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Memory for goals: An activation-based model
Abstract
Goal-directed cognition is often discussed in terms of specialized memory structures like the “goal stack.” The goal-activation model presented here analyzes goal-directed cognition in terms of the general memory constructs of activation and associative priming. The model embodies three predictive constraints: (1) the interference level, which arises from residual memory for old goals; (1) the strengthening constraint, which makes predictions about time to encode a new goal; and (3) the priming constraint, which makes predictions about the role of cues in retrieving pending goals. These constraints are formulated algebraically and tested through simulation of latency and error data from the Tower of Hanoi, a means-ends puzzle that depends heavily on suspension and resumption of goals. Implications of the model for understanding intention superiority, postcompletion error, and effects of task interruption are discussed.
... This realization is followed by an interruption lag, a brief transitional period that precedes a pending interruption. In this period, an individual is aware but has not yet engaged the interruption, providing an opportunity to complete thoughts or to negotiate trending activities [3,4]. For example, knowing that a colleague has already entered the office, a researcher might finish a sentence within a research paper first, rather than responding to the interruption immediately. ...
... Following the ACT-R theory, each task has an associated goal that can also include subgoals. This is a cornerstone of Altmann et al.'s theory called Memory-for-Goals [3], according to which a task interruption results in the current active goal being stored in declarative memory. Task suspension and resumption processes can then be broken down into the core processes of rehearsal (or strengthening) and recall. ...
... Also, longer interruptions resulted in longer task resumption. This can be explained by the time decay of goal activation proposed in [3]. Monk et al. discuss immediate design guidelines grounded based on these results, such as an in-car navigation system that should strive to minimize the interruption complexity, not necessarily the interruption duration, as simple interruptions lead to relatively fast primary task resumption, irrespective of the duration. ...
Today's information and communication devices provide always-on connectivity, instant access to an endless repository of information, and represent the most direct point of contact to almost any person in the world. Despite these advantages, devices such as smartphones or personal computers lead to the phenomenon of attention fragmentation, continuously interrupting individuals' activities and tasks with notifications. Attention management systems aim to provide active support in such scenarios, managing interruptions, for example, by postponing notifications to opportune moments for information delivery. In this article, we review attention management system research with a particular focus on ubiquitous computing environments. We first examine cognitive theories of attention and extract guidelines for practical attention management systems. Mathematical models of human attention are at the core of these systems, and in this article, we review sensing and machine learning techniques that make such models possible. We then discuss design challenges towards the implementation of such systems, and finally, we investigate future directions in this area, paving the way for new approaches and systems supporting users in their attention management.
... The memory-for-goals (MfG) model, proposed by Altmann and Trafton (2002), is an influential computational theoretical framework that has been used to explain the cognitive processes of interruptions. This model is based on the ACT-R theory, which explains individual differences in WMC in dual-task situations (Lovett et al., 1999). ...
... According to Guo et al. (2021), effective interventions can mitigate the negative effects of interruptions by reducing the cognitive load on WMC and supporting the cognitive processes that underlie the resumption of interrupted tasks. Although they reported that three types of interventions (i.e., managing interruption lag, providing reminder cues, and training) were particularly effective in reducing the disruptive effects of interruptions, only interruption lag management can experimentally manipulate the disruptiveness of interruptions and reduce the disruptive effects of interruptions (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). Furthermore, the effectiveness of interruption lag management depends on the WM cognitive function involved in the cognitive processing of the interruption lag (Unsworth, 2016;Unsworth & Engle, 2007). ...
... However, it continued to exist in the low-WMC group. This is probably because the recovery process is possible through associative links between retrieval cue recoveries and the to-be-resumed goal (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). Specifically, compared to the high-WMC group, the low-WMC group was not able to maintain the task-relevant information in a highly active state, and could not select the appropriate information to encode and generate effective cues. ...
The current study aimed to investigate whether individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) are associated with differences in the subsequent task performance and whether intervention (interruption onset management) can reduce the negative effects of interruption. Experiment 1 compared task performances before and after interruptions and examined their relationship with WMC. The findings suggested that individuals with high levels of WMC were able to recover more quickly to the same level of performance as prior to the interruption. In Experiment 2, we examined whether manipulating the intervention could mitigate the detrimental effects of the interruption. The results demonstrated that individuals with high levels of WMC made fewer errors after the interruption, which were reduced by interventions for both low‐ and high‐WMC groups. These results confirm that the impact of interruptions is proportional to differences in WMC, and interventions can reduce the negative impact of interruptions irrespective of WMC.
... Engaging and multitasking during an interruption can lead to errors due to the increase in cognitive demands that occur when switching between tasks. Mediating by forming cues reduces cognitive demands and can decrease errors (Altmann & Trafton, 2002), yet there is scant healthcare research on mediation of interruptions. ...
... When the interruption ends, the cue should be retrieved to aid in task resumption. According to the model, associative cueing can improve task efficiency and accuracy by bringing the person back to the proper step in the primary task without omitting or repeating steps (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). Evidence outside of healthcare provides support for the use of cues during interrupted tasks (Dodhia & Dismukes, 2009;Gartenberg et al., 2014;McDonald & Durso, 2015). ...
... The interruption management bundle was guided by the MFG model (Altmann & Trafton, 2002), (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted medRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. ...
Background: Worldwide, interruptions are pervasive during nurse medication administration and associated with increased frequency and severity of errors. Interruptions also decrease task efficiency which can lead to delayed or omitted patient care. Interruptions cannot always be avoided in healthcare settings; thus, researchers recommend the use of interruption management strategies to mitigate interruptions' negative effects.
Aims: To investigate the feasibility and potential of a behavioral interruption management strategy to mitigate medication errors and improve task efficiency.
Design: Multi-methods, two groups, repeated measures, pre-posttest design.
Methods: Data were collected January-March 2023. Volunteer undergraduate nursing students were randomly assigned to a control or intervention group. The intervention group received education and training on an interruption management strategy. Quantitative data were collected across three timepoints via direct observation of independent demonstrations of simulated medication administration. The simulated scenarios contained embedded interruptions. Outcomes measured included errors, medication preparation duration, and duration of time to implement the interruption management strategy. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using Microsoft Excel. Qualitative data of participants' perceptions and use of the strategy were collected via semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis was performed.
Reporting Method: Equator guidelines were followed using the STROBE reporting method for the observed quantitative data. SRQR guidelines were followed in reporting the qualitative data.
Results: Nineteen students participated in the study. Intervention group participants had larger improvements in errors and task durations compared to the control group. Implementation of the strategy averaged four seconds. Participants described the strategy as easy to use and remember, and voiced using the strategy outside of the study.
Conclusions: Findings demonstrate that the study-described behavioral interruption management strategy was feasible to teach and implement, and associated with decreased errors and improved task efficiency. Use of the strategy has implications to increase patient safety through improved medication administration safety and efficiency. Future studies are recommended to gain a better understanding of the strategy's effectiveness.
... The data collected and presented in this manuscript were part of a larger study that also examined interruption management strategies (Schroers et al., 2021), medication administration errors (Schroers et al., 2022), and procedural failures (Schroers & O'Rourke, in press). Altmann and Trafton's (2002) Memory for Goals model provided the theoretical guidance for this study. The model provides a clear description of the structure of an interruption, describing the first awareness of a potential interruption as an alert, the subsequent cessation of the task as the interruption proper and the time between the alert and interruption proper as the interruption lag. ...
... While it is recommended that unnecessary interruptions in healthcare settings be minimized, healthcare providers and students should also learn and use strategies to properly manage interruptions in ways that can decrease risk for errors and improve task efficiency. The Memory for Goals model asserts that if a recipient of an interruption uses associative cueing during an interrupted task, task completion time will be decreased and there will be less risk for error (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). The first author of this study is currently investigating a teaching strategy of associative cueing during simulated medication administration. ...
... The end of medication administration was identified in one of two ways: (a) When the participant completed documentation of administered medication or (b)When the participant verbalized that they were completed with the ISBE without documenting administered medication (some participants did not document administered medication).The interruption start and end times were noted for all ISBEs to deduct the time spent in the interrupting task from the overall medication administration time. Guided by the Memory for Goals model(Altmann & Trafton, 2002), the interruption start time was noted when the participant stopped preparing medication (cessation of the task -the interruption proper) and engaged with the interruption source (the actor portraying a nurse colleague). The interruption end time was noted when the participant resumed preparation of medication. ...
Aims
To examine task duration and frequency of self‐interruptions among study participants during externally interrupted compared with externally uninterrupted simulated medication administration.
Background
Interruptions are prevalent during nursing medication administration and can lead to inefficient, delayed, omitted and unsafe patient care. Interrupted nursing tasks are shown to take longer to complete compared to uninterrupted tasks; however, studies seldom indicate if the time spent in the interruption was included or excluded in the reported task duration. It is unknown if the time spent in the interruption leads to longer task completion times or if other factors, such as the time needed to re‐engage in the primary task and/or self‐interruptions, are involved. Little is known about associations between external interruptions and self‐interruptions during nursing tasks. Self‐interruptions are caused by an individual's own decision to stop an activity to attend to something else.
Design
Cross‐sectional within‐subjects design.
Methods
This two‐site study investigated task duration and frequencies of self‐interruptions during externally interrupted and externally uninterrupted simulated medication administration. Data on medication administration duration, external interruption duration and self‐interruptions were collected via direct observation from November 2019–February 2020. The time spent in the external interruption was deducted from the medication administration duration.
Results
Thirty‐five participants were included in the study. The externally interrupted task had a significantly longer duration and significantly more frequent self‐interruptions within‐subjects compared to the externally uninterrupted task. Self‐interruptions were most often due to forgotten supplies.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that the time needed to re‐engage with an externally interrupted task and/or self‐interruptions may lead to longer task completion times.
Impact
Researchers are encouraged to investigate mediators of interruptions that lead to longer task completion times and errors. Findings can be used to develop and implement interruption management strategies that aim to improve the safety and quality of patient care.
Reporting Method
Equator guidelines were followed using the STROBE reporting method.
Patient/Public Contribution
No patient or public involvement in this study.
Implications for the profession and/or patient care
Educators and researchers can use the study findings to guide teaching methods and direct future studies. By gaining a better understanding of the mediators of interruptions that create longer task completion times and increase the risk for errors, tailored interruption management strategies that aim to improve the safety and quality of healthcare can be developed and implemented.
... Research has produced many different perspectives and fundamental ideas over time. One of the foundational theories is the memory for goals theory by Altmann and Trafton (2002), which has been extensively used as the theoretical basis for the study of interruptions (for a detailed description of the memory for goals theory, please see Altmann and Trafton, 2002;Trafton et al., 2003). Following this theory, each task is associated with information which is stored in memory during interruptions and recalled after interruptions (Salvucci et al., 2009). ...
... Research has produced many different perspectives and fundamental ideas over time. One of the foundational theories is the memory for goals theory by Altmann and Trafton (2002), which has been extensively used as the theoretical basis for the study of interruptions (for a detailed description of the memory for goals theory, please see Altmann and Trafton, 2002;Trafton et al., 2003). Following this theory, each task is associated with information which is stored in memory during interruptions and recalled after interruptions (Salvucci et al., 2009). ...
... Following this theory, each task is associated with information which is stored in memory during interruptions and recalled after interruptions (Salvucci et al., 2009). Examining the anatomy of interruptions, with a focus on the characteristics, effects, and explanations of interruptions, provides helpful guidance for identifying the determinants of the disruptiveness of interruptions so that interrupted tasks can be successfully resumed after the interruption (Altmann and Trafton, 2002;Trafton and Monk, 2007). In this context, it should be noted that interference can occur in concurrent task execution when the ongoing task and the interruption require the same procedural resources (e.g., cognitive resources), as suggested by threaded cognition theory, another fundamental theory to consider in the study of interruptions, proposed by Salvucci and Taatgen (2008). ...
Interruptions have become ubiquitous in both our personal and professional lives. Accordingly, research on interruptions has also increased steadily over time, and research published in various scientific disciplines has produced different perspectives, fundamental ideas, and conceptualizations of interruptions. However, the current state of research hampers a comprehensive overview of the concept of interruption, predominantly due to the fragmented nature of the existing literature. Reflecting on its genesis in the 1920s and the longstanding research on interruptions, along with recent technological, behavioral, and organizational developments, this paper provides a comprehensive interdisciplinary overview of the various attributes of an interruption, which facilitates the establishment of interruption science as an interdisciplinary research field in the scientific landscape. To obtain an overview of the different interruption attributes, we conducted a systematic literature review with the goal of classifying interruptions. The outcome of our research process is a taxonomy of interruptions, constituting an important foundation for the field. Based on the taxonomy, we also present possible avenues for future research.
... Model naslaganih ciljeva ima teškoće da objasni empirijske nalaze koji ukazuju na to da izvođenje zadataka i ispunjavanje ciljeva imaju svoju cenu u gubljenju vremena i tačnosti izvedbe (Anderson & Douglass 2001;Altmann & Trafton 2002). U studiji koju su sproveli Andreson i Daglas (2001) korišćen je problemski zadatak Hanojske kule. ...
... Koristeći preslišavanje (goal rehearsal) kao strategiju, aktivacija ovih ciljeva će se povećati, što će povećati verovatnoću da cilj ostane iznad nivoa interferencije i kada se prekidajući zadatak završi. Zbog toga je uvođenje pauze pre prekida ubrzava nastavljanje primarnog zadatka nakon prekida (Altmann & Trafton 2002). Slično objašnjenje nudi i teorija prospektivnog pamćenja ukazujući na značaj kodiranja podsetnika za prisećanje i izvlačenje primarnog zadatka iz memorije. ...
... Ovi rezultati su u saglasnosti sa predviđanjima modela pamćenja ciljeva (Altmann & Trafton 2002). Prema ovom modelu, što prekidajući zadatak duže traje, aktivacija nekog cilja će više opadati. ...
U ovom radu predstavljen je pojam (nevoljnih) prekida i njihovo mesto i značaj u savremenom društvu. Prekidi su situacije u kojima smo prinuđeni da obustavimo obavljanje trenutnog zadatka usled drugog, prekidajućeg, koji se nametnuo najčešće iz spoljnje sredine (npr. zvono na vratima dok pišemo tekst). Fenomen prekida se ispituje danas iz perspektive kognitivne psihologije, i može se posmatrati kao posebna forma multitaskinga. Teorije koje nude objašnjenje efekata prekida na učinak u zadacima pre svega su teorije koje se bave pamćenjem i zaboravljanjem namera i ciljeva. U tekstu je dat istorijski osvrt na istraživanja ciljeva i najznačajnijih modela, koji su uticali na formulisanje savremenih teorija pamćenja ciljeva. Prikazane su dve dominantne savremene teorije pamćenja ciljeva, model pamćenja ciljeva i teorija prospektivnog pamćenja. Takođe, prikazani su najznačajniji empirijski nalazi u vezi sa uticajem prekidajućih zadataka na učinak u glavnom prekinutom zadatku, kao što su efekat pauze pre početka prekidajućeg zadatka, efekti znakova za prisećanje, efekat dužine prekida, kompleksnosti prekidajućih zadataka, efekti sličnosti između glavnog i prekidajućeg zadatka, efekti pozicije prekida i učestalosti prekida. Prikazani emprijski rezultati su interpretirani u kontekstu savremenih teorija prekida.
... Models have been proposed to describe attentional resource allocation strategies in task-switching situations, such as the STOM model . The third form of multitasking is task interruption (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). The memory for goal model provides a framework explaining how a task in progress is interrupted, stored in working memory and then resumed (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). ...
... The third form of multitasking is task interruption (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). The memory for goal model provides a framework explaining how a task in progress is interrupted, stored in working memory and then resumed (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). Concurrent multitasking, in particular, is the form of multitasking that generates the greatest cognitive load (Wickens, 2002(Wickens, , 2008. ...
The increasing cognitive load on infantry squad leaders is a common challenge in modern military operations. As this can increase health and safety risks, there is a need to study the factors responsible for the increase in cognitive load. Ecological situations inherently lack strong experimental controls; therefore, microworlds that simulate real tasks are the usual alternative to field studies. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are currently no microworlds that reproduce the main tasks of the squad leader during operations. This article adresses this gap by describing the design and validation of a new microworld: the Simulated Multitasking Environment for the Squad leader (SMES). Qualitative research was firstly conducted to highlight several squad leader’s generic tasks (i.e., common to many situations in the field) that guided the design of the SMES. Psychometric validation of the SMES was then based on two experiments: (i) the first evaluated the microworld’s psychometric qualities when tasks were performed individually; and (ii) the second explored concurrent tasks, reflecting real-world complexity. The results showed that the parameters manipulated for each task were relevant for inducing cognitive load, measured using a secondary detection response task and the NASA-TLX questionnaire. The SMES demonstrated satisfactory convergent and content validity in multitasking but not in single-task conditions. Performance in multitasking situations therefore does not seem to depend on task-specific skills, suggesting the existence of an independent factor–multitasking ability. Theoretical and practical implications of the SMES validation are discussed.
... Prior research on interruptions has mostly examined memory processes during resumption, with the Memory for Goals theory (Altmann and Trafton, 2002) being a prominent activationbased framework in this domain. Informed by the cognitive theory of adaptive control of thoughts-rational (ACT-R) (Anderson and Lebiere, 1998), this theory assumes that we allocate our attention and cognitive resources to the task with the most active goal representations in our memory. ...
... Informed by the cognitive theory of adaptive control of thoughts-rational (ACT-R) (Anderson and Lebiere, 1998), this theory assumes that we allocate our attention and cognitive resources to the task with the most active goal representations in our memory. Altmann and Trafton (2002) attributed the disruption caused by an interruption to the time necessary to reactivate goal representations in our memory upon resuming the task. To measure resumption performance, Trafton et al. (2003) introduced the concept of resumption lag as the time required to re-focus on the primary task following an interruption. ...
Interruptions are often pervasive and require attentional shifts from the primary task. Limited data are available on the factors influencing individuals' efficiency in resuming from interruptions during digital reading. The reported investigation -conducted using the InteRead dataset -examined whether individual differences in visuo-spatial working memory capacity (vsWMC) and prior knowledge could influence resumption lag times during interrupted reading. Participants' vsWMC capacity was assessed using the symmetry span (SSPAN) task, while a pre-test questionnaire targeted their background knowledge about the text. While reading an extract from a Sherlock Holmes story, they were interrupted six times and asked to answer an opinion question. Our analyses revealed that the interaction between vsWMC and prior knowledge significantly predicted the time needed to resume reading following an interruption. The results from our analyses are discussed in relation to theoretical frameworks of task resumption and current research in the field.
... Once the secondary task is over, efforts must be deployed to regain awareness of the situation as well as to reconfigure one's task goals to resume the interrupted activity. This process not only induces task flow hindrance and situation awareness reduction, but may also impose important workload demands and performance costs for post-interruption actions (Altmann and Trafton, 2002;Hodgetts et al., 2015;St. John and Smallman, 2008). ...
... The absence of an effect of interruptions was, however, unexpected. As described earlier, interruptions of surveillance and monitoring activities entail two changes in task goal: one that is related to the new task, and another one pertaining to the interrupted task, once it is resumed (Altmann and Trafton, 2002;Hodgetts et al., 2015;St. John and Smallman, 2008). ...
Security surveillance is frequently used to increase public safety. Characteristics of the surveillance rooms, however, pose many cognitive challenges pertaining to distraction and interruptions, which may affect surveillance performance. Affective computing could represent a potential solution. It involves the recognition and the interpretation of human states using, for instance, different psychophysiological measures. As a first step toward this goal, the present study aimed at assessing whether cardiac and electrodermal activity, could be used as potential markers of interruptions and distraction during a surveillance simulation. A total of 126 participants went through a simulation involving four 8-min scenarios using a high-fidelity urban security surveillance microworld. Task interruption in the form of a realistic secondary task to perform and distraction in the form of background noise representative of a busy operational centre were also implemented into the simulation. Different features of the electrocardiographic (ECG) signal varied with the presence of distraction, but also as a function of time on task. Electrodermal (EDA) features mainly varied as a function of time. These results suggest that distraction and time on task specifically impacted cognitive functioning, potentially increasing sympathetic activity through cognitive workload, and that EDA and ECG measures may represent relevant markers to use from an affective computing perspective to particularly pinpoint periods of distraction and hypovigilance. Implications for the development of user-adaptive systems are discussed.
... Theoretically, with some debate, goal storage is mapped to the Stack data structure of computation [2]. The storage of Goals of complex hierarchical tasks were explained with the Stack's 'last in, first out' behavior. ...
... The Memory for Goals model proposed by Altmann and Trafton [2] describes the process of encoding and resuming the goal after an interruption by employing activation and associative priming as stated below. At any point in time, the most activated goal(primary goal) drives behavior. ...
It is possible to design digital spaces that exploit users while the users are unaware of how they are being used to benefit someone else. There are abundant digital means for almost every aspect of human life. To stay in the market, businesses are in the game of seeking continued user attention. In order to take control and leverage the capabilities of technology, it is important to design technology as per the needs of the human mind and resist any exploitation of its limitations. Digital Wellbeing envisions an optimal balance of technology usage to promote work productivity, among other goals to achieving wellbeing.
A number of design choices make up today’s ubiquitous UI on smartphones. Traditional smartphone interfaces propagate interruption-driven usage thereby hindering task-driven usage during device launch. We hypothesise that Interruptions and Distractions both lead to Goal Slippage. Our study focuses on the pervasive menu-grid interaction for smartphone app selection and challenges the heuristic design principle ‘Recognition rather than Recall’ that recommends it against plain search. We investigate the phenomenon of Goal Slippage in digital devices through an experiment that captures the extent of Goal Slippage and Loss of Content with the altering presence of external interruptions and distractions. We find that external interruptions have a significant effect on response times, suggesting Goal Slippage, but distractions did not have any effect. However, a wider spread of response time is established during distractions, suggesting disruption if not complete goal slippage.
Based on the results, we attempt to design a smartphone launch interface, ‘Focus Mode’ for digital wellbeing backed by a set of design principles.
... Often, drivers have a tendency to switch tasks at subtask boundaries (e.g., Janssen et al., 2012;Lee et al., 2015;Lee and Lee, 2019), such as dialing a phone number in chunks. Switching tasks at subtask boundaries (i.e., "natural breakpoints") has advantages: when the subtask is completed, mental workload decreases because there is no need to actively maintain the information in the working memory (Bailey and Iqbal, 2008), and the task resumption lags are shorter when the subtask is completed before the task switch (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). However, when conducting secondary in-car tasks, drivers may be forced to glance away from the forward road scene for longer periods than would be safe if the secondary task is not easily interruptible (e.g., Brumby et al., 2009;Salvucci and Kujala, 2016). ...
... Apart from the "next" presses, the visual search tasks did not have clear subtask boundaries by user interface design that would have reduced driver's mental workload (Bailey and Iqbal, 2008) or supported task resumption after interruptions by the driving task (Altmann and Trafton, 2002). When the number of search items increased from 10 to 15 or 20, the number of items encoded per glance also increased (see Table 3). ...
Drivers have spare visual capacity in driving, and often this capacity is used for engaging in secondary in-car tasks. Previous research has suggested that the spare visual capacity could be estimated with the occlusion method. However, the relationship between drivers’ occlusion times and in-car glance duration preferences has not been sufficiently investigated for granting occlusion times the role of an estimate of spare visual capacity. We conducted a driving simulator experiment (N = 30) and investigated if there is an association between drivers’ occlusion times and in-car glance durations in a given driving scenario. Furthermore, we explored which factors and variables could explain the strength of the association. The findings suggest an association between occlusion time preferences and in-car glance durations in visually and cognitively low demanding unstructured tasks but that this association is lost if the in-car task is more demanding. The findings might be explained by the inability to utilize peripheral vision for lane-keeping when conducting in-car tasks and/or by in-car task structures that override drivers’ preferences for the in-car glance durations. It seems that the occlusion technique could be utilized as an estimate of drivers’ spare visual capacity in research – but with caution. It is strongly recommended to use occlusion times in combination with driving performance metrics. There is less spare visual capacity if this capacity is used for secondary tasks that interfere with the driver’s ability to utilize peripheral vision for driving or preferences for the in-car glance durations. However, we suggest that the occlusion method can be a valid method to control for inter-individual differences in in-car glance duration preferences when investigating the visual distraction potential of, for instance, in-vehicle infotainment systems.
... The relatedness can, essentially, be seen as an important component in a calculation of association strength. In a cognitive-process scenario (i.e., one which involves a typical affective and physiological state), this type of relatedness between terms may be important for Instance-based learning Gonzalez et al., 2003, as well as prospective memory and goal selection Altmann & Trafton, 2002, in decision-making (and also see Thomson et al., 2015). Furthermore, when combining these theoretical perspectives with more realistic physiological and affective variability (e.g., making those same decisions while sleep deprived or stressed), the effects may be multiplied. ...
... Both the subsymbolic role of declarative memory (i.e., being driven by activation of a concept) and the symbolic role in making a decision mean that we not only may implicitly retrieve concepts related to human (or less-than human) capacities for understanding how we treat a representation of black_man, but also that we may explicitly use these concepts to justify the decision to treat Black people as less-than (e.g., see Fincher et al., 2018). Relatedly, the availability of declarative memory (for our current example, the relatedness/similarity that ultimately affects declarative memory activation) also affects the choice of which goal to pursue (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). The potential goals (and thus problem space explored) by any cognitive agent will be limited by the ontological space that defines their concepts. ...
How might we use cognitive modeling to consider the ways in which antiblackness, and racism more broadly, impact the design and development of AI systems? We provide a discussion and an example towards an answer to this question. We use the ACT-R/{\Phi} cognitive architecture and an existing knowledge graph system, ConceptNet, to consider this question not only from a cognitive and sociocultural perspective, but also from a physiological perspective. In addition to using a cognitive modeling as a means to explore how antiblackness may manifest in the design and development of AI systems (particularly from a software engineering perspective), we also introduce connections between antiblackness, the Human, and computational cognitive modeling. We argue that the typical eschewing of sociocultural processes and knowledge structures in cognitive architectures and cognitive modeling implicitly furthers a colorblind approach to cognitive modeling and hides sociocultural context that is always present in human behavior and affects cognitive processes.
... However, immediate impacts and cumulative impacts may sometimes contradict each other. For instance, while multitasking may initially increase activation levels, boosting creative results (Kapadia and Melwani 2021), in the long term, it may lead to increased workload and energy depletion (Altmann and Trafton 2002), potentially reducing creative process engagement. Future research could delve into this possibility, thereby determining whether multitasking has opposing short-term and longterm impacts on creativity and, if so, the nature of these effects. ...
In the digital‐driven workplace, individuals are required to multitask frequently while maintaining high levels of creativity to stay indispensable. But does multitasking promote or hinder creative process engagement? Utilizing the stressor‐detachment model, this study examines the links between multitasking and creative process engagement. Through a survey of 329 employees conducted over three time points, findings reveal that psychological detachment mediates the negative relationship between multitasking and creative process engagement. Furthermore, temporal leadership mitigates the negative relationship between multitasking and psychological detachment and, by extension, the indirect relationship between multitasking and creative process engagement via psychological detachment.
... method for interruption management. This method involves five stages to manage interruption and is based on the Memory of Goals Theory (Altmann and Trafton, 2002), which proposes that using priming and goal-directed cues allows individuals to better manage interruptions. Both studies used a PowerPoint presentation to teach this tool to either nurses (Henneman et al. 2018) or nursing students (Vital and Nathanson 2023), and both found reduced distraction time during simulated clinical scenarios. ...
Background and objectives
Interruptions during clinical activities are strongly associated with patient safety incidents in healthcare settings. Attempts have been made to teach medical students and doctors how to best manage interruptions, however evidence suggests that most doctors develop these skills through experience and that students feel ill-prepared when confronted with interruptions in the clinical setting. This study protocol presents a study that aims to inform, the development of an educational tool for undergraduate medical students on management on interruption management in the clinical setting. Informed by the ADDIE model of instructional design, a learning needs analysis will be conducted to determine what skills are needed to best manage workplace interruptions and how these skills would best be taught at an undergraduate level.
Methods and Analysis
This study will collect data through semi-structured interviews with medical students, medical educators and junior doctors. The interview protocol has been developed using the Critical Incidence Technique, in which real-life experiences will be used as a basis for reflection to determine what underlying lessons can be learnt from them. The interviews will be transcribed verbatim and undergo thematic analysis to determine what instructional goals need to be set for an educational tool and how such a tool should be designed.
Ethics and Dissemination
This study has received full ethical approval from Cardiff University (SREC reference 23/67). Findings from the study will be disseminated by presentation at national and international conferences and publication through academic papers
... Workflow interruptions mean that nurses must handle multiple tasks simultaneously, frequently switch focus and extend work hours, all of which increase their perceived workload (Shan et al. 2023). According to goal activation theory, task interruptions affect memory retrieval and retention, increasing the risk of forgetting and making it difficult for individuals to resume their interrupted tasks (Altmann and Trafton 2002). This suggests that workflow interruptions may prevent nurses from continuing their interrupted tasks, increasing the likelihood of missed nursing. ...
Background
Nurses' health status significantly impacts their well‐being and patient safety. Workflow interruptions, perceived workload, and missed nursing may potentially affect their physical and mental health. However, there is currently a lack of systematic studies on the relationships between these factors.
Objective
This study aims to explore how workflow interruptions influence nurses' health status through perceived workload and missed nursing, and provide strategies to promote nurses' health.
Methods
In October 2024, an online survey was conducted among 646 clinical nurses from three healthcare facilities in Henan Province. The survey covered nurses' demographic information, workflow interruptions, health status, perceived workload and missed nursing. Statistical analysis and model construction and validation were performed using SPSS 25.0 and AMOS 26.0 software.
Results
Workflow interruptions were significantly negatively correlated with both physical component summary and mental component summary. Perceived workload and missed nursing served as mediators between workflow interruptions and physical and mental component summaries.
Conclusion
Workflow interruptions directly affect nurses' health status and indirectly influence it through perceived workload and missed nursing. Therefore, strategies should be implemented to optimise workflows, reduce workflow interruptions, lower perceived workload and take measures to minimise missed nursing. Future research could explore how to implement workflow optimization to improve nurses' health status effectively.
Implications for the Profession and Patient Care
This study provides important guidance for improving nurses' health. The results reveal that optimising workflow and reducing work interruptions can effectively reduce nurses' perceived workload, thereby decreasing the occurrence of nursing omissions, and ultimately contributing to the overall improvement of nurses' health.
Reporting Method
This study adhered to the cross‐sectional Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines.
Patient or Public Contribution
No patient or public contribution.
... More interestingly, the results of our study also reveal that visual interruption is associated with more substantial decreases in situation awareness than is auditory interruption; furthermore, interruption of the visual task entails greater decreases in situation awareness than does interruption of the auditory task. Altmann and Trafton's memory for goals theory suggests that maintaining an association between the suspended primary task goal and relevant environmental cues is critical to the task resumption process [42,55,56]. The auditory interruption facilitates resumption to the degree that the interruption in question allows the environmental cues and the association with the suspended primary task goal to be maintained [42]. ...
Multiple intersecting situational tasks in the field of aviation often cause air traffic controllers to face issues pertaining to interruption and task switching. To investigate the impact of task interruption on the situation awareness of air traffic controllers, two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1, which focused on 44 new graduates preparing to work in the field of air traffic control, revealed that task interruption reduced the participants’ levels of situation awareness. Experiment 2, which focused on 80 new air traffic control graduates, employed a 2 (primary task modality: visual, auditory) × 2 (interruption modality: visual, auditory) between-subjects design and revealed that the negative effect of task interruption on situation awareness was moderated by task modality. Interruptions that occur in the same modality as the primary task were shown to result in greater decreases than were cross modal interruptions. Visual interruption led to a greater decrease in situation awareness than did auditory interruption, and interruption of the visual task also caused a greater decrease in situation awareness than did interruption of the auditory task. These findings might be valuable in attempts to enhance situation awareness among air traffic controllers by providing insights into the design of human‒computer interactions in the context of an air traffic control automation system.
... There are many detailed theories of interruption handling from other fields (e.g., Altmann & Trafton, 2002;Boehm-Davis & Remington, 2009;Borst et al., 2015;Couffe & Michael, 2017;Salvucci & Taatgen, 2008, 2011Sanderson & Grundgeiger, 2015). Although they differ in the details, all these theories propose that when attention is moved between two discrete tasks, there is a process in which specific stages can be identified. ...
... Tätigkeitswechsel beschreiben einen Wechsel zwischen verschiedenen Arbeitsaufgaben. Gemäß der Zielaktivierungstheorie nach Altmann et al. [1] funktionieren Tätigkeitswechsel wie folgt: Neue Ziele und Handlungspläne werden dem Arbeitsgedächtnis bereitgestellt und dort aktiviert, wobei die alten Pläne gehemmt werden, sodass die neuen Ziele einen höheren Aktivitätsgrad aufweisen und damit handlungsleitend sind. Auch Multitasking sowie Arbeitsunterbrechungen entsprechen im weiteren Sinn Tätigkeitswechseln [3]. ...
Zusammenfassung
Trotz ihrer entscheidenden Rolle in der Patientenversorgung und der Bedeutung einer bedarfsgerechten Ernährung wurden Krankenhausküchen hinsichtlich ihres Arbeitsalltags und ihrer Belastungen in der Forschung bisher vernachlässigt. Dabei sind die Mitarbeitenden in Krankenhausküchen mit vielfältigen psychischen und physischen Belastungen konfrontiert, darunter Multitasking, Arbeitsunterbrechungen, Tätigkeitswechsel und ungünstige Körperhaltungen. Ungünstige Körperhaltungen, wie langes Stehen, repetitive Tätigkeiten und manuelle Lastenhandhabung, sind Risikofaktoren für die Entstehung muskuloskeletaler Erkrankungen, die die häufigste Ursache für Arbeitsunfähigkeit in Deutschland darstellen. Die literaturbasierte Übersichtsarbeit verdeutlicht die Arbeitsbedingungen in Krankenhausküchen mit dem Ziel, potenzielle Gesundheitsbelastungen zu identifizieren, um die Qualität der Patientenversorgung sicherzustellen und die Gesundheit der Mitarbeitenden optimal zu schützen. Eine richtlinienbezogene Beurteilung der Tätigkeiten und ergonomische Gestaltung von Arbeitsplätzen inklusive Präventionsmaßnahmen ist wichtig, um das Risiko von physischen und psychischen Erkrankungen der Mitarbeitenden zu reduzieren.
... These results can be interpreted in a way that the participants behaved more cautiously while the AMS fostered fastpaced and intensive playing. Previous research has suggested that more frequent interruptions can be beneficial over less frequent switches [54] and that faster switching may benefit rehearsal and recovery [3]. Another explanation could be that participants' load was better configured for the task [90]. ...
Attention management systems aim to mitigate the negative effects of multitasking. However, sophisticated real-time attention management is yet to be developed. We present a novel concept for attention management with reinforcement learning that automatically switches tasks. The system was trained with a user model based on principles of computational rationality. Due to this user model, the system derives a policy that schedules task switches by considering human constraints such as visual limitations and reaction times. We evaluated its capabilities in a challenging dual-task balancing game. Our results confirm our main hypothesis that an attention management system based on reinforcement learning can significantly improve human performance, compared to humans’ self-determined interruption strategy. The system raised the frequency and difficulty of task switches compared to the users while still yielding a lower subjective workload. We conclude by arguing that the concept can be applied to a great variety of multitasking settings.
... Finally, we want to emphasize that alternative implementations of the components are possible. For instance, the base level component can be simplified as B(g, u) = ln n √ tu,g,0 [1]. Thus, the adapted equation only considers the frequency (i.e., the total number of retrievals n), normalized by recency of initial retrieval (i.e, the time since the first retrieval t u,g,0 ). ...
In this chapter, we discuss how to utilize human memory models for the task of modeling music preferences for recommender systems. Therefore, we discuss the theoretical underpinnings of using cog-nitive models for user modeling and recommender systems in order to introduce a model based on the cognitive architecture ACT-R to predict the music genre preferences of users in the Last.fm platform. By implementing the declarative memory module of ACT-R, comprising past usage frequency and recency, as well as the current semantic context, we model the music relistening behavior of users. We evaluate our approach using three user groups that we identify in Last.fm, namely (i) low-mainstream music listeners, (ii) medium-mainstream music listeners, and (iii) high-mainstream music listeners. We find that our approach provides significantly higher prediction accuracy than various baseline algorithms for all three user groups, and especially for the low-mainstream user group. Since our approach is based on a well-established human memory model, we also discuss how this contributes to the transparency of the calculated predictions.
... The ubiquity of sequence errors with lag -1 in the UNRAVEL task points to the crucial importance of an episodic memory system in dealing with interruption costs. In the formulation of an influential memory-for-goals framework (Altmann & Trafton, 2002), dealing with an interruption requires holding in episodic memory a goal that was achieved just before the interruption, while pursuing the goal of the secondary task. However, it is worth noting that even long interruptions, simultaneously maximizing the fading of priming in semantic memory and the decay of goals in episodic memory, do not lead to particularly high levels of sequence errors at resumption. ...
Resuming an interrupted task requires remembering the goals that governed behaviour
immediately before the interruption. Here we examined whether forgetting of goals can be mitigated when goals of the interrupting task are related to the existing goals of the
Resuming an interrupted task requires remembering the goals that governed behaviour immediately before the interruption. Here we examined whether forgetting of goals can be mitigated when goals of both the interrupting and the interrupted task are related. Participants performed a sequence task with operations denoted by letters. This task was occasionally interrupted by a secondary task, also involving letter processing. The hypotheses were that resumption of the primary task would be facilitated if, within the interrupting task, either the letters processed (Experiment 1) or the operations denoted by these letters (Experiment 2) matched the goals immediately preceding the interruption. There were fewer errors at resumption when the letters processed or the operations performed used letters processed immediately before the interruption compared to a random letter from the sequence task. These results indicate that forgetting of goals is moderated by the similarity of the goals pursued across interrupting and interrupted tasks.
... Bailey, Konstan and Carlis (2001) aver those interruptions, such as notifications or alerts can significantly disrupt reading comprehension and can impede information processing and learning. Altmann and Trafton (2007) posit that interruptions during a task required participants to allocate additional cognitive resources for task resumption, resulting in decreased performance and longer task completion times. Monk et al. (2008) believes that interruptions during critical tasks can lead to errors, emphasizing the negative impact of interruptions on task accuracy and completion. ...
Time planning and academic performance in Ritman University, Ikot Ekpene, Akwa Ibom State Nigeria
... Building on theoretical models of interruption and resumption, these costs arise not only from the time spent on engaging with the distracting information but also from the time span needed to resume a task after getting distracted [4]. During this so-called resumption lag, information related to the interrupted task decays, which results in a more di cult access of prior goals and related task information [5][6]. To cope with these challenges, recent advances in user-centered technologies addressed the issue of working focused and productively on the computer, for instance by categorizing the user's activities and/or blocking distracting content (see [7] for a recent systematic review). ...
Distractions are omnipresent and can derail our attention, which is a precious and very limited resource. To achieve their goals in the face of distractions, people need to regulate their attention, thoughts, and behavior; this is known as self-regulation . How can self-regulation be supported or strengthened in ways that are relevant for everyday work and learning activities? To address this question, we introduce and evaluate a desktop application that helps people stay focused on their work and train self-regulation at the same time. Our application lets the user set a goal for what they want to do during a defined period of focused work at their computer, then gives negative feedback when they get distracted, and positive feedback when they reorient their attention towards their goal. After this so-called focus session, the user receives overall feedback on how well they focused on their goal relative to previous sessions. While existing approaches to attention training often use artificial tasks, our approach transforms real-life challenges into opportunities for building strong attention control skills. Our results indicate that optimal attentional feedback can generate large increases in behavioral focus, task motivation, and self-control – benefitting users to successfully achieve their long-term goals.
... On the other hand, when participants had urgent or unfinished tasks ahead, Mindful Moments seemed to be interruptive in nature. Altmann and Trafton's memory for goals model [3] postulated that active rehearsal is required in order for the worker to resume interrupted tasks; the mental processes involved in active rehearsal may undermine one's mindfulness state of being in the present moment. P6 was in the midst of a research task and shared: "I can feel how the need to complete my subsequent task is affecting my focus for this session." ...
... Peer Learning in Small Groups: Peer learning is becoming a widely practiced teaching strategy to promote learning and socialization across a range of curriculum areas (Baporikar, 2022). Research studies have documented the benefits of greater participation and socialization (Altmann, & Trafton, 2002;Gerjets, Scheiter, & Tack, 2000& Kubota, & Lin, 2006. Peer learning has also proven successful by aiding social communication skills, achievement, and enhanced self-esteem. ...
Management education is sought globally due to its applicability and employable characteristics. Management education, however, is delivered differently in different parts of the world. Various teaching methods are adopted to ensure that students are industry-ready when they graduate, but the question remains whether these methods promote powerful learning. Hence this chapter aims to critically review the teaching and learning in management education from the lens of powerful learning and suggest strategies to promote powerful learning in management education. In the process, the chapter also will discuss what powerful learning includes in general and more so for management education.
... memory items which had been repeatedly 'pushed' under newer content, should also require more effort to subsequently access (J. R. Anderson & Lebiere, 1998;Newell, 1990; for a review and critique of stack models of goal-directed memory function, see Altmann & Trafton, 2002). However, in a paradigm just like that proposed by Redish (2016), where cognitive deliberation is conceived of precisely as deliberation over representational mnemonic and sensory items, then as the representational 'stuff' of a memory episode (whatever, for the neural code metaphysicists, that stuff may actually 'be') loses substance via an amnesic effect (e.g. via downregulation of related hippocampal activity, as mentioned above; Schmitz et al., 2017), so will there be less to deliberate with when that episode is retrieved into the representational deliberation space by its specific trialappropriate context. ...
Recalling a specific past episode that will enable us to decide which action is suited to a given present situation is a core element of everyday life. A wealth of research has demonstrated that such selective remembering is dependent upon a capacity to inhibit or provisionally 'forget' related yet inappropriate memory episodes which could orient behavior in unwilled directions. Everyday-like memory (EdM) refers to this type of common organizational mnemonic capacity, known to deteriorate significantly with age, putatively as a result of decline in the cognitive capacity for selective inhibition or 'active forgetting'. Moreover, this memory retrieval-concomitant active forgetting comes at the cost of genuine amnesic weakening of the inhibited episodes, a phenomenon referred to as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). In the present study, we introduce a novel characterization of our previously validated mouse model of EdM in terms of the existing active forgetting and RIF literature. We also introduce novel behavioral analyses of the deliberation processes elicited by EdM challenge and use detailed multi-factorial explorations to reveal how these processes are impacted by age, temporal retention demand, difficulty of EdM challenge, and anticipation of trial outcome. Our observations indicate that deliberation requires remembering while accurate anticipation - in which a critical age-related deficit is also observed - requires active forgetting. Our results represent a significant advance towards unifying our understanding of the neurocognitive processes underpinning everyday-like memory, RIF, mnemonic deliberation, anticipatory function, and how they all are impacted by the physiological ageing process. In parallel, we present preliminary results using a transgenic mouse model which point to a fundamental role for the endocannabinoid system (eCS) in active forgetting and EdM, thereby demonstrating that deeper investigation of previously characterized age-related decline of the eCS should be a pre-clinical priority with a view to developing treatments for age-related decline of EdM function.
... The Stay S.A.F.E. interruption management strategy was created by Henneman et al. (2018) and was modeled after the Memory for Goals Theory by Altmann and Trafton (2002). Stay S.A.F.E. ...
Purpose:
This study measured the impact of the Stay S.A.F.E. intervention on nursing students' management of and response to interruptions during medication administration. Time to return to the primary task, performance (procedural failures and error rate), and perceived task load were evaluated.
Design:
This experimental study used a randomized prospective trial.
Methods:
Nursing students were randomized into two groups. Group 1 (the experimental group) received two educational PowerPoints: the Stay S.A.F.E. strategy and medication safety practices. Group 2 (the control group) received educational PowerPoint on medication safety practices. Nursing students participated in three simulations where they were interrupted during a simulated medication administration. Eye tracking of students' eye movements determined focus, time to return to the primary task, performance including procedural failures and errors, and fixation time on the interrupter. The perceived task load was measured using the NASA Task Load Index.
Results:
The intervention group, which is the Stay S.A.F.E. group, demonstrated a significant reduction in time away from task. There was a significant difference in perceived task load across the three simulations, including decreased frustration scores for this group as well. The control group members reported a higher mental demand, increased effort, and frustration.
Clinical relevance:
Rehabilitation units often hire new nursing graduates or individuals with little experience. For new graduates they have typically practiced their skills without interruptions. However, interruptions in performing care, particularly in medication management, occur frequently in real-world situations. Improving the education of nursing students related to interruption management has the potential to improve their transition to practice and patient care.
Conclusion:
Students who received the Stay S.A.F.E. training, a strategy to manage interruptions in care, had decreasing frustration over time and spent more time on the task of medication administration.
... Such a strategy takes advantage of a concept called interruption lag, which is the time between the cue and the interruption in Figure 1B. One model of interruptions used in cognitive science 16 implies that interruption lags can be used to make it easier to return to a primary task in two ways: improving memory for important retrospective (e.g., "What was I doing?") and prospective (e.g., "What was I about to do?") information. Evidence shows that taking just 2 seconds to prepare for an upcoming interruption can improve performance on some primary tasks. ...
Interruptions are an inevitable occurrence in health care. Interruptions in diagnostic decision-making are no exception and can have negative consequences on both the decision-making process and well-being of the decision-maker. This may result in inaccurate or delayed diagnoses. To date, research specific to interruptions on diagnostic decision-making has been limited, but strategies to help manage the negative impacts of interruptions need to be developed and implemented. In this perspective, we first present a modified model of interruptions to visualize the interruption process and illustrate where potential interventions can be implemented. We then consider several empirically tested strategies from the fields of health care and cognitive psychology that can lay the groundwork for additional research to mitigate effects of interruptions during diagnostic decision-making. We highlight strategies to minimize the negative impacts of interruptions as well as strategies to prevent interruptions altogether. Additionally, we build upon these strategies to propose specific research priorities within the field of diagnostic safety. Identifying effective interventions to help clinicians better manage interruptions has the potential to minimize diagnostic errors and improve patient outcomes.
... The effects of multitasking in digital contexts have been analysed with varying levels of task difficulties (Adler & Benbunan-Fich, 2015). Multitasking under difficult task conditions can be detrimental to students' performance possibly because it can result in too much arousal and an overload in students' working memory (Altmann & Trafton, 2002). By contrast, under easy task conditions, multitasking can lead to significantly better performance than no multitasking or voluntary multitasking. ...
... Most of the interruption literature has investigated the impact of task based interruptions such as being interrupted by a phone call or writing an email. In these situations, Altmann and Trafton (2002) propose a memory for goals theory to explain interruption recovery which states that the cognitive impact of an interruption is correlated with the amount of time it takes an individual to recover from the interruption and continue their task. An MII is expected to result in the affected individual ceasing their primary task to adjust their stance and maintain balance. ...
This paper takes a preliminary look at the direct effects of Motion Induced Interruptions (MIIs) on cognitive perfor-mance. Understanding the direct and indirect effects of motion on cognitive performance is becoming increasingly important as crewing limitations and job requirements increase operator workload. In addition, we explored the suitability of mobile tablet technology in motion environments. To do this, participants performed a data logging task using a tablet and traditional pen/paper while experiencing ship motion. MIIs occurred in sea states 4 and 5 on the Beaufort Scale. MIIs had an impact on the number of data transcriptions, but not the accuracy of data transcriptions. Performance accuracy and number of transcriptions were lower when participants used the tablet. The results of this experiment indicate that MIIs should be considered as a form of task distraction that results in increased time on task. As mobile technologies allow for more operator mobility MIIs are likely to become a larger issue. Future research will continue to investigate the impact of MIIs and motion on cognitive task performance. Answering these questions will allow us to offer mitigation strategies with potential implications on operator technology interaction, crewing and operator guidelines.
... Another operational example lies into the capacity to manage interruptions, an important component for aircraft pilots (Loukopoulos et al. 2009). Interruption recovery has been importantly related to the ability to retrieve from memory goals of the interrupted task (Altmann and Trafton 2002). In that regard, improving memory (e.g., via neurostimulation over the DLFPC for working memory augmentation; Feltman et al. 2020;Russowsky Brunoni and Vanderhasselt 2014) could represent an interesting avenue for pilots before a flight to facilitate the challenges experienced from task interruptions. ...
Efforts have always been deployed to surpass limitations in human cognitive abilities to enhance aspects such as task accuracy, work effectiveness, and error management. Cognitive enhancement is a field aiming at improving human cognition to overcome those limitations. It bears important interest from the human factors community given its potential for reducing errors in complex operational environments, but also for occupational psychology to improve work performance, mitigate risks, and improve job stress/well-being. Yet, cognitive enhancement strategies are still marginally used in practice. The current narrative review presents a brief summary of the literature on human cognitive enhancement and discusses key implications as well as operational applications of the main methods and technologies reported in this field. Using a human factors perspective, the paper also outlines how such techniques could be integrated into intelligent support systems to help operators facing cognitive challenges in complex operational domains, including those experiencing functional limitations preventing them to contribute to the workforce. We also discuss the implications of integrating such techniques into the workplace and the consequences this might incur for workers and stakeholders. Then, we briefly present a five-step guideline to discuss ways of optimally integrating cognitive enhancement methods into the workplace.
Distractions are omnipresent and can derail our attention, which is a precious and very limited resource. To achieve their goals in the face of distractions, people need to regulate their attention, thoughts, and behavior; this is known as self-regulation. How can self-regulation be supported or strengthened in ways that are relevant for everyday work and learning activities? To address this question, we introduce and evaluate a desktop application that helps people stay focused on their work and train self-regulation at the same time. Our application lets the user set a goal for what they want to do during a defined period of focused work at their computer, then gives negative feedback when they get distracted, and positive feedback when they reorient their attention towards their goal. After this so-called focus session, the user receives overall feedback on how well they focused on their goal relative to previous sessions. While existing approaches to attention training often use artificial tasks, our approach transforms real-life challenges into opportunities for building strong attention control skills. Our results indicate that optimal attentional feedback can generate large increases in behavioral focus, task motivation, and self-control—benefitting users to successfully achieve their long-term goals.
As the cost of rendering immersive virtual reality goes down, VR technology has the potential to improve the learning outcomes of educational and training programs. In this context, it is important to identify the advantages and pitfalls of using VR as a training tool. This review is an attempt to evaluate VR technology as a training tool and various factors that impact its effectiveness. It was found that virtual reality has been used and tested extensively in surgical training with mixed results. Apart from the effectiveness and the cost of VR as a training tool, the other factors that will influence the widespread adoption of this technology for training are skill retention and task interruption. If VR is to be used for longer training sessions, interruptions are inevitable in the form of restroom breaks, texting etc., and hence it is important to study their impact on learning outcomes. Hence, a brief review of these topics in the context of VR and learning has been included in this study. In conclusion, it was found that although the use of VR as a training tool holds a lot of promise, its widespread adoption will depend on its adaptability to different training settings and its impact on learning outcomes, including factors like skill retention and task interruption.
Background
Interruptions and distractions are pervasive in health care settings, increase risks for errors, and decrease task efficiency. Researchers recommend the use of strategies to mitigate their negative effects.
Purpose
The purpose was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of (1) an education bundle that included an interruption management strategy and (2) simulated scenarios with embedded interruptions and distractions.
Methods
Nineteen undergraduate nursing students participated in this repeated-measures, multimethods feasibility study. Data on interruption management behaviors were collected across 3 timepoints via direct observation of individual-simulated medication administration. Participants' perceptions of the education bundle were explored via semistructured interviews.
Results
Participants described the simulated scenarios as realistic and interruption management strategy as easy to use and remember. Participants voiced increased confidence in handling interruptions after learning the strategy. The strategy averaged 4 seconds to apply.
Conclusions
Findings support the feasibility and acceptability of the bundle and need for studies to investigate the impact of the strategy on errors and task durations.
Objectives:
To examine the effect of automatic communication notifications on performance and strain. Because of the benefits of communication, we expected this effect to be moderated by fear of missing out (FoMO) and social norms of responsiveness, expressed in the experience of telepressure.
Methods:
A field experiment (N = 247) was conducted in which participants in the experimental group disabled their notification during 1 day (N = 124).
Results:
The findings revealed that a reduction of notification-caused interruptions is beneficial for performance and reducing strain. The moderating of FoMO and telepressure was significant for performance.
Conclusions:
Based on these findings, reducing the number of notifications is recommended, especially for employee's low in FoMO and medium to high telepressure. Future work needs to analyze the role of anxiety impeding cognitive performance when notifications are disabled.
A nationwide sample of 129 police officers participated in a study aimed at validating and presenting practical implications of a selection procedure for applicants to an educational program for Norwegian police drone pilots. The subjects were part of a selection program for a training and qualification course for police drone pilots. The selection program consisted of tests of spatial orientation, logical reasoning, attentional selection, sustained attention, and visual short-term memory, in addition to a performance test in a drone flight simulator. The aim of the study was to evaluate the cognitive tests used in the selection program and their relation to performance during the simulated flight. The results from the untrained applicants revealed low-to-moderate intercorrelations of the cognitive tests. Only spatial orientation, logical reasoning, and attentional selection were correlated to the performance measures of skills and proficiency. Stepwise regression analysis showed that only spatial orientation and attentional selection had unique contributions in explaining the variance in both measures of performance. Implications are discussed on both practical and scientific levels. The positive implications of using untrained respondents, the use of proficiency measures in addition to skills, the building of a clearinghouse for drone selection data, and considering both the job-analyzes and the total test-performance when interpreting the applicant’s test-scores are discussed.
Task management tools allow people to record, track, and manage task-related information across their work and personal contexts. As work contexts have shifted amid the COVID-19 pandemic, it has become important to understand how these tools are continuing or failing to support peoples’ work-related and personal needs. In this paper, we examine and probe practices for managing task-related information across the work-life boundary. We report findings from an online survey deployed to 150 information workers during Summer 2019 (i.e., pre-pandemic) and 70 information workers at the same organization during Summer 2020 (i.e., mid-pandemic). Across both survey cohorts, we characterize these cross-boundary task management practices, exploring the central role that physical and digital tools play in managing task-related information that arises at inopportune times. We conclude with a discussion of the opportunities and challenges for future productivity tools that aid people in managing task-related information across their personal and work contexts.
How does cognition develop in infants, children and adolescents? This handbook presents a cutting-edge overview of the field of cognitive development, spanning basic methodology, key domain-based findings and applications. Part One covers the neurobiological constraints and laws of brain development, while Part Two covers the fundamentals of cognitive development from birth to adulthood: object, number, categorization, reasoning, decision-making and socioemotional cognition. The final Part Three covers educational and school-learning domains, including numeracy, literacy, scientific reasoning skills, working memory and executive skills, metacognition, curiosity-driven active learning and more. Featuring chapters written by the world's leading scholars in experimental and developmental psychology, as well as in basic neurobiology, cognitive neuroscience, computational modelling and developmental robotics, this collection is the most comprehensive reference work to date on cognitive development of the twenty-first century. It will be a vital resource for scholars and graduate students in developmental psychology, neuroeducation and the cognitive sciences.
This article summarizes Sidgman, Brown, and Brazel (2021) which demonstrates that, when multitasking, the performance of audit teams communicating in-person is greater than the performance of teams using computer-mediated communication (discussion boards and chatrooms). In the audit setting, multitasking is unavoidable and pervasive; in-person communication is not always an option. To facilitate multitasking, engagement team communications have extended in-person interactions to computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies. However, little is known about the performance of multitasking teams under these alternative modes of communication (in-person, discussion boards, and chatrooms). Contrary to expectations, we find that participants' familiarity with, and preference for, chatroom features (similar to text messaging) may have offset the benefits previously attributed to discussion boards (similar to email). This finding is timely, given the pandemic-induced environment of remote and hybrid work, as it informs practitioners on audit teams' multitasking effectiveness while using CMC.
The fan effect (J. R. Anderson, 1974) has been attributed to interference among competing associations to a concept. Recently, it has been suggested that such effects might be due to multiple mental models (G. A. Radvansky, D. H. Spieler, & R. T. Zacks, 1993) or suppression of concepts (M. C. Anderson & B. A. Spellman, 1995; A. R. A. Conway & R. W. Engle, 1994). It was found that the Adaptive Control of Thought - Rational (ACT-R) theory, which embodies associative interference, is consistent with the results of G. A. Radvansky et al. and that there is no evidence for concept suppression in a new fan experiment. The ACT-R model provides good quantitative fits to the results, as shown in a variety of experiments. The 3 key concepts in these fits are (a) the associative strength between 2 concepts reflects the degree to which one concept predicts the other; (b) foils are rejected by retrieving mismatching facts; and (c) participants can adjust the relative weights they give to various cues in retrieval.
Direct manipulation has been lauded as a good form of interface design, and some interfaces that have this property have been well received by users. In this article we seek a cognitive account of both the advantages and disadvantages of direct manipulation interfaces. We identify two underlying phenomena that give rise to the feeling of directness. One deals with the information processing distance between the user's intentions and the facilities provided by the machine. Reduction of this distance makes the interface feel direct by reducing the effort required of the user to accomplish goals. The second phenomenon concerns the relation between the input and output vocabularies of the interface language. In particular, direct manipulation requires that the system provide representations of objects that behave as if they are the objects themselves. This provides the feeling of directness of manipulation.
The ACT-R system is a general system for modeling a wide range of higher level cognitive processes. Recently, it has been embellished with a theory of how its higher level processes interact with a visual interface. This includes a theory of how visual attention can move across the screen, encoding information into a form that can be processed by ACT-R. This system is applied to modeling several classic phenomena in the literature that depend on the speed and selectivity with which visual attention can move across a visual display. ACT-R is capable of interacting with the same computer screens that subjects do and, as such, is well suited to provide a model for tasks involving human-computer interaction. In this article, we discuss a demonstration of ACT-R's application to menu selection and show that the ACT-R theory makes unique predictions, without estimating any parameters, about the time to search a menu. These predictions are confirmed.
Project Ernestine served a pragmatic as well as a scientific goal: to compare the worktimes of telephone company toll and assistance operators on two different workstations and to validate a GOMS analysis for predicting and explaining real-world performance. Contrary to expectations, GOMS predicted and the data confirmed that performance with the proposed workstation was slower than with the current one. Pragmatically, this increase in performance time translates into a cost of almost $2 million a year to NYNEX. Scientifically, the GOMS models predicted performance with exceptional accuracy. The empirical data provided us with three interesting results: proof that the new workstation was slower than the old one, evidence that this difference was not constant but varied with call category, and (in a trial that spanned 4 months and collected data on 72,450 phone calls) proof that performance on the new workstation stabilized after the first month. The GOMS models predicted the first two results and explained all three. In this article, we discuss the process and results of model building as well as the design and outcome of the field trial. We assess the accuracy of GOMS predictions and use the mechanisms of the models to explain the empirical results. Last, we demonstrate how the GOMS models can be used to guide the design of a new workstation and evaluate design decisions before they are implemented.
The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect. We used a lexical-decision task to replicate that shorter latencies were associated with uncompleted intentions as compared with neutral materials (Experiments 1 and 3). Experiments 2–4, however, demonstrated that latencies were longer for completed scripts as compared with neutral materials. In Experiment 4, shorter latencies were also obtained for partially completed scripts. The results are discussed in terms of the activation and inhibition that may guide behavior, as well as how these results may inform theories of prospective memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article presents a theory in which automatization is construed as the acquisition of a domain-specific knowledge base, formed of separate representations,
instances, of each exposure to the task. Processing is considered automatic if it relies on retrieval of stored instances, which will occur only after practice in a consistent environment. Practice is important because it increases the amount retrieved and the speed of retrieval; consistency is important because it ensures that the retrieved instances will be useful. The theory accounts quantitatively for the power-function speed-up and predicts a power-function reduction in the standard deviation that is constrained to have the same exponent as the power function for the speed-up. The theory accounts for qualitative properties as well, explaining how some may disappear and others appear with practice. More generally, it provides an alternative to the modal view of automaticity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It was argued that the basic principles of operation of human memory can be understood as an optimization to the information-retrieval task that human memory faces. Basically, memory is using the statistics derived from past experience to predict what memories are currently relevant. It was shown that the effects of frequency, recency, and spacing of practice can be predicted from the statistical properties of information use. The effects of memory prompts, cues, and primes can be predicted on the assumption that memory is estimating which knowledge will be needed from past statistics about interitem associations. This analysis was extended to account for fan effects. Memory strategies were analyzed as external to the process of statistical optimization. Memory strategies are attempts to manipulate the statistics of information presentation to influence the optimal solution derived from memory. The classic buffer-rehearsal model for free recall is analyzed as a strategy to manipulate the statistics of information presentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In sequential retrieval, 2 repetition effects are observed: repetition facilitation and perseveration errors (incorrect repetition). The characteristics of these effects were examined in 2 mental arithmetic experiments. Addition problems were sequenced with frequent repetition, and trials were precued to indicate the probability of repetition or nonrepetition on the next trial. Both stimulus and response repetition trials were facilitated, especially after repetition cues. Perseveration errors were most frequent for consecutive trials similar to repetition pairs, supporting the hypothesis that repetition trials are identified by a familiarity assessment process. Although perseveration errors are typically less frequent than chance in arithmetic, this effect was not sensitive to nonrepetition cues, suggesting that perseveration errors are not controlled strategically. The implications of these results are discussed with reference to repetition effects and inhibitory processes in sequential retrieval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 4 experiments the authors investigated dynamic properties of representations of intentions. After Ss had memorized 2 texts describing simple activities, they were instructed that they would have to later execute one of the scripts. On an intervening recognition test, words from the to-be-executed script produced faster latencies than did words from a 2nd to-be-memorized script. This intention-superiority effect was obtained even when (1) selective encoding and poststudy imagery or rehearsal of the to-be-executed script was prohibited and (2) Ss expected a final free-recall test for both scripts. In a control condition in which Ss had to observe someone else executing a script, latencies for words from the to-be-observed script did not differ from neutral words. In conclusion, representations of intentions show a heightened level of subthreshold activation in long-term memory that cannot be accounted for by the use of controlled strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The fan effect (J. R. Anderson, 1974) has been attributed to interference among competing associations to a concept. Recently, it has been suggested that such effects might be due to multiple mental models (G. A. Radvansky, D. H. Spieler & R. T. Zacks, 1993) or suppression of concepts (M. C. Anderson & B. A. Spellman, 1995; A. R. A. Conway & R. W. Engle, 1994). It was found that the Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) theory, which embodies associative interference, is consistent with the results of G. A. Radvansky et al. and that there is no evidence for concept suppression in a new fan experiment. The ACT-R model provides good quantitative fits to the results, as shown in a variety of experiments. The 3 key concepts in these fits are (a) the associative strength between 2 concepts reflects the degree to which one concept predicts the other; (b) foils are rejected by retrieving mismatching facts; and (c) participants can adjust the relative weights they give to various cues in retrieval.
Abstract What is the role of a cognitive architecture in shaping a model built within it? Compared with a model written in a programming language, the cognitive architecture offers theoretical constraints. These constraints can be “soft”, in that some ways of constructing a model are facilitated and others made,more difficult, or they can be “hard”, in that certain aspects of a model are enforced and others are ruled out. We illustrate various of these possibilities. In the case of Soar, its learning mechanism is sufficiently constraining that it imposes hard constraints on models constructed within it. We describe how one of these hard constraints deriving from,Soar’s learning mechanism,ensures that models constructed within Soar must learn a display-based skill and, other things being equal, must find display-based devices easier to learn than keyboard-based
In sequential retrieval, 2 repetition effects are observed: repetition facilitation and perseveration errors (incorrect repetition). The characteristics of these effects were examined in 2 mental arithmetic experiments. Addition problems were sequenced with frequent repetition, and trials were precued to indicate the probability of repetition or nonrepetition on the next trial. Both stimulus and response repetition trials were facilitated, especially after repetition cues. Perseveration errors were most frequent for consecutive trials similar to repetition pairs, supporting the hypothesis that repetition trials are identified by a familiarity assessment process. Although perseveration errors are typically less frequent than chance in arithmetic, this effect was not sensitive to nonrepetition cues, suggesting that perseveration errors are not controlled strategically. The implications of these results are discussed with reference to repetition effects and inhibitory processes in sequential retrieval.
This article presents a theory in which automatization is construed as the acquisition of a domain-specific knowledge base, formed of separate representations, instances, of each exposure to the task. Processing is considered automatic if it relies on retrieval of stored instances, which will occur only after practice in a consistent environment. Practice is important because it increases the amount retrieved and the speed of retrieval; consistency is important because it ensures that the retrieved instances will be useful. The theory accounts quantitatively for the power-function speed-up and predicts a power-function reduction in the standard deviation that is constrained to have the same exponent as the power function for the speed-up. The theory accounts for qualitative properties as well, explaining how some may disappear and others appear with practice. More generally, it provides an alternative to the modal view of automaticity, arguing that novice performance is limited by a lack of knowledge rather than a scarcity of resources. The focus on learning avoids many problems with the modal view that stem from its focus on resource limitations.
The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl(1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect. We used a lexical-decision task to replicate that shorter latencies were associated with uncompleted intentions as compared with neutral materials (Experiments 1 and 3). Experiments 2-4, however, demonstrated that latencies were longer for completed scripts as compared with neutral materials. In Experiment 3, shorter latencies were also obtained for partially completed scripts. The results are discussed in terms of the activation and inhibition that may guide behavior, as well as how these results may inform theories of prospective memory.
A new theoretical framework, executive-process interactive control (EPIC), is introduced for characterizing human performance of concurrent perceptual-motor and cognitive tasks. On the basis of EPIC, computational models may be formulated to simulate multiple-task performance under a variety of circumstances. These models account well for reaction-time data from representative situations such as the psychological refractory-period procedure. EPIC's goodness of fit supports several key conclusions: (a) At a cognitive level, people can apply distinct sets of production rules simultaneously for executing the procedures of multiple tasks; (b) people's capacity to process information at "peripheral" perceptual-motor levels is limited; (c) to cope with such limits and to satisfy task priorities, flexible scheduling strategies are used; and (d) these strategies are mediated by executive cognitive processes that coordinate concurrent tasks adaptively.
Publisher Summary
Processes of learning and memory are typically conceptualized as involving at least three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Retrieval refers to accessing the stored information. Retrieval processes are inextricably bound to those of encoding and storage. This chapter reviews two basic ways of studying retrieval processes: (1) giving retrieval cues during a test and (2) testing people repeatedly with the same cues. The methods of studying retrieval include (1) repeated testing (without intervening study opportunities); (2) presentation of cues at test; (3) judgments made during retrieval; and (4) comparison of different instructions at retrieval. The chapter describes one general principle that is considered as governing retrieval of memories; and presents two other principles that seem to apply. The encoding/retrieval paradigm is introduced that represents a fundamentally important method of studying retrieval processes and their interaction with encoding processes. The chapter then reviews how the encoding/retrieval paradigm has been applied to understand various phenomena; and discusses the effects of prior retrieval on later retrieval.
Rational Models of Cognition is the first book to gather together recent work on the rational analysis approach to understanding the human mind. This new approach, most closely associated with the work of John R. Anderson, regards thinking as a faculty adapted to the structure of the world. Chapters, written by some of the world's leading researchers in memory, categorization, reasoning, and search, show how the power of rational analysis can be applied to the central question of how humans think. This book will be of interest to students and researchers in cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and animal behavior.
The cognitive “revolution” in psychology introduced a new concept of explanation and somewhat novel methods of gathering and interpreting evidence. These innovations assume that it is essential to explain complex phenomena at several levels, symbolic as well as physiological; complementary, not competitive. As with the other sciences, such complementarity makes possible a comprehensive and unified experimental psychology. Contemporary cognitive psychology also introduced complementarity of another kind, drawing upon, and drawing together, both the behaviorist and the Gestalt traditions.
Abstract Research has shown,the importance of strategies in guiding problem,solving behavior. The experiment ,and ,model presented here provide further specification of how more optimal strategies come,to be adopted,with experience. Isomorphs of the Tower,of Hanoi were,used,to allow participants to develop a degree of expertise with a novel task. In the solutions, evidence for at least two strategies is apparent. The results suggest that when,strategies are not successful in achieving the goal, other strategies may emerge and eventually come,to dominate performance,in a task. The ACT-R model,of this task captures participant performance by using the same,strategies to solve the problems,and by gradually switching ,to more ,effective ones ,as simple strategies fail in solving the problems.
The issue of strategy selection in solving the Tower of Hanoi (TOH) problem is investigated by focusing on the critical issues of whether the selection process is contingent and adaptive. The results of an experiment in which participants solved a series of different four-disk TOH problems under instructions requiring accuracy maximization vs. effort minimization are presented. A computer simulation, comparing a number of known strategies to the experimental data, has been carried out to try to identify the strategies used by the participants. The findings support the hypothesis of adaptive and contingent strategy selection in the TOH domain.
The tower of Hanoi problem is used to show that, even in simple problem environments, numerous distinct solution strategies are available, and different subjects may learn different strategies. Four major classes of solution strategies are described for the problem. Different strategies have different degrees of transferability, place different burdens on short-term memory and on perception, and require different learning processes for their acquisition. The analysis underscores the importance of subject-by-subject analysis of “what is learned” in understanding human behavior in problem-solving situations, and provides a technique for describing subjects' task performance programs in detail.
Long-term memory for sequential position was examined following retention intervals that ranged from 30 sec to 24 h. The Estes perturbation model (1972) is shown to provide a reasonable qualitative fit of the dynamics of forgetting, even though the model was designed to account for the phenomena of immediate memory. Similarities among the forgetting processes ofshort-and long-term memory are considered.
The problem-solving behavior of subjects presented with a series of Tower of Hanoi problems is examined. A production system model which incorporates elements of domain-specific knowledge into a general problem-solving framework is presented. Other models developed for the task are based on understanding of complete solution strategies and are not satisfactory models of nonexpert human performance. The current model discriminates between problem-solving behavior based on constraint knowledge and behavior based on nonspecific general search strategies. A variety of move choice and latency measures are used to compare the performance of the model to human subject performance.
Excerpts available on Google Books (see link below). For more information, go to publisher's website : http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780805822335/
The ACT-R theory (Anderson, 1993; Anderson & Lebiere, 1998) is applied to the list memory paradigms of serial recall, recognition memory, free recall, and implicit memory. List memory performance in ACT-R is determined by the level of activation of declarative chunks which encode that items occur in the list. This level of activation is in turn determined by amount of rehearsal, delay, and associative fan from a list node. This theory accounts for accuracy and latency profiles in backward and forward serial recall, set size effects in the Sternberg paradigm, length–strength effects in recognition memory, the Tulving–Wiseman function, serial position, length and practice effects in free recall, and lexical priming in implicit memory paradigms. This wide variety of effects is predicted with minimal parameter variation. It is argued that the strength of the ACT-R theory is that it offers a completely specified processing architecture that serves to integrate many existing models in the literature.
People who solve the Tower of Hanoi start out with a guided trial- and-error strategy and later acquire a recursive strategy, the generally most effective strategy. Protocol data shows that noticing and using subtowers in problem-solving differentiates two subjects who acquired the recursive strategy from one who did not. A working Soar model explains Tower of Hanoi strategy- acquisition by first assuming the basic ability to notice and use subtowers, and then charting the process by which this new knowledge is integrated with existing knowledge to produce the recursive strategy. Of particular importance in the integration is learning to see nested subtowers and using simple spatial- manipulation reasoning to figure out how to move those subtowers. The model shows a good qualitative fit to the data, providing support for Soar as a unified theory of human cognition. (kr)
This book identifies how excitatory and inhibitory messages in the human nervous system combine and coordinate to affect attention, cognition, memory, and language. Communication within the nervous system involves the excitation and inhibition of neurons. How these processes interact to influence cognition and behavioral performance has been an area of ongoing investigation that is once again at the forefront of cognitive research. This volume brings together cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists to identify the neural evidence for inhibitory mechanisms in cognitive processing and discusses how these inhibitory mechanisms subsequently affect cognition and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the causes for large differences in difficulty of various isomorphic versions of the Tower of Hanoi problem in 6 experiments with 191 undergraduates. Since isomorphism rules out size of task domain as a determinant of relative difficulty, the present experiments identified causes for the differences in problem representation. Results show that (1) the solution process depended on Ss' expertise in utilizing problem rules to make moves, (2) the automation of the rule-using behavior was a necessary precursor to planning behavior, and (3) a small amount of planning capability enabled a rapid solution. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A profitable way of seeing 'Plans,' therefore, is as an act of persuasion, an attempt to show that a scientifically acceptable language could discuss real human functions such as those disturbed in brain injury; but without unwarranted assumptions about the actual physiological mechanisms. From this aspect, notice in the following pages the clear, simple, and appealing accounts of early cybernetic work. The analysis of computability by Turing, of neural nets by McCulloch and Pitts, of precise formulations of grammar by Chomsky, and of concept learning by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austion, had already appeared. . . . The summaries of this work in 'Plans' have probably never been bettered either for accuracy or for level of literary quality. The readers then, and the readers now, could see without effort what was being claimed, why it was important, and the promise it gave for the future.
If it were only a summary of pre-existing ideas, however, the book might merely have had its persuasive effect and then been forgotten. It added other ideas as well, less visible in earlier work. One in particular, the concept of the TOTE [Text-Operate-Text-Exit] unit, is probably the most frequently cited by later writers. . . . In addition to the TOTE unit, there were a number of other ideas that are not usually quoted as coming from this book; but whose influence is clearly visible in later research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Briefly summarizes the general ideas of behavior and cognitive theories and examines, from the point of view of the behavior theorist, the 11 designs for dissociation experiments reviewed by W. F. Brewer (see PA, Vol 54:Issue 1) and used to investigate the conditioning process. It is argued that experiments within these designs do not crucially support cognitive theory in opposition to behavior theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Serial attention involves adopting a task set (or intention to do a task), maintaining that set for a time, then shifting set. When set must be shifted often, serial attention is difficult because old sets cannot be forgotten instantly and will interfere with the current one. This memory perspective on set shifting is the basis for a computational cognitive model that explains a variety of effects in serial attention, some well-documented (e.g., RT switch cost) and some novel (e.g., within-run slowing). The mechanisms producing these effects are tightly integrated with each other and with memory theory. The model absorbs extant accounts of set shifting, including failure to prepare (De Jong, Berendsen, & Cools, 1999) and exogenous cueing (Rogers & Monsell, 1995), and promises to unify the effects presented here with other set-shifting phenomena.
Classic work on interruptions by Zeigarnik showed that tasks that were interrupted were more likely to be recalled after a delay than tasks that were not interrupted. Much of the literature on interruptions has been devoted to examining this effect, although more recently interruptions have been used to choose between competing designs for interfaces to complex devices. However, none of this work looks at what makes some interruptions disruptive and some not. This series of experiments uses a novel computer-based adventure-game methodology to investigate the effects of the length of the interruption, the similarity of the interruption to the main task, and the complexity of processing demanded by the interruption. It is concluded that subjects make use of some form of non-articulatory memory which is not affected by the length of the interruption. It is affected by processing similar material however, and by a complex mentalarithmetic task which makes large demands on working memory.