid only to toe-clip pedals instead of clipless pedals. In fact, more than the half of the cyclists (56.5%) worked out with excessive knee flexion. Furthermore, a novel algorithm was proposed (SH = 22.1 + (0.896 · E) – (0.15 · KA)) that relates the inseam length (E) and the recommended knee angle while pedalling (KA) to set an optimal saddle height (SH) using the clip-less pedals. Thirteen well-trained cyclists participated in the second study. Static goniometric method (knee flexion angle of 25-35º) underestimated knee flexion (9-12º), hip flexion (4-7º) and plantar-flexion of the ankle (7-13º) compared with the dynamic method. In addition, the differences between both methods are dependent on the relative saddle height, mainly on knee and ankle joints. These findings suggest that using the static goniometric method could lead to misinterpretation of the muscle length of the main muscles involved during cycling. Therefore, dynamic method is recommended instead of the static one, in order to ensure an optimal range of motion of the lower limb during pedalling. Furthermore, two-dimensional video analysis should be considered a useful tool to determine the kinematics of the cyclists, because it has a high correspondence with the three-dimensional analysis in the sagittal plane, is easy to use, and free software is available. Fourteen well-trained cyclists participated in the third study of this Thesis. They performed a submaximal pedalling test (~70-75% of the VO2max) at constant cadence (90 rpm).consisted on three randomized sets of 6 min with the preferred saddle height, 2% higher and 2% lower. The results of this study add to a growing body of literature that shows that changes in saddle height have acute effects on gross efficiency and on lower limb kinematics during pedalling. Raising the saddle height increased hip and knee joints extension and ankle plantarflexion (∼4, 7 y 8º, respectively) more than the decrease in hip and knee joints flexion and ankle dorsiflexion (∼3, 4 y 4º, respectively). Consequently the range of movement also increased (∼1, 3 y 4º, respectively). Furthermore, gross efficiency changed significantly when lowering the saddle 4% from the higher to the lower position. Therefore, kinematic changes justified only part of the changes in pedalling efficiency. Finally, twelve road cyclists participated in the fourth study. The cyclists performed three sets of three submaximal pedalling repetitions (150, 200 and 250 W) at a constant cadence (~90 rpm) in order to analyse the effect of randomized changes in preferred crank length (± 5 mm) on physiological (energy cost of pedalling) and biomechanical variables (kinematic and kinetic profiles). A longer crank slightly increased both maximum torque during the downstroke (1.0-2.3 N·m) and minimum torque during the upstroke, (1.0-2.2 N·m) decreasing the positive impulse proportion (0.9-1.9%). Moreover, the flexion and the range of motion of both hip and knee increased (1.8-3.4º), while the ankle joint was not affected. A longer crank did not produce significant changes in the energy cost of cycling. Therefore, kinematic and kinetic changes due to a longer crank were not significant enough to alter the pedalling efficiency. The results of the present Thesis allow to draw the following conclusions: 1- static methods could be used as a first adjustment of saddle height, taking into account the new equation or the corrections proposed. The dynamic method should be introduced after the static evaluation to ensure a proper range of motion of the lower limb; 2- small changes in saddle height and in crank length produce significant changes on pedalling biomechanics that probably explain part of the metabolic changes. Likewise, pedalling efficiency is less sensitive to changes made.

Kinetics and Pedaling Technique

Chapter

Feb 2014

Improving the interaction between cyclists and their bicycles is a key issue to enhance performance. The reason for that is linked to the optimal use of force applied from cyclists at the pedals, handlebars and saddle in order to improve bicycle speed at the minimum possible energy cost.

Joint Kinematics

Chapter

Feb 2014

Motion analysis involves detecting the position of joints and segments in a global coordinate system, which enables the assessment of translations and rotations. Exclusive analysis of motion does not take into account forces acting on the body and interactions to varying systems (e.g., bicycle components). In biomechanics, the most common approach for motion analysis is by filming subjects performing a given motion and tracking segments and joints throughout various frames. For that purpose, reference markers are attached to the skin at anatomical sites related to joint coordinate systems. Tracking these markers throughout motion is important to assess changes in segment and joint motion during a given task.

Ventilatory Thresholds in Arm and Leg Exercises with Spontaneously Chosen Crank and Pedal Rates

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002
PERCEPT MOTOR SKILL

The present study assessed whether the first and the second ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) were dependent on the muscle groups solicited when spontaneously chosen crank and pedal rates are used. 20 physical education male students (22 ± 2.2 yr.) performed two maximal incremental tests randomly assigned using an increment of 15 and 30 W every minute for arm and leg exercises, respectively. These tests were used to measure the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and to identify VT1 and VT2. The absolute oxygen uptake (VO2) values measured at VT1, VT2, and at maximal workload were significantly (p<.05) lower during arm and leg exercises. However, VT1 and VT2 expressed in percent of VO2 max were not significantly different between arm and leg exercises (54.1 ± 8.2 vs 57.2 ± 11.4%; and 82.5 ± 6.4 vs 84.6 ± 5.1% at VT1 and VT2, respectively). In addition, at the two thresholds, none of the variables measured during arm and leg exercises were significantly correlated with the exception of spontaneously chosen crank and pedal rates (p<.01; r=.75 and r=.69 for VT1 and VT2, respectively). Probably due to the different training status and skill level, no extrapolation can be made to specify the arm thresholds from the leg. These results underline the need to specify the ventilatory thresholds from specific arm ergometer measures obtained from tests performed with spontaneously chosen crank and pedal rates and, thus, close to sport and recreational activities, when they are used for training and rehabilitation programs.

OTTIMIZZAZIONE DELLA POSIZIONE IN SELLA NEL CICLISMO SU STRADA

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Mattia Santangelo

Bike fitting review. Study of the Cycling position and the settings of handlebar, saddle and clips. In italian.

The Effect of Handlebar Height and Bicycle Frame Length on Muscular Activity during Cycling: A Pilot Study

Article

Full-text available

May 2022
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

The cycling literature is filled with reports of electromyography (EMG) analyses for a better understanding of muscle function during cycling. This research is not just limited to performance, as the cyclist’s goal may be rehabilitation, recreation, or competition, so a bicycle that meets the rider’s needs is essential for a more efficient muscular activity. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to understand the contribution of the activity of each of the following muscles: TD (trapezius descending), LD (latissimus dorsi), GM (gluteus maximus), and AD (anterior deltoid) in response to different bicycle-rider systems (handlebar height; bicycle frame length) and intensities in a bicycle equipped with a potentiometer. Surface EMG signals from muscles on the right side of the body were measured. A general linear model test was used to analyze the differences between muscle activation in the test conditions. Effect sizes were calculated using a partial Eta2 (η2). The level of significance was set at 0.05. Muscle activation of different muscles differs, depending on the cycling condition (Pillai’s trace = 2.487; F (36.69) = 9.300; p < 0.001. η2 = 0.958), mostly during low intensities. In high intensities, one specific pattern emerges, with a greater contribution of GM and TD and weaker participation of LD and AD, enhancing the cycling power output

Anthropometrics, flexibility and training history as determinants for bicycle configuration

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

Intrinsic factors such as leg length, arm length, flexibility and training history are factors that may be relevant to optimisation of the individual bicycle configuration process. Bike fitting methods do not always take all these variables into account, and as yet there have been limited studies examining how these variables can affect the cyclist’s position on the bicycle. The main aims of this study were to establish how individual anthropometrics, training history and flexibility may influence cyclists’ freely chosen bicycle configuration, and to determine the full body static flexion angles chosen by cyclists on the bicycle. Fifty well-trained male cyclists were recruited for the study. A multivariate linear regression analysis was preformed to predict the four main configurations of a bicycle (saddle height, saddle setback, handlebar reach and handlebar drop) based on individual anthropometrics, flexibility and training history. Average joint kinematic ranges for the knee (36±7º) and elbow (19±8º) joint supported previous recommendations. Hip (77±5º) and shoulder (112±7º) joint angles should be determined as true clinical joints. Trochanteric leg length (p<0.01), Knee Extension Angle test (p<0.01) and mSchober test (p=0.04) were significant predictors for determining saddle height. Hamstring flexibility can be used to predict handlebar drop (p=0.01). A cyclist who wishes to adopt a more aerodynamic position with an increased handlebar drop should aim to improve their hamstring flexibility.

Comparison of static and dynamic methods based on knee kinematics to determine optimal saddle height in cycling

Article

Jan 2019
Acta Bioeng Biomech

Purpose: Bike-fitting methods based on knee kinematics have been proposed to determine optimal saddle height. The Holmes method recommends that knee angle be between 25° and 35° when the pedal is at bottom dead centre in static. Other authors advocate knee angle of 30-40° during maximum knee extension while pedalling. Although knee angle would be 5-10° greater at bottom dead centre during pedalling, no study has reported reference values in this condition. The purpose of this study was to compare these three methodologies on knee, hip, and ankle angles and to develop new dynamic reference range at bottom dead centre. Methods: Twenty-six cyclists volunteered for this experiment and performed a pedalling test on their personal road or mountain bike. Knee, hip, and ankle angles were assessed by two-dimensional video analysis. Results: Dynamic knee angle was 8° significantly greater than static knee angle when the pedal was at bottom dead centre. Moreover, dynamic knee angle with the pedal at bottom dead centre was 3° significantly greater than dynamic knee angle during maximum knee extension. The chosen methodology also significantly impacted hip and ankle angles under most conditions. Conclusions: The results allow us to suggest a new range of 33-43° when the pedal is at bottom dead centre during pedalling. Thus, this study defines clearly the different ranges to determine optimal saddle height in cycling according to the condition of measurement. These findings are important for researchers and bike-fitting professionals to avoid saddle height adjustment errors that can affect cyclists' health and performance.

Effect of seat tube angle and crank arm length on metabolic and neuromuscular responses and lower extremity joint kinematics during pedaling with a relatively lower seat height

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020
EUR J APPL PHYSIOL

Kohei Watanabe

Purpose The effects of the seat tube angle and crank arm length on metabolic responses, neuromuscular activation, and lower extremity joint kinematics were investigated during bicycling with a relatively lower seat height usually used for daily life. Methods Eleven young males performed bicycling on ergometer with various seat tube angles (60°, 65°, and 70°) and crank arm lengths (127, 140, 152, and 165 mm). Oxygen consumption was measured with electromyography of the knee extensor muscle, and hip, knee, and ankle joint angles. The seat height was set as the shorter than subject’s trochanter height, because this study simulates pedaling a bicycle in daily life on public roads. Results Significantly higher oxygen consumption was noted with a 70° of seat tube angle on comparison with a 65° of seat tube angle (p < 0.05). There were no significant effects of the crank arm length on oxygen consumption (p > 0.05). Conclusions From these results, the present study suggests that a shallower seat angle could help to decrease the physiological burden during bicycling with a relatively lower seat height.

Comparison of two static methods of saddle height adjustment for cyclists of different morphologies

Article

Jan 2019

Methods based on inseam length (IL) for saddle height adjustment in cycling are frequently employed. However, these methods were designed for medium-sized people. The aim of this study was to evaluate knee angle during pedalling by 2D video analysis and perceived comfort using a subjective scale under three saddle height conditions: (1) self-selected saddle height, (2) Genzling method (0.885 × IL) and (3) Hamley method (1.09 × IL minus crank arm length). Twenty-six cyclists of heterogeneous morphology were recruited. Three groups were determined based on IL: Short (IL < 0.8 m), Medium (0.8 m < IL< 0.88 m) and Long (IL > 0.8 m). The results showed that Medium and Long IL groups usually rode with saddle heights allowing knee angles consistent with those previously shown to prevent injuries (30°–40°). However, Short IL group, who were all children, self-selected a too low saddle height (knee angle was too large). Genzling and Hamley methods gave identical results for Medium IL group, permitting knee angles in the range of 30°–40°. However, both methods caused important differences between Short and Long IL groups. Hamley method was more suitable for short ILs, while Genzling method was more suitable for long ILs. © 2019

Valoración Biomecánica I. En F. Jiménez y cols. (Eds.). “Medicina y Fisiología del Ciclismo. Ed. Federación Española de Medicina del Deporte. Nexus Médica Editores S.L. ISBN: 978-84-92568-03-1. Barcelona, 2009. Págs. 532-631.

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2009

Juan Garcia-Lopez

Effects of Age, Power Output, and Cadence on Energy Cost and Lower Limb Antagonist Muscle Co-Activation during Cycling

Article

May 2018

It is unknown if higher antagonist muscle co-activation is a factor contributing to higher energy cost of cycling in older adults. We determined how age, power output, and cadence affect metabolic cost and lower extremity antagonist muscle co-activation during submaximal cycling. Thirteen young and 12 older male cyclists completed 6-minute trials at four power output-cadence conditions (75W-60rpm, 75W-90rpm, 125W-60rpm, and 125W-90rpm) while electromyography (EMG) and oxygen consumption were measured. Knee and ankle co-activation indices were calculated using vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior EMG data. Net rate of energy cost of cycling was higher in older compared to young cyclists at 125W (p=0.002) and at 90rpm (p=0.026). No age-related differences were observed in the magnitude or duration of co-activation about the knee or ankle (p>0.05). Our results indicated knee and ankle co-activation is not a substantive factor contributing to higher energy cost of cycling in older adults.

Effet de la posture sur la performance et la prévention des blessures en cyclisme. Apport de la modélisation musculo-squelettique

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2016

Mathieu Ménard

Efeitos das mudanças na altura do selim, cadência de pedalada e carga de trabalho sobre a cinemática articular

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2008

Rpe Responses during Arm and Leg Exercises: Effect of Variations in Spontaneously Chosen Crank Rate

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2001
PERCEPT MOTOR SKILL

The aim of this study was two-fold. First, the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was compared between two different upper and lower body exercises. Subjects (n =12) performed with spontaneously chosen crank or pedal rates: (i) incremental maximum power tests (Test 1), with an initial work rate of 50% of maximal power followed by increases of 10% at each 120-sec. work stage and (ii) tests (Test 2) with exercise bouts set at 20, 40, 60, and 80% of maximal power separated by passive recovery periods. Second, the effects of variations in spontaneously chosen crank rate on RPE was analysed using the second test performed only with upper body. Subjects performed Test 2 three times with crank rates spontaneously chosen by the subjects, set at plus or minus 20% of spontaneously chosen crank rate. During both Tests 1 and 2 for upper or lower body, RPE increased linearly (p<.01) with power output. No significant difference was noticed between upper and lower body tests; however, RPE was significantly different (p<.05) between Test 1 results for upper and lower body at 70, 80, 90, and 100% of maximal power. The greater RPE at high power output could be linked to the important effect of fatigue during upper body exercise. Among the three crank-rate conditions, no significant difference in RPE was noticed. The choice of crank rate does not seem to influence the perception of exertion in upper body cycling exercise.

Effects of workload and saddle height on muscle activation of the lower limb during cycling

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024
BIOMED ENG ONLINE

Background Cycling workload is an essential factor in practical cycling training. Saddle height is the most studied topic in bike fitting, but the results are controversial. This study aims to investigate the effects of workload and saddle height on the activation level and coordination of the lower limb muscles during cycling. Methods Eighteen healthy male participants with recreational cycling experience performed 15 × 2-min constant cadence cycling at five saddle heights of 95%, 97%, 100%, 103%, and 105% of greater trochanter height (GTH) and three cycling workloads of 25%, 50%, and 75% of functional threshold power (FTP). The EMG signals of the rectus femoris (RF), tibialis anterior (TA), biceps femoris (BF), and medial gastrocnemius (MG) of the right lower limb were collected throughout the experiment. Results Greater muscle activation was observed for the RF and BF at a higher cycling workload, whereas no differences were observed for the TA and MG. The MG showed intensified muscle activation as the saddle height increased. The mean and maximum amplitudes of the EMG signals of the MG increased by 56.24% and 57.24% at the 25% FTP workload, 102.71% and 126.95% at the 50% FTP workload, and 84.27% and 53.81% at the 75% FTP workload, respectively, when the saddle height increased from 95 to 100% of the GTH. The muscle activation level of the RF was minimal at 100% GTH saddle height. The onset and offset timing revealed few significant differences across cycling conditions. Conclusions Muscle activation of the RF and BF was affected by cycling workload, while that of the MG was affected by saddle height. The 100% GTH is probably the appropriate saddle height for most cyclists. There was little statistical difference in muscle activation duration, which might be related to the small workload.

Influence de l’efficience neuronale et des mécanismes perceptifs sur les sensations perçues par le cycliste pendant l’effort

Thesis

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Scholler Victor

Les études conduites au cours de ce travail de thèse ont permis de décrire les mécanismes perceptifs mis en place par le cycliste pendant ! 'exercice responsables des sensations qu'il ressent. Nos recherches ont été séparées en deux axes: 1) l'influence de l'efficience neuronale sur la perception de l'effort (PE) et 2) les mécanismes perceptifs influençant les sensations liées à l'utilisation du matériel La première partie de la thèse a mis en avant le rôle de l'efficience neuronale sur la PE du cycliste. Ce mécanisme décrit la capacité à adopter une activité cognitive efficace pour traiter les signaux sensitifs générés pendant l'exercice. En effet, pendant un scénario de course, l'efficience neuronale augmentait lorsque la zone d'intensité (Zl) basé sur la PE (échelle ESIE) s'élevait (+76 % à ZI 6 comparé à ZI 2). De plus, l'augmentation de l'efficience neuronale avec l'intensité de l'effort expliquerait en partie l'amélioration de la précision de l'effort produit sur la base de la PE lorsque la ZI augmente (-70 % de %PO à ZI 6 comparé à ZI 3). Ainsi, avec 1' augmentation de ! 'intensité de ! 'effort, les cyclistes optimiseraient les traitements cognitif, sensorimoteur et moteur afin de pouvoir gérer les signaux sensitifs. En revanche, l'efficience neuronale semble être une capacité intrinsèque déterminante sur la capacité du cycliste à produire précisément un effort à ZI 4 et ZI 5. Enfin, l'efficience neuronale diminuerait à la suite d'un CLM, cet exercice requérant une activité cognitive importante. Les études montrent qu'il semble pertinent de mesurer l'efficience neuronale des cyclistes pendant la pratique et de l'améliorer pour optimiser la gestion de l'effort et la performance réalisée. La seconde partie de la thèse identifie certains mécanismes perceptifs responsables des sensations perçues par le cycliste concernant le matériel utilisé. La capacité extéroceptive mesurée sur le muscle gl uteus maximus expliquerait 53 % de la précision du cycliste à évaluer le confort d'assise. Par ailleurs, nos travaux montrent que le confort d'assise serait amélioré lorsque la stabilité du bassin est meilleure. Pour cela, les forces de cisaillement dans la direction latéro-médiale et antéro-postérieure doivent être minimisées, et les pics de pression des ischions sur la selle doivent être augmentés. Par ailleurs, la capacité proprioceptive du genou à un angle de pédale de 135 ° expliquerait 67 % de la précision du cycliste à percevoir une modification de la hauteur de selie. Enfin, le cycliste doit évacuer la chaleur par sudation et convection afin d'éviter une élévation de la température renseignée par les thermorécepteurs ce qui provoquerait une mauvaise sensation thermique (ST). Certaines caractéristiques de la tenue comme la composition, l'épaisseur et la masse relative détermineraient les propriétés à évacuer la chaleur. En effet, la capacité de la tenue à évacuer la chaleur expliquerait 64 % des sensations thermiques ressenties par le cycliste pendant un effort modéré (EPE CRl O de 4) en conditions chaude (33 °C) et humide (70 ¾RH). Les échanges locaux de chaleur, notamment au niveau de l'abdomen et du bas du dos influenceraient également les sensations thermiques (TS).

ACUTE EFFECTS OF SMALL CHANGES IN BICYCLE SADDLE HEIGHT ON PEDALLING COORDINATION

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jul 2022

The purpose of this study was to analyse the acute effects of small changes in bicycle saddle height on pedalling coordination, using vector coding analysis. Lower extremity kinematic data were collected from ten well-trained cyclists while they pedalled at three different saddle heights in random order: preferred, 2% higher and 2% lower than preferred position. A modified vector coding technique and circular statistics were used to quantify coordination for selected hip-knee, hip-ankle, and knee-ankle joint couplings. The results indicate that modifications in saddle height produced moderate alterations in the frequency of movement patterns, which were not enough to alter the classification of coordination. The small modifications observed were in the direction of increasing the frequency of the proximal coordinative pattern as the saddle height decreased.

The effect of changes in saddle height on coordination and its variability during pedalling cycle

Article

Jun 2025

Modifications in saddle height affect the range of movement of the lower limb's joints during pedalling. Although its effect on movement patterns is poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to analyse the acute effects of small changes in bicycle saddle height on pedalling coordination and its variability. Lower extremity kinematic data were collected in random order for ten well-trained cyclists while pedalling at three different saddle heights: preferred, 2% higher and 2% lower than preferred position. A dynamical systems approach was used to quantify the coordination and its variability for selected joint couplings. Modifications in saddle height produced large changes in the frequency of movement patterns, although they were not enough to alter the coordination classification. Lowering the saddle height increased the frequency of the proximal coordinative hip-ankle pattern (F = 11.77, p < .01) and knee-ankle couplings (F = 14.39, p < .01), while decreasing inphase coordination (F > 11.03, p < .01) during the propulsive phase. Pedalling coordination variability was not affected, being greatest during the movement transitions and when the ankle joint was included in the coupling. This study demonstrated that pedalling pattern coordination and coordination variability were generally stable to acute small changes in saddle height in well-trained cyclists. Access up to 50 free copies of the article at the following link: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/U2TUDWTNZXSWFJ8BRG7R/full?target=10.1080/14763141.2022.2109510

Nose-down saddle tilt improves gross efficiency during seated-uphill cycling

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022
EUR J APPL PHYSIOL

Riding uphill presents a challenge to competitive and recreational cyclists. Based on only limited evidence, some scientists have reported that tilting the saddle nose down improves uphill-cycling efficiency by as much as 6%. Purpose: here, we investigated if simply tilting the saddle nose down increases efficiency during uphill cycling, which would presumably improve performance. Methods: nineteen healthy, recreational cyclists performed multiple 5 min trials of seated cycling at ~ 3 W kg-1 on a large, custom-built treadmill inclined to 8° under two saddle-tilt angle conditions: parallel to the riding surface and 8° nose down. We measured subjects' rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using an expired-gas analysis system and then calculated their average metabolic power during the last two min of each 5 min trial. Results: we found that, compared to the parallel-saddle condition, tilting the saddle nose down by 8° improved gross efficiency from 0.205 to 0.208-an average increase of 1.4% ± 0.2%, t = 5.9, p < 0.001, CI95% [0.9 to 1.9], dz = 1.3. Conclusion: our findings are relevant to competitive and recreational cyclists and present an opportunity for innovating new devices and saddle designs that enhance uphill-cycling efficiency. The effect of saddle tilt on other slopes and the mechanism behind the efficiency improvement remain to be investigated.

Modeling cycling performance: Effects of saddle position and cadence on cycle pedaling efficiency

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021
Sci Progr

The modeling method is an effective means of estimating causality as well as examining cycle pedaling efficiency. Pedaling efficiency can also be examined by an experimental method, but the experimental method can lead to contradictory results due to perturbation of the measured output parameters. Experimental studies generally yield realistic results, but it is difficult to control for all the variables of interest and to determine the causal relationships between them. The objective of this study is to investigate the pedaling efficiency and causality with considering saddle position and pedaling cadence as variables. Based on the mathematical pedaling modeling, the internal work calculation method was used to calculate the consumed mechanical energy and energy conservation percentage ([Formula: see text]). The optimal saddle position with the lowest mechanical energy and the highest energy conservation percentage could be changed by the cadence. At the low cadence, the higher saddle position, and the shorter horizontal distance between the saddle and crankshaft led to higher pedaling efficiency ( h: 0.95 m, d: 0.16 m, and knee angle: [Formula: see text]). However, the highest pedaling efficiency was achieved at the high cadence with a saddle height ( h) of 0.9 m and a horizontal distance between the saddle and the crankshaft ( d) of 0.06 m (knee angle: [Formula: see text]). The lowest cadence is the optimal cadence in terms of the consumed energy, but the optimal cadence was 90 r/min in terms of the energy conservation percentage. Compared to the energy consumption, the energy conservation percentage was demonstrated to influence the fatigue of a cycle rider more critically. The energy conservation percentage was highest at 90 r/min, and 90 r/min was close to the preferred cadence by the cyclist.

Equations to Prescribe Bicycle Saddle Height based on Desired Joint Kinematics and Bicycle Geometry: European Journal of Sport Science

Article

Mar 2021

Overuse knee injuries are common in bicycling and are often attributed to poor bicycle-fit. Bicycle-fit for knee health focuses on setting saddle height to elicit a minimum knee flexion angle of 25-40°. Equations to predict saddle height include a single input, resulting in a likely suboptimal bicycle-fit. The purpose of this work was to develop an equation to predict saddle height from anthropometrics, bicycle geometry, and user-defined joint kinematics. Methods Forty healthy adults (17 women, 23 men; mean (SD): 28.6 (7.2) years; 24.2 (2.6) kg/m²) participated. Kinematic analyses were conducted for 18 three-minute bicycling bouts including all combinations of 3 horizontal and 3 vertical saddle positions, and 2 crank arm lengths. For both minimum and maximum knee flexion, predictors were identified using Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression, and final models were fit using linear regression. Secondary analyses determined if saddle height equations were sex dependent. Results The equation to predict saddle position from minimum knee flexion angle (R²=0.97; root mean squared error (RMSE)=1.15 cm) was: Saddle height (cm) = 7.41 + 0.82(inseam cm) – 0.1(minimum knee flexion °) + 0.003(inseam cm)(seat tube angle °). The maximum knee flexion equation (R²=0.97; RMSE=1.15 cm) was: Saddle height (cm) = 41.63 + 0.78(inseam cm) – 0.25(maximum knee flexion °) + 0.002(inseam cm)(seat tube angle °). The saddle height equations were not dependent on sex. Conclusions These equations provide a novel, practical strategy for bicycle-fit that accounts for rider anthropometrics, bicycle geometry and user-defined kinematics.

Increased Q-Factor Increases Frontal-Plane Knee Joint Loading in Stationary Cycling

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

Objective Q-Factor (QF), or the inter-pedal width, in cycling is similar to step-width in gait. Although increased step-width has been shown to reduce peak knee abduction moment (KAbM), no studies have examined the biomechanical effects of increased QF in cycling at different workrates in healthy participants. Methods A total of 16 healthy participants (8 male, 8 female, age: 22.4 ± 2.6 years, body mass index: 22.78 ± 1.43 kg/m², mean ± SD) participated. A motion capture system and customized instrumented pedals were used to collect 3-dimensional kinematic (240 Hz) and pedal reaction force (PRF) (1200 Hz) data in 12 testing conditions: 4 QF conditions—Q1 (15.0 cm), Q2 (19.2 cm), Q3 (23.4 cm), and Q4 (27.6 cm)—under 3 workrate conditions—80 watts (W), 120 W, and 160 W. A 3 × 4 (QF × workrate) repeated measures of analysis of variance were performed to analyze differences among conditions (p < 0.05). Results Increased QF increased peak KAbM by 47%, 56%, and 56% from Q1 to Q4 at each respective workrate. Mediolateral PRF increased from Q1 to Q4 at each respective workrate. Frontal-plane knee angle and range of motion decreased with increased QF. No changes were observed for peak vertical PRF, knee extension moment, sagittal plane peak knee joint angles, or range of motion. Conclusion Increased QF increased peak KAbM, suggesting increased medial compartment loading of the knee. QF modulation may influence frontal-plane joint loading when using stationary cycling for exercise or rehabilitation purposes.

THE ROLE of a BIKE FIT in CYCLISTS with HIP PAIN. A CLINICAL COMMENTARY

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019
Int J Sports Phys Ther

Hip pathology is common amongst athletes and the general population. The mechanics of cycling have the potential to exacerbate symptomatic hip pathology and progress articular pathology in patients with morphologic risk factors such as femoroacetabular impingement. A professional fit of the bicycle to the individual which aims to optimize hip joint function can allow patients with hip pathology to exercise in comfort when alternative high impact exercise such as running may not be possible. Conversely improper fit of the bicycle can lead to hip symptoms in otherwise healthy individuals who present with risk factors for hip pain. Accordingly a bike fit can form part of the overall management strategy in a cyclist with hip symptoms. The purpose of this clinical commentary is to discuss hip pathomechanics with respect to cycling, bicycle fitting methodology and the options available to a physical therapist to optimize hip mechanics during the pedaling action.

Saddle Height and Cadence Effects on the Physiological, Perceptual, and Affective Responses of Recreational Cyclists

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2018
PERCEPT MOTOR SKILL

Saddle height influences cycling performance and would be expected to influence cyclists physically, perceptually, and emotionally. We investigated how different saddle positions and cadences might affect cyclists’ torque, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and affective responses (Feeling scale). Nine male recreational cyclists underwent cycling sessions on different days under different conditions with a constant load. On Day 1, the saddle was at the reference position (109% of the distance from the pubic symphysis to the ground), and on Days 2 and 3, the saddle was in the “upward position” (reference + 2.5%) and “downward position” (reference − 2.5%) in random order. Each session lasted 30 minutes and was divided into three cadence-varied 10-minute stages without interruption: (a) freely chosen cadence (FCC), (b) FCC − 20%, and (c) FCC + 20%. We assessed all dependent measures at the end of each 10 minute stage. While there was no significant interaction (Saddle × Cadence) for any of the analyzed variables, torque values were higher at lower cadences in all saddle configurations, and the FCC + 20% cadence was associated with faster heart rate, higher RPE, and lower affect compared with FCC and FCC − 20% in all saddle positions. At all cadences, the saddle at “downward position” generated a higher RPE compared with “reference position” and “upward position.” The affective response was lower in the “downward position” compared with the “reference position.” Thus, while cyclists perceived the downward (versus reference) saddle position as greater exercise effort, they also associated it with unpleasant affect.

Creatine-electrolyte supplementation improves repeated sprint cycling performance: A double blind randomized control study

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2018
Sports Nutr Rev J

Background: Creatine supplementation is recommended as an ergogenic aid to improve repeated sprint cycling performance. Furthermore, creatine uptake is increased in the presence of electrolytes. Prior research examining the effect of a creatine-electrolyte (CE) supplement on repeated sprint cycling performance, however, did not show post-supplementation improvement. The purpose of this double blind randomized control study was to investigate the effect of a six-week CE supplementation intervention on overall and repeated peak and mean power output during repeated cycling sprints with recovery periods of 2 min between sprints. Methods: Peak and mean power generated by 23 male recreational cyclists (CE group: n = 12; 24.0 ± 4.2 years; placebo (P) group: n = 11; 23.3 ± 3.1 years) were measured on a Velotron ergometer as they completed five 15-s cycling sprints, with 2 min of recovery between sprints, pre- and post-supplementation. Mixed-model ANOVAs were used for statistical analyses. Results: A supplement-time interaction showed a 4% increase in overall peak power (pre: 734 ± 75 W; post: 765 ± 71 W; p = 0.040; ηp2 = 0.187) and a 5% increase in overall mean power (pre: 586 ± 72 W; post: 615 ± 74 W; p = 0.019; ηp2 = 0.234) from pre- to post-supplementation for the CE group. For the P group, no differences were observed in overall peak (pre: 768 ± 95 W; post: 772 ± 108 W; p = 0.735) and overall mean power (pre: 638 ± 77 W; post: 643 ± 92 W; p = 0.435) from pre- to post-testing. For repeated sprint analysis, peak (pre: 737 ± 88 W; post: 767 ± 92 W; p = 0.002; ηp2 = 0.380) and mean (pre: 650 ± 92 W; post: 694 ± 87 W; p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.578) power output were significantly increased only in the first sprint effort in CE group from pre- to post-supplementation testing. For the P group, no differences were observed for repeated sprint performance. Conclusion: A CE supplement improves overall and repeated short duration sprint cycling performance when sprints are interspersed with adequate recovery periods.

The effect of muscle-tendon unit vs fascicle analyses on vastus lateralis force generating capacity during constant power output cycling with variable cadence

Article

Jan 2018

The maximum force capacity of a muscle is dependent on the lengths and velocities of its contractile apparatus. Muscle-tendon unit (MTU) length changes can be estimated from joint kinematics, however contractile element length changes are more difficult to predict during dynamic contractions. The aim of this study was to compare vastus lateralis (VL) MTU and fascicle force-length and force-velocity relationships, and dynamic muscle function while cycling at a constant submaximal power output (2.5 W/kg) with different cadences. We hypothesized that manipulating cadence would not affect VL MTU shortening, but significantly affect VL fascicle shortening. Furthermore, these differences would affect the predicted force capacity of the muscle. Using an isokinetic dynamometer and B-mode ultrasound (US), we determined the force-length and force-velocity properties of the VL MTU and its fascicles. In addition, three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics of the lower limb, as well as US images of VL fascicles were collected during submaximal cycling at cadences of 40, 60, 80 and 100 RPM. Ultrasound measures revealed a significant increase in fascicle shortening as cadence decreased (84% increase across all conditions, p < 0.01), whereas there were no significant differences in MTU lengths across any of the cycling conditions (maximum of 6%). The MTU analysis resulted in greater predicted force capacity across all conditions relative to the force-velocity relationship (p < 0.01). These results reinforce the need to determine muscle mechanics in terms of separate contractile element and connective tissue length changes during isokinetic contractions as well as dynamic movements like cycling.

Using the Portapres® for the measurement of toe arterial blood pressure during movement: is it valid and reliable?

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2017

The aim of the study was to assess the validity and reliability of using the Portapres® to measure toe blood pressure during rest and exercise. Construct validity, concurrent validity, and interday reliability were assessed by measuring toe (Portapres®)) and brachial blood pressure in 16 nondisabled participants on consecutive days. Construct validity was assessed by pedaling on a cycle ergometer (6 revolutions per minute) and comparing the measured toe blood pressure to an estimated value based on orthostatic factors. Concurrent validity was assessed by comparing toe and brachial blood pressure during supine rest and following 10 min of cycling exercise. Interday reliability was assessed by recording toe and brachial blood pressure during supine rest on a second day. Construct validity analysis shows that the toe blood pressure signal was moderately correlated with the changes in heart–toe distance and that changes in toe blood pressure during slow cycling were similar to the estimated value. Resting toe and brachial mean arterial blood pressure showed concurrent validity with only a fixed bias explained by the change in orthostatic pressure and the toe–brachial index. Furthermore, cycling exercise was associated with an increase in brachial and a decrease in toe mean blood pressure. The interday reliability analysis showed no proportional or fixed bias for mean arterial blood pressure. Our study showed the feasibility of using the Portapres® to measure toe blood pressure during movement and can be used to study the effect of movement-related forces during cycling on toe blood pressure.

Physiological and Biomechanical Testing of EasyPedal Pedal Prototypes

Technical Report

Full-text available

Jan 2012

The aim of both studies was to assess the effects of the EasyPedal prototypes compared to conventional pedals on cycling efficiency. The main study and case study results do not indicate reduced energy expenditure when using the EasyPedal prototypes versus conventional pedals in either a typical cycling set-up or semi-recumbant position. This is based on similar levels of oxygen consumption and heart rate when using both pedal types at the same absolute cycling intensity (measured in watts. However, this does not rule out a potential benefit of the EasyPedal prototype when used at slower cycling cadences (testing in this study carried out at cadences of approximately 70 rpm) or with a novel/alternative cycling pattern. The testing detailed in this report illustrates the acute responses to using these pedal prototypes (i.e. after < 30 minutes of use). It is possible that individuals could learn to perform an altered pedalling style which could make greater use of the potential mechanical advantages of the EasyPedal prototypes. Such an altered style would take time to develop and would change the neuromuscular requirements of the task. It is still unknown how much time would be required to develop such a pattern and what possible advantages it would provide in terms of cycling efficiency

Sprint Cycling Performance Improvement Post-Creatine Supplementation is Associated with Increase in Lean Body Mass: 335 Board #156 May 31 11

Article

May 2017

Validity and Reliability of the 3D Motion Analyzer in Comparison with the Vicon Device for Biomechanical Pedalling Analysis

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Nov 2016

The present work aimed to assess the validity and reliability of the 3D motion analyzer (Shimano Dynamics Lab, Sittard, Netherland) during laboratory cycling tests in comparison with the Vicon device (Vicon Motion Systems Ltd. Oxford, UK). Three cyclists were required to complete one laboratory cycling test at three different pedalling cadence and at a constant power output. Kinematic measurements were collected simultaneously from 3D motion analyzer and Vicon devices and performed five times for each pedalling cadence. The two systems showed a high reliability with excellent intraclass correlation coefficients for most kinematic variables. Moreover, this system was considered as valid by considering the error due to the initial markers placement. Experts and scientists should use the Vicon system for the purpose of research whereas the 3D motion analyzer could be used for bike fitting.

Erratum: Supra-maximal cycling efficiency assessed in humans by using a new protocol (European Journal of Applied Physiology (2004) vol. 93 (3) (325-332) 10.1007/s00421-004-1179-1)

Article

Mar 2006

Joint kinematics assessment during cycling incremental test to exhaustion

Article

Jun 2012

Workload and experience in cycling have been suggested as factors influencing joint kinematics in cycling. The aims of our study were to (1) compare cyclists and non-cyclists lower limb kinematics and (2) to assess the effects of different workload levels on joint kinematics of cyclists and non-cyclists. Fifteen male athletes with experience in road cycling and triathlon competitions and fourteen male non-athletes volunteered to take part in the study. They performed an incremental test to exhaustion using their own bicycles (athletes) or a road bicycle set for their body dimensions (non-athletes). Right sagittal plane kinematics and gases exchanges were collected during the test. Ventilatory thresholds related workloads were defined for offline analysis of lower limb joint kinematics. Greater ankle range of motion was observed for athletes (17%) and non-athletes (25%) at maximal workload level compared to lower workload levels. Greater forward body position was observed for athletes (similar to 12%) and non-athletes (5-7%). Smaller hip flexion was observed for non-athletes compared to athletes (7%). Sub maximal workload level did not substantially affect lower limb joint kinematics. Similar lower limb joint motion between athletes and non-athletes suggests that changes in road cycling training may not result in different joint kinematics.

Muscle Physiology and Force Development

Chapter

Mar 2025

Utilising rigid body mechanics to measure physiological outcomes as motion is all well and good, although it is hard to fathom the meaning of joint extension angles to handlebar reach without gaining an understanding of muscle physiology. Muscles have an optimal operating condition of speed and contraction length which defines our physical limits to produce power along with our respiratory system. Therefore, to develop a complete understanding of bicycle fit and the limitations of endurance, the mechanism behind muscle contractions are now explored.

Biomechanics of Cycling

Chapter

Mar 2025

Essentially, a well set-up basic bicycle will enable the cyclist to go further and faster more comfortably than the latest mechanical or aerodynamic technology bicycle. A correctly positioned engine is more important than any other aspect of technology on the bicycle.

Traumatologie du cyclisme

Chapter

Jan 2022

Cycling Cadence Selections at Different Saddle Heights Minimize Muscle Activation Rather Than Energy Cost

Preprint

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Unlike walking and running, people do not consistently choose cadences that minimize energy consumption when cycling. Assuming a common objective function for all forms of locomotion, this suggests either that the neural control system relies on indirect sensorimotor cues to energetic cost that are approximately accurate during walking but not cycling, or that an alternative objective function applies that correlates with energy expenditure in walking but not cycling. This study compared how objective functions derived as proxies to 1) energy cost or 2) an avoidance of muscle fatigue predicted self-selected cycling cadences (SSC) at different saddle heights. Saddle height systematically affected SSC, with lower saddles increasing SSC and higher saddles decreasing SSC. Both fatigue-avoidance and energy-expenditure cost functions derived from muscle activation measurements showed minima that closely approximated the SSCs. By contrast, metabolic power derived from VO2 uptake was minimal at cadences well below the SSC across all saddle height variations. The mismatch between the cadence versus muscle activation and the cadence versus metabolic energy relations is likely due to additional energy costs associated with performing mechanical work at higher cadences. The results suggest that the nervous system places greater emphasis on muscle activation than on energy consumption for action selections in cycling.

Effects of Different Elbow Positions on Latency and Amplitude of Motor Nerve Conduction Study of Ulnar Nerve

Article

Sep 2011

Ashish Kakkad

Context: Ulnar nerve is formed by the branches of Medial cord of the brachial plexus and is one of the main nerves of upper limb. Ulnar nerve passes posterior to medial epicondyle of humerus so may be stretched or compressed in elbow movement. Objective: To assess the ability of ulnar nerve motor fibers to pass stimulus in three different position of elbow joint (0o, 90 o, 120 o of elbow flexion). Material and Methods: The cross-sectional observational study was conducted on 30 normal healthy individuals (aged between 18 to 25 years) in Government Spine Institute, Civil Hospital, Ahmedabad. Subjects exposed to factors affecting nerve conduction velocities e.g. smokers, alcoholic, diabetic etc. were not included in the study. Subjects were selected by random sampling technique. Subjects were given supine lying position to measure latency (from artifact to first negative deflection) and amplitude (peak to peak) of right ulnar nerve from above and below elbow in three different positions of elbow (0 o, 90 o, 120 o of flexion) using EMG instrument (RMS EMG EP MK-II, Version 1.1), measure tape, thermometer, weighing-machine, height-scale, universal goniometer, sketch pen, spirit, pen, electrode gel, cotton and micropore adhesive tape. Results: Statistical analysis was done with ANNOVA test. F values for below elbow latency, above elbow latency, below elbow amplitude, above elbow amplitude are 0.0699, 0.1534, 0.1488, and 0.2336 respectively. Results showed insignificant difference at 0.05significance level in latency and amplitude of ulnar nerve in three different positions of elbow. Conclusion: Study concludes that there is no effect of elbow positions on latency and amplitude during ulnar motor nerve conduction. Key words: Nerve Conduction Study, Ulnar nerve, Different Elbow Positions

Simulation analysis of the influence of the frame stiffness in racing bikes on pedaling movement競技用自転車フレーム剛性がペダリング動作に与える影響のシミュレーション解析

Article

Sep 2019

The frame stiffness in a racing bicycle might influence not only toughness as the frame structure but also performance of an athlete. The purpose of this study is to clarify biodynamic relations between the frame stiffness in a racing bicycle and the physical loads of an athlete by using a forward dynamics simulation model. The human body structure was represented by the 13-rigid-links and 23-degrees-of-freedom model. Based on the theory of multibody dynamics, the frame structure was expressed by combination of 12 rigid pipes, and the frame stiffness was modeled by rotational springs at the connecting joint between the rigid pipes. Spring coefficients were changed according to the thickness of the frame pipes. The pedaling load from the crank was computed by the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the crank. Moreover, the driving force in the bicycle was additionally defined to consider the influence of the frame weight on the human joint load. The human body model was driven by the joint toques to minimize the cost function consisting of the joint loads in the human body and the driving force in the bicycle, and also to keep desired angular velocity of the crank. Validity of the simulation was evaluated by comparing the joint angles and torques with the measured ones. As for the result, the larger stiffness of the frame resulted in smaller the joint loads in the human body, and optimal stiffness would be determined by the balance between the joint loads in the human body and the driving force in the bicycle.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MECHANICAL EFFECTIVENESS OF PEDALLING AND THE CYCLE ERGOMETER SADDLE HEIGHT

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017

Cycling is a sport that integrates man‘s physical condition and the technical parameters of the cycle. The position of the body in relation to the cycle is particularly important for obtaining results of this physical activity. Together with the other factors determining the right upright posture saddle height is also important. We studied the relationship between the Monark 618-E cycle ergometer saddle height and mechanical effectiveness when pedalling. For this purpose, we chose the Wingate cycle ergometer anaerobic test. We studied 8 men volunteers, aged between 19 to 25 years, all of them students at the National Sports Academy “Vasil Levski” in Sofia, with major - cycling coach. The research demonstrates that the lower height of the saddle compared to the one recommended in the “Heel” method, leads to lower mechanical effectiveness of pedalling in terms of W/kg body weight. This affects both the maximal and the average power of pedalling, with statistical significance of 99% determined by Mann-Whitney non-parametric test. Relative to the literature discussed, the study presents new evidence of the height of the cycle saddle for mechanical pedaling effectiveness.

The effect of saddle height and saddle position changes from pedal on muscles and joints behaviors in ergometer: A parametric study

Article

Nov 2018

The physical activities such as pedaling can affect the lower limb muscles strength and rehabilitation. Improper pedaling can cause injury. In this study, we would investigate the effects of saddle place (saddle position and saddle height) on the behavior of muscles and joints. Moreover, we would try to reveal the relationship between the muscles activity (Act) and the joints reaction forces ( F) and saddle position and saddle height. To this end, the pedaling conditions are obtained from the biomechanical model of the human movement system presented in AnyBody software. The variations in 12 muscles Act and total, normal and shear F of ankle, knee and hip joints are studied for the various saddle places in the pedaling feasible range. The relationships of those muscles Act and joints F are predicted by the response surface method. The results indicate that the muscles and the joints behavior changes for various saddle position and saddle height. The maximum and the minimum of the total response are acquired in the ankle and hip joints, respectively. In contrast to the ankle and hip joints, the knee shear response is greater than the normal response. The predictive models of the muscles Act and the joints F (the regression coefficients ( R2) are 0.60-0.95 and 0.76-0.97, respectively) indicate their nonlinear behavior with saddle position and saddle height variations. Studying the muscles and joints behavior in different pedaling condition can be helpful for the suitable saddle placement in order for rehabilitation, muscles soreness reduction, and joints disorder treatment.

Effect of the Shock Absorber of the Shock Absorption Benefits for Upper Arm: International Conference on Mobile and Wireless Technology (ICMWT 2018)

Chapter

Jan 2019

The aim of this study was to explore the effect of handlebars shock absorbers on the human upper body muscles. We recruited ten male adult subjects to join our experiment. Subjects need to respectively rode the bike with shock absorber and without the shock absorber on the two kinds of vibration conditions (40 and 50 Hz). The vibration generated by tire contact with the ground while riding was simulated through the self-made vibration simulation machine. The muscle activities of ulnaris, radialis, biceps brachii, triceps brachii of participant were collected by BTS Bioengineering® Wireless EMG meter. Descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA were adopted to analyze the data. The results showed only ulnaris muscle has reached statistically significant level (p < 0.05) under low-frequency shock conditions, the ulnaris muscle, and triceps brachii muscles has reached statistically significant level (p < 0.05) under high-frequency shock conditions.

Wpływ pozycji kolarza na obraz miograficzny głównych grup mięśniowych kończyny dolnej wykorzystywanych podczas jazdy (In Polish)

Chapter

Full-text available

Jan 2009

Mountain biking (MTB) is a sport activity which requires from the cyclist repeatable movements (cycles). It involves endurance, strength, keeping balance and some basic skills and knowledge in handling of the technique of cycling. The goal of present study is to find how the position of the cyclist influences the activity of his muscles (as seen by the electromiography). In current research we are testing two arrangements of bicycle’s components: (1) position preferred by cyclist and (2) position modified according to recommendations found in literature. Five high-class cyclist took part in the experiment. Electromyographic signals were derived from eight major muscle’s groups of the lower extremities which take part in the cycling. This research shows that in both cases, the most utilized muscles were: rectus femoris and semimembranosus muscles. However the less employed were: gluteus maximus and vastus lateralis muscles. The biggest changes of the muscle’s tension were in: rectus femoris and gastrocnemius lateralis muscles. Changes in the occurrence of the maximum and the minimum activity of all tested muscles during pedalling between the two initial positions were also noticed. Słowa kluczowe: kolarstwo górskie (MTB), optymalizacja, elektromiografia, kinematyka ,

Individuals With Knee Osteoarthritis Demonstrate Interlimb Asymmetry in Pedaling Power During Stationary Cycling

Article

Mar 2018

Cycling is commonly prescribed for physical rehabilitation of individuals with knee osteoarthritis (OA). Despite the known therapeutic benefits, no research has examined interlimb symmetry of power output during cycling in these individuals. We investigated the effects of external workload and cadence on interlimb symmetry of crank power output in individuals with knee OA versus healthy controls. Twelve older participants with knee OA and 12 healthy sex- and age-matched controls were recruited. Participants performed 2-minute bouts of stationary cycling at four workload-cadence conditions (75 W-60 rpm, 75 W-90 rpm, 100 W-60 rpm, and 100 W-90 rpm). Power output contribution of each limb towards total crank power output was computed over 60 crank cycles from the effective component of pedal force, which was perpendicular to the crank arm. Across the workload-cadence conditions, knee OA group generated significantly higher power output with their severely affected leg compared to the less affected leg (10% difference; p = .019). Healthy controls did not show interlimb asymmetry in power output (0.1% difference; p = 1.00). For both groups, interlimb asymmetry was unaffected by external workload and cadence. Our results indicate individuals with knee OA demonstrate interlimb asymmetry in crank power output during stationary cycling.

A 3-D Kinematic Model For The Biomechanical Analysis Of The Lower Limb While Cycling

Article

Jan 1990

In this paper, a ten-joint 3-D kinematic model has been developed by carefully st.udymg the anatomy of the lower limb during bicycling for understandmg and analyzmg the complex motions of the joints. An optimization algorithm has also been developed and used to compute the Joint vanables and find the numerical solution. In order to simulate the indeterminate kinematic system, random vectors of multinormal distribution have been generated and statistical means and variances have been obtained from these random vector samples. The validity of the developed model has been checked by comparing the results with that of experim.ental measurements. The model developed has good desirability to descnbe the hmb and IS more accurate than 2-D models to predict the motion of lower extremities.

Assessment of the saddle position effects on the cyclists’ pedaling technique

Thesis

Full-text available

Sep 2004

Fernando Diefenthaeler

Considering the importance of optimizing the pedal forces, the purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of different body postures of cyclists during pedaling by shifting the saddle position and relating them with the following variables: (1) economy of movement (EC); (2) pedal forces; (3) index of effectiveness (IE); (4) alteration in the trunk, hip, knee, and ankle joint angles; (5) electrical activation of the muscles selected. Three elite cyclists have participated in this study. The protocol consisted of the evaluation of four different positions of saddle (forwards, backwards, upwards, and downwards) from the reference position in which the cyclists usually train, pedaling in their preferred cadence. The athletes pedaled during 30 s in each position after the respiratory exchange rate has reached between 0.90 and 1. The athletes’ bicycles were assembled in a magnetic cycle simulator, and the dynamometric pedal was fixed in the bicycles in order to acquire the normal and tangential components of the force applied on the pedal. Electrical activation of six lower limb muscles was registered: gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, vastus lateralis, gastrocnemius medialis, and tibialis anterior. The resultant and effective forces was calculated from normal and tangential forces to obtain the IE. The data analyzes was calculated from 10 pedaling cycles. The EC was calculated from VO2 and from the power output. The results demonstrated that the different saddle adjustments changed the forces direction and magnitude, and, consequently, the IE; and the three cyclist evaluated showed a better IE and a better EC in the reference position. The kinematics data showed little variation in the joint angles due to the changes in the saddle position. The electrical activation has changed both in the activation period and in the magnitude of the root mean square in all the different saddle positions evaluated.