Article

Mushroom picking does not impair future harvests - Results of a long-term study in Switzerland

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Forest fungi not only have important functions within the forest ecosystem, but picking their fruit bodies is also a popular past time, as well as a source of income in many developing and developed countries. The expansion of commercial harvesting in many parts of the world has led to widespread concern about overharvesting and possible damage to fungal resources. In 1975, we started a field research project to investigate the effects of mushroom picking on fruit body occurrence. The three treatments applied were the harvesting techniques picking and cutting, and the concomitant trampling of the forest floor. The results reveal that, contrary to expectations, long-term and systematic harvesting reduces neither the future yields of fruit bodies nor the species richness of wild forest fungi, irrespective of whether the harvesting technique was picking or cutting. Forest floor trampling does, however, reduce fruit body numbers, but our data show no evidence that trampling damaged the soil mycelia in the studied time period.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... The effects of fungal trade on species and ecosystems are difficult to assess, limiting insights into its sustainability and the risks it poses to biodiversity (Egli et al., 2006). Understanding of the ecological roles of fungi and the consequences of their decline is lacking. ...
... The first component of the research agenda deals with the ecological impacts of fungi harvesting (Egli et al., 2006). This should encompass studying the effects of harvesting on fungal sustainability and the wider ecosystem (Hopping et al., 2018). ...
... Surveys were conducted on a weekly basis, during the May to November growing season, among five 300 m 2 plots. These plots were subdivided into three 100 m 2 subplots, each of which experienced a distinct mushroom surveying/harvesting procedure: picking, cutting and no harvest (Egli et al., 2006). From the years 1980 to 1983, only edible species were recorded. ...
... org). Further information on the mushroom sampling procedure is detailed in Straatsma et al. (2001) and Egli et al. (2006). Sporocarp counts and presence/absence data were both modelled in this current study, detailed in the statistical analyses section below (Andrew et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
Mast seeding is a well‐documented phenomenon across diverse forest ecosystems. While its effect on aboveground food webs has been thoroughly studied, how it impacts the soil fungi that drive soil carbon and nutrient cycling has not yet been explored. To evaluate the relationship between mast seeding and fungal resource availability, we paired a Swiss 29‐year fungal sporocarp census with contemporaneous seed production for European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). On average, mast seeding was associated with a 55% reduction in sporocarp production and a compositional community shift towards drought‐tolerant taxa across both ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic guilds. Among ectomycorrhizal fungi, traits associated with carbon cost did not explain species' sensitivity to seed production. Together, our results support a novel hypothesis that mast seeding limits annual resource availability and reproductive investment in soil fungi, creating an ecosystem ‘rhythm’ to forest processes that is synchronized above‐ and belowground.
... Fungi collection in ancient woodland may need further research to identify the effect of harvesting on the abundance of spores required to maintain populations although picking the fruit bodies themselves does not reduce the abundance or diversity of fungi (Egli et al. 2006). Despite this, Forestry England discourage the harvesting of fungi within the New Forest (Lake et al., 2020). ...
... It could be argued that compaction of soil through trampling will be detrimental to fungi through damage to mycelia but this appears not so. Trampling destroys mushrooms and toadstools during the early stages of growth prior to fruiting but does little or no damage to the mycelia (Egli et al., 2006). ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
Ancient woodland is a finite resource which cannot be replicated once lost. Pressures from development are varied and not always obvious. Without a thorough understanding of the ecology of individual woodland and trees these pressures are difficult to predict, assess and mitigate. This report reviews evidence, recommends mitigation and management, identifies evidence gaps, and proposes some research properties. Published by the British Ecological Society (Applied Ecology Resources) at https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/applied-ecology-resources/document/20210404233/
... The dynamics of ecosystems are often complex and non-linear, due to feedbacks between the different components that make up the ecosystem [2] and to the fact that the patterns of variation in fungal distribution and abundance, as well as the possible drivers of these patterns, are insufficiently known [3,4]. Multiple factors can influence fungal fruiting: Habitat destruction [5,6], climate [7][8][9][10][11], vegetation type and forest composition [12,13], natural heterogeneity of resources in the soil matrix [14], the availability of carbohydrates and other nutrients, in particular, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium [15][16][17], soil pH [18][19][20], human pressure [21], livestock pressure [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] or pollution [23], among others. Changes in environmental conditions can cause many possible responses-critical, gradual or local-in the ecosystem and shift the system from a stable to an alternative state [24]. ...
... The dynamics of ecosystems are often complex and non-linear, due to feedbacks between the different components that make up the ecosystem [2] and to the fact that the patterns of variation in fungal distribution and abundance, as well as the possible drivers of these patterns, are insufficiently known [3,4]. Multiple factors can influence fungal fruiting: Habitat destruction [5,6], climate [7][8][9][10][11], vegetation type and forest composition [12,13], natural heterogeneity of resources in the soil matrix [14], the availability of carbohydrates and other nutrients, in particular, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium [15][16][17], soil pH [18][19][20], human pressure [21], livestock pressure [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] or pollution [23], among others. Changes in environmental conditions can cause many possible responses-critical, gradual or local-in the ecosystem and shift the system from a stable to an alternative state [24]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The fungal biodiversity associated with a stable plant community appears to vary from year to year. To analyse the annual behaviour in the formation of fruiting bodies, a statistical study of the data obtained for 4 years (2009–2012) in an apparently undisturbed Mediterranean ecosystem dominated by the holm oak (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.), located in the Midwest of the Iberian Peninsula, was carried out. These data were related to the main meteorological variables. The 150 species collected showed a significant annual, monthly, and weekly difference in their fruiting during the collection period. All this implies a variation in the annual fungal fruiting which can modify the moment of when maximum peaks of fruiting appear, their duration, and the number of species that compose them. In addition, the results make it possible to establish an annual behaviour pattern, with sporocarp formation throughout the year and four fruiting groups (two of them in the dry season). They also allow for inferring a possible response to climate change, with a delay in the fruiting of the autumn-winter group and earlier fruit bearing in the winter-spring group.
... Empirical evidence reveals that although long-term and systematic harvesting does not reduce the future yields of fruit bodies nor the species richness of wild forest fungi, forest floor trampling reduces fruit body numbers [85]. In Europe, the UK, and Asia, some mushroom species (e.g., Agarikon-Laricifomes officinalis, White Ferula Mushroom-Pleurotus nebrodensis) have become rare due to lack of sustainable mushroom foraging methods. ...
... In this respect, our results have interesting policy implications and can support policymakers in designing sustainable, non-depleting resource exploitation. Empirical evidence reveals that although long-term and systematic harvesting does not reduce the future yields of fruit bodies nor the species richness of wild forest fungi, forest floor trampling reduces fruit body numbers [85]. In Europe, the UK, and Asia, some mushroom species (e.g., Agarikon-Laricifomes officinalis, White Ferula Mushroom-Pleurotus nebrodensis) have become rare due to lack of sustainable mushroom foraging methods. ...
Article
Full-text available
Agricultural land and forestlands can have multiple uses and generate multiple sources of utility. Although landowners benefit from most of them, society can benefit from others because of their intrinsic characteristics as common-property resources and customary practice. In many Italian territories, the picking of mushrooms is allowed on privately owned agricultural land and in forests. The management of these resources is challenging due to the emerging conflicts between landowners and users. In addition, the pressure exerted by users gives rise to issues on stock preservation, thus contributing to putting biodiversity at risk in contexts already heavily jeopardized by modern agriculture. Through the years, regulation established the primacy of the landowner’s right, introduced a permit fee for users, and set limits on the resource stock to be collected daily. Nonetheless, the relationship between public and private interests in common-property resource exploitation is still controversial. In this paper, we investigate and model a right holder’s decision whether to exploit a common-property resource according to their actual status of being an actual or potential user. The model is developed within the real options valuation framework. In detail, we investigate the entry/exit decision on the exploitation of the resource by considering the uncertainty that affects the resource stock, the entry/exist costs, and the number of rival users.
... En el caso micológico, se trataría de garantizar el desarrollo completo de los ciclos vitales del hongo, reservando una parte de la productividad sin recolectar. Sin embargo, como se indica posteriormente, diversos estudios indican que la recolección de carpóforos no parece tener una influencia relevante en la productividad futura, aun-que si puede afectar negativamente la compactación del terreno asociada a una alta afluencia de recolectores (EGLI & AYER, 1997;EGLI et al., 2006). Con todo, el problema esencial para aplicar este concepto es que la productividad depende fuertemente de la bonanza de cada año (MARTÍNEZ PEÑA et al, 2011). ...
... Estudios similares con distintas especies, aunque en series de años más cortas, llegaron a conclusiones similares (NORVELL, 1995;LUOMA et al., 2006, LARSON et al., 2016. Sin embargo, el pisoteo del suelo causado por la presión recolectora si afecta negativamente a la productividad, observándose reducciones importantes en la abundancia de carpóforos en las zonas muy pisoteadas, aunque no hay evidencia de que ello afecte a la viabilidad y abundancia de los micelios (EGLI & AYER, 1997;KASPARAVIČIUS, 2001;EGLI et al., 2006). Estos autores sugirieron que el pisoteo genera una compactación del terreno que afecta a su capacidad de retención del agua, además de los posibles daños directos realizados a los primordios incipientes de carpóforos. ...
Article
Full-text available
MICOLUCUS 9 (2022), 22-35. RESUMEN Se revisan las principales dificultades metodológicas para aportar datos de productividad de setas silvestres, en particular en terrenos forestales. Las principales fuentes de incertidumbre son: la confusión entre producción y productividad, la referencia a setas comestibles, comercializables o a productividad fúngica total, los periodos de muestreo considerados, la variabilidad interanual e interparcela o los cambios taxonómicos que se han producido en el tiempo. Se ilustran los comentarios con valores obtenidos en un sitio de ensayo de clara en pinar en el concello de Begonte, que se han estudiado en los últimos 3 años. Palabras clave: Productividad micológica, aprovechamiento comercial, Galicia. ABSTRACT The main methodological challenges for reporting wild mushroom productivity in forest areas are reviewed. The main uncertainty sources are: confusion between harvest and productivity, the reference to edible, commercial or total mushroom, the sampling periods in relation to fruiting seasons, the interannual or interplot variability or the changes in taxonomy over time. Comments are illustrated with data obtained in a three-year monitoring of a pinewood in the council of Begonte. Keywords: Mushroom productivity, comercial harvest of edible mushrooms, Galicia.
... Another explanation for higher OTU richness in the managed stages could be that some fungi build fungal residues in the soil from former habitat structures. This explanation is supported by results from previous studies that have demonstrated the survival of fungal DNA in soil after many decades (Straatsma et al., 2001;Egli et al., 2006), while not only active but also metabolically inactive fungi can persist beyond their active lifecycles (Egli et al., 2006;van der Linde et al., 2012) and can likely recover from environmental stress, such as tree mortality after windthrow events. Furthermore, the disparity in the species richnesses among the forest conversion stages could correspond to a slower adaption to the management by the fungal species pool in soil. ...
... Another explanation for higher OTU richness in the managed stages could be that some fungi build fungal residues in the soil from former habitat structures. This explanation is supported by results from previous studies that have demonstrated the survival of fungal DNA in soil after many decades (Straatsma et al., 2001;Egli et al., 2006), while not only active but also metabolically inactive fungi can persist beyond their active lifecycles (Egli et al., 2006;van der Linde et al., 2012) and can likely recover from environmental stress, such as tree mortality after windthrow events. Furthermore, the disparity in the species richnesses among the forest conversion stages could correspond to a slower adaption to the management by the fungal species pool in soil. ...
Article
Analyzing fungal diversity and community composition through environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding and high-throughput sequencing relies on sequence databases and their taxonomic coverage which are often doubted in regards of data accuracy. To assess the potential of eDNA metabarcoding to distinguish differently managed forest conversion stages, we compared an extant morphological dataset created through sporocarp surveys with a metabarcoding dataset from the same study sites. The study was conducted along a spruce forest conversion project of Norway spruce towards European beech in the Eifel National Park in Germany. Using the UNITE ITS reference database, a total of 198 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were assigned up to the species level. Comparing the morphological and metabarcoding dataset, a low species overlap was observed with 27 shared fungi. The metabarcoding dataset revealed that all investigated forest conversion management stages shared beech-associated fungi (even the spruce forests), while within the morphological dataset, only the beech-inhabiting forest conversion management stages showed beech-associated fungi. The metabarcoding dataset could not show the same fungal community response patterns on the spruce forest conversion, compared to the morphological dataset, but revealed the genetic refugium of the soil fungal community. We conclude that fungal eDNA metabarcoding should always be evaluated by taxonomic experts to identify potential sequence database errors. eDNA metabarcoding cannot be used interchangeably for morphological community analyses to identify response patterns of fungal communities on forest management strategies. However, both approaches performed well in combination and showed that beech-associated fungal communities with high functional redundancy can develop after a spruce forest conversion by restoring natural European beech forests with an appropriate close-to-nature management strategy.
... Interestingly, both 2014 and 2018 communities in control plots changed in the same way as the other treatment types did. This may be explained by the disturbance caused by field sampling, as it is known that any form of interference (such as trampling or other recreational activities) can create repercussions in the mushroom fruiting as forest management techniques, such as thinning, do (Waltert et al. 2002, Egli et al. 2006, Tomao et al. 2017. As reported in some studies, mushroom harvesting does not appear to affect fruitbody production per se, but trampling caused by successive mushroom pickers throughout a given forest area, may negatively affect fruitbody production (Egli et al. 1990, Norvell 1995, Egli et al. 2006. ...
... This may be explained by the disturbance caused by field sampling, as it is known that any form of interference (such as trampling or other recreational activities) can create repercussions in the mushroom fruiting as forest management techniques, such as thinning, do (Waltert et al. 2002, Egli et al. 2006, Tomao et al. 2017. As reported in some studies, mushroom harvesting does not appear to affect fruitbody production per se, but trampling caused by successive mushroom pickers throughout a given forest area, may negatively affect fruitbody production (Egli et al. 1990, Norvell 1995, Egli et al. 2006. ...
Article
Full-text available
As a man-induced disturbance of forest ecosystems, thinning may affect biodiversity and other related ecological functions including fungal dynamics. In this context, a multidisciplinary EU-Life project was established in 2014 to evaluate the application of selective thinning in two Pinus nigra plantations areas of the Apennines (Monte Amiata and Pratomagno, Tuscany, Italy). Selective thinning had the aim to improve stands stability and growth rates, taking also into account the various components of soil biodiversity (flora, fungi, mesofauna, nematodes, microarthropods and bacteria). Here we present mushroom fruiting patterns previous to treatment in 2014 and the effect following the application of forest management (selective thinning and traditional thinning from below) in 2018. Boxplots were used to graphically represent intra and inter annual variations in species richness and abundance, while Principal Coordinates Analyses and multi-response permutation procedures based on Bray-Curtis dissimilarity matrix were applied to evaluate turnover in species composition before the management and after 4 years. A significant reduction of fungal richness and abundance after 4 years thinning impact was lacking in both study areas, testifying a certain degree of resistance and/or resilience of mushroom fruiting to forest management-related anthropogenic disturbance. Considering each study site separately, Monte Amiata and Pratomagno did not show one uniform trend but differed significantly in their response to management: while in Pratomagno relevant inter-annual differences were present only in a few cases, an underlining significant variation both for species richness and abundance was registered in Monte Amiata for all treatment types among years (inter-annual variation) but not within each year (intra-annual variation). Only in Pratomagno turnover in species composition in selective thinning differed somewhat from the traditional treatment in 2018, showing that a process is underlying but still potentially masked by other variables. Due to the nature of macrofungi, a longer study period (more than 4 years post treatment impact) as well as the application of a more intense forest management, could be necessary to highlight and disentangle any possible trends in fungal fruiting in artificial stands.
... In contrast to this fear of collecting mushrooms, there is a growing general consensus among mycologists that collecting fruiting bodies of mushrooms does not really endanger their population and can even spread them. Instead, it is trampling the forest floor that can damage the mycelia [84]. ...
... For example, in Poland, fungi collecting is very widespread and not regulated. People gather mushrooms even in peri-urban areas around Warsaw without conservation bodies reporting any damage [84]. In contrast, some other European countries, such as Spain, impose certain rules on mushroom foraging, e.g., harvesters pay a certain annual fee [115]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Foraging in the British Isles is an increasingly popular activity for both personal consumption and for commercial purposes. While legislation and guidelines exist regulating the sustainable collection of wild edibles, the founding principles of the British foraging movement are not well documented. For this research, 36 of the most active foraging instructors of the Association of Foragers were interviewed to understand their background, species collected, sources of knowledge, and problems faced during collection. Altogether, 102 species of leafy vegetables, fruits, fungi, and seaweeds were mentioned as frequently used, while 34 species of roadkill animals were listed, mostly for personal consumption. Instructors reported learning from wild food guidebooks, other foragers, or personal experience. Frequent contact among foragers has led to the standardisation of knowledge and practices among them forming a “new tradition”, partly based on old British traditions but modified by influences from other countries and cultures, both in terms of choice of species and processing techniques. Contrary to expectations, foragers rarely reported clashes with nature conservation or forestry managers. The authors argue that knowledge and practice developed by the Association of Foragers (AoF) are sustainable and could be integrated into the British food and nature conservation system.
... The importance of the links between humans and fungi is increasingly gaining recognition within the scientific literature (Yamin-Pasternak 2011;Pérez-Moreno et al. 2020a, b;Haro-Luna et al. 2022;Stryamets et al. 2022;Gorriz-Mifsud et al. 2023), which encompasses economic contributions, medicinal applications, nutritional value, ecological impact (Kovalčík 2014;de Aragón et al. 2011) and cultural traditions (Tsing 2015). Ethnomycology, the study of this interplay, has seen a surge in interest, with fungal knowledge being analysed across different ethnic groups and time periods (Wasson and Wasson 1957;Egli et al. 2006;Boa 2004). Significant contributions to this field have come from diverse geographical regions, including notable research in Asia (Upadhya and Navi 2023), America (Ríos-García et al. 2023) and Africa (Osemwegie et al. 2014), which underscore the rich traditional knowledge and use value of fungi in these areas. ...
Article
Full-text available
Fungi have been used for medicinal purposes for many centuries. This study, based on 35 historical written sources and 581 in-depth semi-structured interviews from eight countries in the western borderlands of the former Soviet Union, investigates the medicinal use of fungi by local communities. We compared the taxa and uses obtained from fieldwork and historical sources with works that advocated fungi use within Soviet herbals, representing the centralised medical system. During fieldwork, we identified eight locally used fungi and one lichen. The highest numbers of medicinal uses were documented in Russia, Estonia and Ukraine. Studies published before the Soviet era listed 21 fungal taxa and one lichen species used in the study region. However, only six of these taxa were mentioned as used by people in our field studies (Amanita muscaria, Boletus edulis, Lycoperdon, Morchella, Phallus impudicus and Cetraria islandica). Notably, these same six taxa were consistently endorsed in Soviet herbals. Of the remaining three taxa recorded in the fieldwork, none were mentioned in historical written sources. However, they were promoted either in Soviet herbals (Inonotus obliquus, Kombucha) or later popular publications (Cantharellus cibarius). This highlights the significant influence of written sources on the use of fungi for medicinal purposes within the studied local communities.
... While trampling impacted the overall number of fruiting bodies in particular patches, it did not decrease the species diversity-this was more of a matter of climatic conditions in the area. 8 A similar study conducted over nine years on the Oregon coast suggests not only that there is little difference between plucking and cutting mushrooms, but also that the removal of the fruiting body "may slightly stimulate subsequent [mushroom] productivity." 28 This may be the result of harvesters, as they pluck mature fruiting bodies and carry them through the forest, spores dispersing along the way. ...
Article
Full-text available
This essay expands the boundaries of so-called “folk” perceptions or Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of Latin American mycology through a review of fungi in ethnographic and scientific research. I focus on macrofungi, but also address the microscopic ambient yeasts and molds which have been essential to fermentation since the origins of agriculture (despite a lack of documentation in ancient societies). The research of cultural uses and perceptions of mushrooms and other fungi is called ethnomycology–a field that receives far too little attention.
... Concerning picking norms, interestingly the scientific literature has found no impact 19 differences between cutting or picking mushrooms (Egli et al., 2006), but this information 20 seems not to have percolated to them yet. The transmission of good picking practices occurs 21 through pickers being imbued within wiser close network interactionsacting as eco-mentors 22 (Kulnieks & Longboat, 2013). ...
Article
Full-text available
Aim of study: The local ecological knowledge shared in rural communities shapes their norms for using their nearby open-access natural resources. We suggest a method to analyse this form of cognitive social capital with an application to a mushroom picking permit. Area of study: Poblet forest in Catalonia (NE Spain). Material and methods: We applied semi-structured questionnaires to pickers in four municipalities and to the governing body of the protected area. Our methodology assesses cognitive social capital combining three instruments: (i) inter-quartile ratio indexes for community cohesion, (ii) pair-wise comparisons across social groups: pickers and decision-makers (DM), and (iii) correlations for mental models linking perceived ecological, social and economic challenges with foreseen solutions. Main results: Analogous perceptions between DM and local pickers were found in most mushroom-related problems, which align with most picking permit design features. The perceived dissimilar behaviour between local and foreign pickers, the need for forest tending –addressing the wildfire risk–, and trash left in the forest are shared among pickers and DM. Moreover, some mental models of the DM showed statistically consistence. At the individual picker level, mushroom eco-literacy relates to family learning and proximity to DM, while links between pickers and DM correlate with increased forest profitability expectations. Research highlights: Strong convergence in cognitive indicators aggregated at the town level indicate a single hermeneutic community among local pickers, which seems to underlie the large permit acceptance but did not explain the differential permit uptake –thus, structural social capital emerges as complementary predictor.
... In particular, many tuberous terrestrial species-including some the most commercially-harvested species used for salep, chikanda and in Ayurvedic medicine-often grow in large populations. Many also have a type-III survival strategy, involving high mortality in early life history stages (Charitonidou and Halley, 2020), more like mushrooms (Egli et al., 2006). Organisms with this type of survival strategy may be less vulnerable to overharvest than Type I organisms (e.g., large mammals) that depend critically on population sizes relative to the minimum viable population (MVP). ...
Article
Worldwide, thousands of orchid species are harvested from the wild. Widespread legal and illegal unsustainable trade has contributed to the decline of many species. However, there is also evidence of long-term, sustainable wild harvest of some orchid species that contribute to local livelihoods and cultural traditions. There is a clear need to help guide harvesters and resource managers towards sustainability. However, there is currently no appropriate framework to guide local harvest decisions, which is especially problematic given huge data limitations, variations in on-the-ground capacity to monitor and manage resources, and considering that the potential for sustainable harvest is context-specific. We reviewed the literature on orchid harvest, ecology and demography; assessed information on the life history of 27 harvested species; and drew on our experience with diverse orchid taxa to identify characteristics expected to influence harvest sustainability. We identified 23 characteristics within four themes: abundance and distribution; species traits related to growth and reproduction; local management practices; and demand. We selected 12 characteristics for which information was available for many species and observable in the field, and used an iterative process to develop a decision-making dichotomous key. The key identifies if and how the harvest of a given population at a given time can be conducted more sustainably, offering sets of considerations that harvesters and managers can use and adapt to local contexts. Critical research gaps include techniques for partial plant harvest and for augmentation; and investigation into
... Approximately 2200 species of wild fungi are edible, of which more than 1000 species are used as food (H. . Macrofungal foraging is becoming an increasingly popular leisure activity in many countries (Egli et al., 2006;Marini Govigli et al., 2019;Schulp et al., 2014). The collection and sales of wild edible macrofungi account for 8% of the global macrofungal production, which equated to approximately USD 5 billion in 2013 (Royse et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Niego A.G.T., Rapior S., Thongklang N., Raspé O., Hyde K.D., Mortimer P. Reviewing the contributions of macrofungi to forest ecosystem processes and services. Fungal Biology Reviews, 44, June, 100294 (2023). doi:10.1016/j.fbr.2022.11.002. hal-03891167 ____ Macrofungi are vital components of any forest ecosystem, performing different roles crucial to ecosystem functioning. Macrofungi play effective roles in ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling. Ectomycorrhizal fungi and plant symbionts work together to accumulate, use and transfer essential nutrients, especially in nitrogen/phosphoruslimited environments. Pathogenic and predatory macrofungi exploit other resources such as plants and animals to obtain nutrients needed for growth. These groups of macrofungi also contribute to the species diversity of forest ecosystems. Saprotrophic macrofungi degrade available organic matter from dead plants and soil organic matter. Macrofungi also play an important role in carbon sequestration in the forest underground as well as in soil formation. Macrofungi remediate pollutants in the environment via extracellular enzymes. Mycelial networks that connect macrofungi to their symbiotic hosts and substrates enable most of these functions. Mycelial networks facilitate the absorption and transport of nutrients as well as the secretion of enzymes and other organic substances. Spore-producing bodies of macrofungi serve as a food source for wildlife. Fungal spores can act as aerosols in rain formation. All of these functions of macrofungi are necessary for maintaining biodiversity and healthy forest ecosystems. However, the contributions of macrofungi to ecosystem processes are often taken for granted or not fully recognized, offering key services that are easily overlooked in planning processes and policymaking The present review summarizes the major roles of macrofungi in ecosystem functioning and services rendered, and the interrelationships between these functions and services in the forest ecosystems.
... En effet, une atteinte volontaire ayant un impact à l'échelle d'un individu, d'une population ou d'un site mais qui ne présente pas de risque pour l'état de conservation ne justifie pas l'intégration de l'espèce au référentiel de sensibilité. À titre d'exemple, les prélèvements de carpophores des champignons comestibles n'ont globalement pas d'impact sur la production de carpophores des années suivantes (Egli et al. 2006). Il existe toutefois des exceptions comme les morilles (Morchella spp.) pour lesquelles une pression de récolte excessive peut fragiliser des taxons au statut de conservation défavorable. ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
The French national biodiversity information system (SINP) guarantees sharing of knowledge and public access to biodiversity information according to the law and the State's commitments concerning Open data. However, the Environment Code provides exceptions, in particular when sharing the precise location of species, habitats or geological elements presents a risk of deliberate damage. For these so-called sensitive data, their public dissemination may be restricted. Within the framework of the SINP, a working group has defined a method to enable regions to identify potentially sensitive data and the conditions under which the accuracy of the data must be degraded before it is disseminated. This technical guide is an update of the first document published in 2014. It is intended for people and structures involved in the elaboration and management of lists of sensitive elements for dissemination, but also for managers and users of SINP data. The document begins with a reminder of the issues involved in the sensitivity of data for dissemination, particularly from the regulatory point of view. It then presents the step-by-step process for establishing lists of potentially sensitive elements and the conditions of application through a series of criteria and recommendations./////////////////////////////Dans le cadre du SINP, un groupe de travail a défini une méthode pour permettre aux régions d’identifier les données potentiellement sensibles et dans quelles conditions la précision de la donnée doit être dégradée avant sa diffusion. Ce guide technique est une mise à jour du premier document publié en 2014. Il s’adresse aux personnes et aux structures impliquées dans l’élaboration et la gestion des listes d’éléments sensibles à la diffusion, mais également aux gestionnaires et aux utilisateurs de données du SINP. Le document rappelle dans un premier temps les enjeux de la sensibilité des données à la diffusion, en particulier du point de vue réglementaire. Il présente ensuite la démarche, étape par étape, pour établir les listes des éléments potentiellement sensibles et les conditions d’application à travers une série de critères et de recommandations. Il inclut également un résumé des implications sur la diffusion des données.
... Our analysis showed a highly even distribution of fungal lineages, with an overrepresentation (86.8%) of records belonging to Basidiomycota (Figure 4). This result reflects the well-documented dominance of Basidiomycota lineage in the fruiting patterns in temperate ecosystems, as consistently reported in the literature of diachronic surveys in the northern hemisphere (e.g., [21,26,[64][65][66]). ...
Article
Full-text available
Large datasets are highly valuable resources to investigate multi-scale patterns of organisms, and lay foundations for citizen science-based conservation strategies. Here, we used 1,043,262 records from 1708 to 2021 to explore the geography, taxonomy, ecology and distribution patterns of 11,556 fungal taxa in metropolitan France. Our analysis reveals a four-phase pattern of temporal recording, with a main contribution of post-1977 observations in relation with the structuration of associative mycology. The dataset shows an uneven geography of fungal recording. Four clusters of high-intensity sampling scattered across France contrast with poorly documented areas, including the Mediterranean. Basidiomycota and Agaricales highly dominate the dataset, accounting for 88.8 and 50.4% of records, respectively. The dataset is composed of many rare taxa, with 61.2% of them showing fewer than 100 records, and 20.5% recorded only once. The analysis of metadata brings to light a preponderance of the mycorrhizal guild (44.6%), followed by litter saprotrophs (31.6%) and wood saprotrophs (18.1%). Highly documented forests (76.3% of records) contrast with poorly investigated artificial (6.43%) and open habitats (10.1%). This work provides the first comprehensive overview of fungal diversity in France and identifies the Mediterranean area and open habitats as priorities to integrate into a global strategy for fungal conservation in France.
... On the other hand, human harvesting of carpophores does not seem to have a direct impact on mushroom yield or richness or on soil fungal biomass (Pilz et al., 2003;Egli et al., 2006;Parladé et al., 2017), unless the soil is excessively trampled by mushroom pickers, which may cause soil compaction and a consequent decrease in carpophore yield. Sometimes, in such disturbed or compacted areas, some Morchella species may benefit (Pilz et al., 2006). ...
Article
Mycological resources have attracted considerable interest from the public recently. In this context, forest mycological management of wild mushrooms has emerged a research field and is developing rapidly with the objective to sustainably use and conserve mushrooms in multifunctional forests. Although the term ‘mycosilviculture’ was coined relatively recently, forest management of mycological resources and fungal silviculture began already in the 1980s. This study reviews the literature on the forest management of wild mycological resources with emphasis on studies in Spanish Mediterranean forests. The review covers some of the most important aspects of management, such as the diagnosis of mycological resources through inventory and sampling protocols, predictive models of mushroom yield, stand variables and mycosilvicultural practices that affect mushroom yield and fungal diversity. Finally, the potential of mycorrhizal applications for mycosilviculture is briefly discussed. Most of these studies have been based on carpophore inventories, and few have analyzed soil and air fungal biomass. The Mediterranean climate determines mushroom yields; so far, mushroom yields models have been developed mainly for Boletus gr. edulis and Lactarius gr. deliciosus species and for pine forest ecosystems. In the future, it will be necessary to adjust these models to new climatic conditions, and to investigate the complex interactions between different yield and/or fungal diversity factors, adjust the scale of study and fungus-host specificity. So far, few studies have been carried out on mycosilviculture in Mediterranean forests, addressing the effect of thinning and clearcutting on fungal communities; moreover, experiences of mycological management of shrublands, prescribed burning, management of woody debris or selective planting of mycorrhizal seedlings in forests are scarce. The need to study other Mediterranean forest ecosystems is pointed out.
... Adding cultivated morels to the wild-foraged morel market also has the potential to reduce harvest pressure on forestland, with associated sustainability concerns. Though some sustainability concerns have arisen due to high harvest amounts in the Pacific Northwest and prolonged harvest pressure in Europe, evidence indicates that declining mushroom production in Europe (Pilz and Molina 2002), is not chiefly due to overharvest, but rather due to land conversion, soil compaction, and climactic vicissitudes (Egli et al. 2006). If cultivated morels can be shown to be biologically feasible, the next question will be whether they can be commercially successful. ...
Article
Full-text available
Wild–foraged mushrooms represent a natural resource that provides economic value to foragers through both market and nonmarket recreational channels. Despite the importance of non–timber forest resources for sustainable management of forestlands, little attention has been paid to who forages for wild mushrooms, why they choose to forage, where they go, and what economic value is generated. This report draws upon survey data from 78 foragers who are certified to sell their mushrooms and 85 noncertified foraging enthusiasts. Its goal is to understand foraging patterns and values for morels (Morchella spp.) in the State of Michigan (USA). Most foragers spend fewer than 10 days each year foraging, and those who sell their morels are most likely to sell to local restaurants, pubs and bars, and informally to their friends. Certified foragers who choose to sell their morels sell for an average price of $36 per pound ($36/lb) for fresh black or yellow morels. Costs to supply fresh morels ranged widely among the 16 certified sellers who reported full cost details; over 70% of morels were supplied at costs below $30/lb, but some certified sellers incurred costs in the hundreds of dollars per pound. Recreational morel gatherers paid $43 to $335 per trip of foraging morels, with a median value of $93 per trip. Morel foragers also search for other mushrooms with oyster mushrooms (Pleurtous spp.), chanterelles (Cantharellus spp), hen–of the–woods (Grifola frondosa), and chicken–of–the–woods (Laetiporus spp) being the most popular.
... Specifically, some foragers in our study thought that the removal of mushrooms 'with a root' was the nonharmful, caring way to gather mushrooms, while others argued that it was by cutting mushrooms at the stem. This ambiguity mirrors current scientific understanding: studies on the least impactful mushroom harvesting techniques (and the impact of harvesting on fungal species richness, in general) are inconclusive (Egli et al. 2006;Luoma et al. 2006). One of our respondents mentioned encountering this ambiguity in her search for information to guide her actions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Urban foraging provides city dwellers with numerous ecosystem services, but this human-nature interaction is largely missing from the urban ecosystem services scholarship. This exploratory study aims to address this gap in the literature and examines the benefits and values associated with foraging in New York City, United States. We focus on Russian-speaking mushroom foragers, a previously unstudied community. Data from 10 interviews reveals that for some groups, foraging is primarily about cultural ecosystem services, with a provisioning attribute. Foraging supports multiple benefits, most notably contributions to social relations, cultural heritage, and recreational experiences; these nonmaterial contributions often intertwine with material benefits. Our findings further demonstrate the mutual exchange of benefits between humans and nature, including services to ecosystems and species. Participants reported engagement in multiple stewardship practices and actively maintained and enhanced ecosystem services. We encourage future ecosystem services assessments to recognize foraging as an urban activity and consider the bi-directional exchange of benefits between humans and ecosystems. To some participants, foraging was an integral part of their relationship with the natural world, intertwined with relational values of connection to nature, kinship, love, and care. Our results suggest that relational values can be central for understanding the value of ecosystem services. Our study further illustrates that some ecosystem services may be associated with practices, rather than places, and future work should examine these links in more detail.
... Özellikle son yıllarda turizmde özel ilgi gerektiren ve doğayı temel alan turizm aktivitelerine katılımda artış gözlemlenmektedir. Bu noktada yenilebilir mantar türleri dikkat çekmektedir (Egli, Peter, Buser, Stahel ve Ayer, 2006;s. 272;de Frutos Madrazo, Martinez Peña ve Laleona, 2012;Tibuhwa, 2013, s. 6; Latorre de Frutos de Magistris ve Martinez Peña, 2021, s. 2). ...
Article
Full-text available
Mantar turizmi ya da mikoturizm son yıllarda gelişim gösteren alternatif bir turizm ürünü olarak kabul görmektedir. Mikoturizm bir destinasyonu ziyaret eden turistlerin doğa yürüyüşlerini yaparken mantar toplamalarına ve yerel halk ile etkileşimlerine olanak veren, bölgenin sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik anlamda kalkınmasına katkı sağlayan bir etkinliktir. Dünyada coğrafi özellikler bakımından mantar çeşitliliği açısından oldukça zengin birçok destinasyonda binlerce ziyaretçinin katıldığı çeşitli organizasyonlar, festivaller ve mantar turları düzenlendiği görülmektedir. Böylesine yüksek bir potansiyel arz eden mikoturizmin turizm faaliyetlerinin gelişmesine ve turizm pazarından alınan payın artmasına imkân sağlayacağı öngörülmektedir. Mikoturizm faaliyetleri doğası gereği doğrudan yerel halkı ilgilendirmektedir. Bu noktada az gelişmiş ya da gelişmekte olan ülkelerde kitlesel turizmin olumsuz etkilerine karşı bir çözüm arayışı olarak ifade edilen toplum temelli turizm ön plana çıkmaktadır. Toplum temelli turizm toplumun turizme aktif bir şekilde katılmasını ifade eden ve toplumu sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel boyutlarda etkileyip ilgili destinasyonun turizmde avantaj sağlamasına katkıda bulunulması anlamına gelen bir kavramdır. Dolayısıyla bu kavramsal araştırmada mikoturizmin toplum temelli turizm ile ilişkisinin değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda kırsal alanlarda yetişen yenilebilir yabani mantarların bölgenin sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel olarak kalkınmasında, bölgede çekiciliğin arttırılarak gerçekleştirilecek mantar turları, gastronomik etkinlikler, konaklamalar gibi faaliyetlerde önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca topluma olan katkısının yanında yetkili devlet otoriteleri ve yerel yönetimlerin bölge ile ilgili altyapı, ulaşım ve ilgili hizmetlerin gerçekleştirilmesi konusunda etkili olması ve turizm sektöründe faaliyet gösteren seyahat acentaları ve tur operatörleri, konaklama ve yeme içme hizmeti veren işletmelerin mikoturizm gibi turistik ürünlere eğilim göstermesi beklenmektedir. Son olarak bu araştırmanın gelecekte gerçekleştirilecek mikoturizm ve toplum temelli turizm ilişkisine yönelik araştırmalara öncülük ederek katkı sağlayacağı öngörülmektedir.
... Direct impacts relate to the sustainability of the target species. For most species studied so far, the harvesting of fungal reproductive structures (known as sporophores or fruiting bodies) has little direct measurable effect on future harvest or the species' sustainability, but the trampling of the forest floor when harvesting can significantly reduce the number of sporophores produced (Egli et al., 2006). This can be especially serious in small remnants of forest located close to urban centers where foraging pressure can be larger, and potential conflicts might appear between foraging and the conservation of species. ...
Article
Full-text available
A series of international sustainability policies currently in negotiation will shape biodiversity conservation for decades to come. However, discussions of current sustainability policy have a huge blind spot: the absence of Fungi, one of the eukaryotic Kingdoms. Wild fungi are a key component of natural ecosystems (e.g., through parasitic symbiosis), maintain soil fertility by decomposing organic matter, and facilitate uptake of water and nutrients through mycorrhizal association with plant roots, enhancing carbon sequestration. Moreover, the harvest, use, and trade of wild fungi are essential economic and cultural activities, supporting livelihoods and providing food and medicinal ingredients. Still, the sustainability of wild fungi use is hard to assess because there is a lack of attention from research, legislation, and society at large. Here, we present a way forward for including wild fungi in international sustainability policy. We layout four key steps to foster a much‐needed policy and societal transformation: acknowledge the existence of Fungi as an independent Kingdom; tailor sustainability policy targets to include Fungi; implement comprehensive monitoring of wild fungi status and trends; and promote responsible use of wild fungi as a livelihood opportunity in rural areas. These steps can facilitate a transition toward better recognizing, valuing, and conserving the ecosystem services wild fungi provide.
... Factors such as climate change, habitat loss, and deforestation were the primary threatening factors leading to the decline of wild edible mushrooms (Molina et al., 2008). However, the over-harvesting of the morels cannot be a significant risk to the population of WEMs as shown in the studies of Moore et al. (2001) and Egli et al. (2006). In contradiction, the increased number of harvesters directly impact the sustainability and viability of the morel fungi as pointed out by the respondents. ...
Article
Full-text available
Morels (fruiting bodies of Morchella spp.) are ascomycetous mushrooms known for their prime edibility and medicinal value. Their wild harvesting is potentially one of the off-farm income sources for the mountainous communities in Pakistan. Over the years, the local resource harvesters (RHs) attained a rich indigenous knowledge of morel ecological characteristics, habitation and marketing. The body of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) thus acquired is increasingly becoming threatened in the ongoing forest degradation era which is further aggravated by the loss of morel-specific habitats. Furthermore, there are still many gaps in the ecological understanding regarding forest mycological services. The current study, therefore, focused on various aspects of the morel mushrooms like TEK, bulk collected, pre and post-harvest processing, value addition and marketing. To procure TEK related to morel mushrooms, informed consent and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 commercial resource harvesters and 10 resource dealers. The referral sampling method was applied to identify the informants while for the value chain and productivity assessment regular field-market monitoring was performed during 2014–2018. Data indicated that the total annual production of wild morels during 2014 was 4624 kg which generated a revenue of about USD 0.256 million. Among the total estimated 4000–5000 harvesters, 90% were male and 10% were female who earned up to 25% of total annual income from morel harvest. The study further revealed that a large part of morel marketing remained unknown and quite unpredictable due to a lack of government interest and public policy. The RHs receive a minimal advantage of the supply chain i.e., 25–30% of an export value. Our study proposed a mechanism for sustainable resource management of morel mushrooms based on contemporary ecological knowledge and existing TEK from the local forest users. The main objective of the study was to scientifically document indigenous understandings, level of commercial extraction and marketing of morel fungi from the area.
... Interest in edible mushrooms continues to grow as the demand for new types of food increases and alternative sources of income for rural communities are sought (Pilz & Molina, 2002). In Asia, Europe and North America more people than ever are "foraging," reviving mushroom traditions diluted by migrations to cities and creating new challenges for sustainable production (Egli, Peter, Buser, Stahel, & Ayer, 2006). Harvesting wild species of commercial importance, such as matsutake (Tricholoma spp.), boletes (Boletus spp.), truffles (Tuber spp.), morels (Morchella spp.), and various Lactarius species (e.g., L. deliciosus), is big business in many countries and essential income for collectors and their families (Boa, 2004;de-Román & Boa, 2006;Yeh, 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor communities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibility of mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand for wild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods. Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms, doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to consume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated properties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarity on edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom-related poisonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigning a final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom species from 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, fromover 1,100 sources.We identified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further 183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumption or were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species of uncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption, and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibility and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms available to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed. Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clash species, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner.
... Along a longitudinal transect, Ruiz-Almenara et al. (2019) collected wild mushrooms, for seven months in the year, with each collection lasting two days, and continuing for 5-9 years, and found that this did not affect the diversity and distribution of species. Egli et al. (2006) found no correlation between intensity of harvesting and yields or species richness. Trampling had a temporary reduction on mushroom numbers, though allowing sites to "rest" enabled population recovery. ...
Chapter
Macrofungi have been utilized as a food source for thousands of years and contribute significantly to human health and nutrition. The increasing recognition of macrofungi as a valuable food source has resulted in an exponential increase in global production, trade and consumption of macrofungi. Thus, in this article, we present up-to-date information on the types and use of macrofungi as food, current trade and production volumes and how macrofungi contribute to human health and nutrition. Furthermore, we include a discussion on the latest information regarding which species of macrofungi are safe to eat.
... In addition, edible fungi species are also the basis of several craft products, including medicinal products. Mushrooms are as well the engine of a new branch of eco-tourism with its basis on programmes associated to nature (Egli et al., 2006;Martínez-Peña et al., 2012a;Diez et al., 2013). Approximately a 35% of the rural population in Castile and Le on is devoted to fungi harvesting either with commercial or self-supply purposes. ...
Article
Full-text available
The cultivation of edible fungal species represents a profitable agricultural sector and an interesting climatic‐impact oriented topic. This article focuses on Boletus edulis that develops in Pinus sylvestris forests in Soria (Castile and León in the Iberian Peninsula). This work aims at evaluating the extent to which the climate variability modulates the fungi production, both at local and regional/synoptic scales. With this purpose, the relationship between B. edulis production and various climatic variables such as precipitation, temperature, soil moisture and soil temperature has been explored based on observations during 1995–2014 over the study area as well as reanalysis data. The study evidences the relative importance of humidity in the B. edulis production both at the surface and the subsurface. In general, it can be said that wet conditions early in the production season together with cooler summers and mild autumns enhance the B. edulis growth. Evidences of the particular relevance of soil conditions at the beginning of the production season on the total annual production have been provided. In addition, the age of the trees that host the fungi species seems to play as well a pivotal role in the amounts of production obtained. Such a detailed analysis, including local relevant climatic information along with the investigation of the large‐scale features that impact the production of edible fungi species has not yet been developed over this region.
... It has been recognized that the act of mushroom picking has no significant impact on macrofungal fruiting body abundance [102]. Mycorrhiza compression, on the other hand, can have a large impact on the occurrence of fruiting bodies. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Scientists frequently raise the topic of data deficiency related to the abundance and distribution of macrofungi in the context of climate change. Our study is the first detailed documentation on locals' perception of fungal ecology which covers a large mycophilous region of Europe (Mazovia, Poland). Methods: A total of 695 semi-structured interviews were carried out among local informants in 38 localities proportionally distributed throughout the study area (one locality approximately every 30 km). Interview questions concerned fungi species collected, their perceived habitats, and whether any changes had been noted in their abundance. As many as 556 respondents provided information concerning fungal ecology. In these descriptions, 35 taxa were mentioned by at least 5 respondents. Results: The data collected during interviews allowed us to create collective folk descriptions of habitat preferences and a list of 98 different macro-, meso-, and microhabitats of macrofungi described by the respondents. This list of recurring habitats assigned to particular macrofungal taxa coincides with, and sometimes exceeds, data available in scientific publications. Some habitat preferences observed by the informants have not yet been researched or tested by science. Out of 695 respondents, 366 (53%) noticed a steady decrease in local macrofungi abundance, and only one person claimed to have observed a steady increase. Imleria badia was the only species with increased abundance, as noted by fifteen independent respondents. The main listed reason for abundance decrease was drought (f = 186). Conclusions: Collected information on the ecology of fungi shows that local knowledge does not generally diverge from scientific knowledge. The acquired information related to macrofungal abundance and ecology may also be used as a tool for the formulation of new scientific questions and theories. The analysis of local fungi observations might contribute to broadening knowledge about local changes in fungi and enable new estimations related to large-scale analysis of macrofungal abundance.
... Interest in edible mushrooms continues to grow as the demand for new types of food increases and alternative sources of income for rural communities are sought (Pilz & Molina, 2002). In Asia, Europe and North America more people than ever are "foraging," reviving mushroom traditions diluted by migrations to cities and creating new challenges for sustainable production (Egli, Peter, Buser, Stahel, & Ayer, 2006). Harvesting wild species of commercial importance, such as matsutake (Tricholoma spp.), boletes (Boletus spp.), truffles (Tuber spp.), morels (Morchella spp.), and various Lactarius species (e.g., L. deliciosus), is big business in many countries and essential income for collectors and their families (Boa, 2004;de-Román & Boa, 2006;Yeh, 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor com-munities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibilityof mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand forwild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods.Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms,doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to con-sume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated proper-ties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarityon edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom-related poi-sonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigninga final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom speciesfrom 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, from over 1,100 sources. We iden-tified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumptionor were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species ofuncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption,and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibil-ity and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms avail-able to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed.Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clashspecies, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner.
... Interest in edible mushrooms continues to grow as the demand for new types of food increases and alternative sources of income for rural communities are sought (Pilz & Molina, 2002). In Asia, Europe and North America more people than ever are "foraging," reviving mushroom traditions diluted by migrations to cities and creating new challenges for sustainable production (Egli, Peter, Buser, Stahel, & Ayer, 2006). Harvesting wild species of commercial importance, such as matsutake (Tricholoma spp.), boletes (Boletus spp.), truffles (Tuber spp.), morels (Morchella spp.), and various Lactarius species (e.g., L. deliciosus), is big business in many countries and essential income for collectors and their families (Boa, 2004;de-Román & Boa, 2006;Yeh, 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor communities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibility of mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand for wild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods. Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms, doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to consume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated properties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarity on edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom‐related poisonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigning a final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom species from 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, from over 1,100 sources. We identified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further 183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumption or were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species of uncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption, and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibility and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms available to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed. Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clash species, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner.
... Unfortunately, with the increasing population of Southeast Asia and the culinary popularity of "bush food", there is a danger that many species will become decimated [100]. Fortunately, our study found that it is mainly common weeds and semi-cultivated common tropical trees that are used as food sources, while the danger of overharvesting fungi is very unlikely and usually does not impact mushroom populations [102]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Open air markets hold an important position for ethnobiologists. In Southeast Asia, they are seriously understudied, in spite of their incredible biocultural diversity. In order to fill this gap we recorded plants and fungi sold in the open air markets of Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. Methods The markets were visited 38 times in four seasons: the dry season, early monsoon, mid-monsoon, and end-of-monsoon, at least 8 times per season. All items were photographed and voucher specimens were collected. Fungi were identified using DNA barcoding techniques. Results We recorded 110 species of wild edible plants and 54 species of fungi, including 49 wild-collected species. The sold plants included 86 species of green vegetables, 18 species of fruits and 3 species of flowers. Products from woody species constitute around half of all taxa sold. These include the young shoots of tree leaves, which are used for salads—an interesting feature of Lao cuisine. A large number of extremely rare Russula, with no reference sequences represented in databases or even species unknown to science is present on sale in the markets. Conclusions Luang Prabang markets are some of the richest in species of wild edible plants and fungi in Asia, and indeed in the whole world. It is worth pointing out the exceptionally long list of wild edible mushrooms which are sold in Luang Prabang (and probably elsewhere in Laos). We view the Morning Market of Luang Prabang as a cultural treasure that unites the traditions of eating a large number of living species with very diverse flora and fauna. Measures should be taken to strike a balance between local foraging traditions and nature conservation priorities.
... Le champignon lui reste dans le substrat (souvent dans les couches superficielles), dans la mesure où le substrat n'est pas perturbé (bois, sols, humus, etc.). Seul le piétinement semble avoir un effet, cependant limité dans le temps, d'après la littérature disponible (Egli et al., 2006). La sur-fréquentation ou les prélèvem le Nous retenons donc un ensemble de grands critères comme pilier de la qu'un élément puisse être considéré comme pote  une fragilité intrinsèque de l'élément,  des pratiques humaines risquant de porter atteinte à l'élément si sa localisation est connue. ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
Les atteintes à la biodiversité et à la géodiversité résultent généralement d'une méconnaissance de ce patrimoine et il est donc dans l'intérêt général de communiquer largement les informations sur sa localisation. Les données sensibles constituent une exception. Elles sont définies par le protocole du SINP, en référence à l’article L.124-4 du code de l’environnement, comme des données particulières qui ne doivent pas être largement diffusées pour éviter de porter atteintes aux éléments qu'elles concernent (espèce, habitat ou élément géologique). Des listes de ces données sensibles doivent être définies au niveau des points d'entrée des données dans le SINP, c'est-à-dire au niveau régional (plates-formes régionales) ou national (plates-formes thématiques). En suivant les recommandations des travaux internationaux et en s'appuyant sur une enquête auprès des acteurs de la donnée naturaliste en France, nous proposons un cadre autour de trois grands critères : o Risque d’atteinte volontaire dans la région ou dans un même contexte o Sensibilité intrinsèque de l'espèce o Effet de la diffusion de l'information (La disponibilité de l’information augmente-elle le risque ?) Nous proposons le même type de critères pour les habitats naturels. Les fossiles et minéraux n'étant pas renouvelables, ils sont tous considérés comme intrinsèquement sensibles. À ces critères portant sur l'espèce (ou l'habitat) sont associés des critères de contexte s'appliquant à la donnée. Il s'agit par exemple de l'ancienneté de l'observation et de la précision de la donnée source. Pour construire les listes régionales de données sensibles, nous recommandons un travail concerté au niveau régional (ou par façade maritime pour le milieu marin), par des groupes de travail SINP, avec des échanges entre régions voisines. Elles devront être validées par le CSRPN. Pour la géologie, le circuit actuel d'examen de la sensibilité en CRPG paraît adéquat dans le cadre de l'Inventaire national du patrimoine géologique. Les listes de données sensibles doivent être publiques et argumentées au regard des critères fournis dans ce guide. Nous recommandons des listes plutôt restreintes mais sans imposer de taille. Une évaluation de l'application de ce guide sera effectuée quand les listes régionales seront disponibles. La sensibilité se traduit par un codage dans le standard de données élémentaires d'échange (DEE) du SINP : 0 pour une donnée non sensible ; 1 pour une donnée sensible pouvant être diffusée à la précision communale ; 2, pour une donnée sensible pouvant être diffusée à la précision de la maille 10 x 10 km etc. Dans un dispositif transitoire de mise en place du SINP, nous proposons que la DEE véhiculée entre les plates-formes SINP soit floutée par la plate-forme dont elle est issue. En cas de besoin d'accès à la donnée précise, la plate-forme nationale orientera les demandes vers les plates-formes régionales ou thématiques concernées. À terme, conformément au protocole du SINP, les DEE sensibles devraient garder leur précision d'origine et un système d'accès contrôlé sur la plates-forme nationale devra permettre aux autorités publiques d'accéder aux données utiles. Des spécifications de ce dispositif devront être définies quand l'architecture générale du SINP sera opérationnelle.
... Il est intéressant de noter l'absence de la fonge dans les listes régionales. En effet, il est démontré que les prélèvements de carpophores de champignons n'ont pas d'impact sur la production de carpophores les années suivantes (Egli et al. 2006). Les experts régionaux ont donc considéré qu'il n'y a pas de risque avéré de dégradation du substrat lié à la diffusion des occurrences. ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
Ce rapport propose un bilan de la mise en oeuvre de la démarche de la mise en sensibilité des données de biodiversité en France. Il analyse les listes régionales produites, leur cohérence et leur complémentarité (notamment avec l’inventaire ZNIEFF). Le processus d’élaboration des listes ainsi que les contraintes et les opportunités de leur mise en oeuvre sont évalués grâce à une série d’enquêtes auprès de 44 représentants de producteurs de listes et de projets gestionnaires ou producteurs de données de biodiversité.
... Different public needs are placed on cities' urban trees in different regions of the world, for example, in the USA there are movements to make urban forests serve as agroecological landscapes where people can gather, and practice food (including livestock) production (McLain, Poe, Hurley, Lecompte-Mastenbrook, & Emery, 2012). Wild food foraging is increasingly popular and while there are purported negative consequences for diversity in urban settings, the evidence suggests this is limited (Egli, Peter, Buser, Stahel, & Ayer, 2006). Contemporary interest in wild goods is growing and provides an opportunity to engage urban citizens in nature. ...
Article
Full-text available
1. Trees are a foundation for biodiversity in urban ecosystems and therefore must be able to withstand global change and biological challenges over decades and even centuries to prevent urban ecosystems from deteriorating. Tree quality and diversity should be prioritised over simply numbers to optimise resilience to these challenges. Successful establishment and renewal of trees in cities must also consider belowground (e.g., mycorrhizas) and aboveground (e.g., bees) interactions to ensure urban ecosystem longevity, biodiversity conservation and continued provision of the full range of ecosystem services provided by trees. 2. Positive interactions with nature inspire people to live more sustainable lifestyles that are consistent with stopping biodiversity loss and to participate in conservation actions such as tree-planting and supporting pollinators. Interacting with nature simultaneously provides mental and physical health benefits to people. Since most people live in cities, here we argue that urban ecosystems provide important opportunities for increasing engagement with nature and educating people about biodiversity conservation. 3. While advocacy on biodiversity must communicate in language that is relevant to a diverse audience, over-simplified messaging, may result in unintended negative outcomes. For example, tree planting actions typically focus on numbers rather than diversity while the call to save bees has inspired unsustainable proliferation of urban beekeeping that may damage wild bee conservation through increased competition for limited forage in cities and disease spread. 4. Ultimately multiple ecosystem services must be considered (and measured) to optimise their delivery in urban ecosystems and messaging to promote the value of nature in cities must be made widely available and more clearly defined.
... Nevertheless, one of the aspects that have generated most concern about the tourist use of wild edible mushrooms is related to the possible environmental impact of the activity [Mortimer et al. 2012]. Although there is no scientific evidence showing that mushroom harvesting causes damage to mycological resources in the short run, there are no data derived from statistical monitoring to assess the long-term influence of commercial harvesting [Egli et al. 2006;Pilz, Molina 2002]. In addition to this, it should be considered that the development of tourism activities implies new anthropic pressure that must be added to those of mushroom harvesting. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose. To identify contributions to the sustainability of the territory from the tourist uses of mycological culinary heritage, within the context of late capitalism. Method. Multiple case studies with a qualitative and exploratory approach. No probabilistic sampling by snowball technique and validation by saturation criterion, to develop multiple perspectives through triangulation strategy. Semi-structured interviews (N = 24) applied to key informants around the practice of mycological tourism. Findings. The cases studied showed evidence of the contributions that mycological tourism can generate in the economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainable development. However, the capacity of these very specific initiatives for their incorporation into major development strategies is not clear. There is the ambivalence between the preservation of heritage and its economic use, related to the hedonistic and experiential logic of late capitalism. Research and conclusions limitations. This is a case study only recovering the internal perspective of some communities in central Mexico that participate in mycological tourism strategies. Practical implications. Qualitative studies that provide a deep vision regarding tourism experience of rural communities are a useful source of information for the design of public policies that meet the real needs of their users and to propose development strategies, based on the characteristics of each context. Originality. The articulation between tourism based on wild foods and sustainability, from a critical and qualitative perspective. Type of paper. Research article.
... A finales del siglo XX, la sociedad toma conciencia de la necesidad de regular el uso comercial y recreativo de las setas. El aumento progresivo de la afición por la recolección de setas para autoconsumo experimentado a partir de los años 80 genera preocupación sobre la sostenibilidad del recurso (Egli et al., 2006). Además, el respeto a los derechos de propiedad en relación a las setas (García Asensio, 2004) y la necesidad de organizar el sector para aprovechar toda la cadena de valor, provoca que varias administraciones regionales, provinciales y locales inicien programas específicos de regulación y valorización de los recursos micológicos en sus territorios ( Fig. 8-1). ...
... Moreover, in 2008 matsutake sales were the primary rural agricultural income source in Shangri-La county in Diqing Prefecture (Arora 2008). During this period, perceptions of declining yields led matsutake to be listed as protected under CITES to limit export, though long-term studies on ectomycorrhizal mushrooms elsewhere demonstrate that wild mushrooms may be harvested at very high rates without damaging future populations (Amend et al. 2010;Arora 2008;Egli et al. 2006;Menzies and Li 2010). Regardless of the ecological reality, the perception in Yunnan has been that wild mushrooms are overharvested and require significant external intervention to improve conservation outcomes. ...
Article
Full-text available
Natural resource governance is often approached with a single resource or goal in mind. Locally developed community based resource management systems may instead encompass a suite of different natural and cultural resources, as well as aim to achieve multiple social and ecological goals simultaneously. I examine contemporary commons management through the lens of community-based forest governance in 32 communities in Yunnan Province, China. Synthesizing interviews, ethnographic research and published literature on community-level wild mushroom management systems in Yunnan reveals that institutions are focused on social and economic goals, are often adapted over time, and make up only one component of complex multi-resource forest governance arrangements. Flexibility over time, resource type, and land tenure regime allows individuals to variably participate in forest resource extraction and management activities and may promote greater access and equitability than static regulations. Documenting diverse community-led forest management strategies in Yunnan highlights the importance of local experimentation and values for adaptive governance in complex socioecological systems.
... Developing reliable predictive models for mushroom yields is therefore a must for the expansion of this economic sector (Tomao et al., 2017). Indeed, modeling factors that determine wild mushroom yields has become an expanding area of research that benefits from the ever-growing availability of long-term data sets of mushroom yields (Alday et al., 2017;Egli et al., 2006;Fernández-Toirán et al., 2006;Herrero et al., 2019;Martínez-Peña et al., 2012). Weather conditions have been the main environmental factor considered in modeling mushroom yields, temperature being key in temperate forests (Sato et al., 2012) and precipitation in drought-limited Mediterranean environments (Ágreda et al., 2015Alday et al., 2017;Herrero et al., 2019). ...
Article
Mushrooms play a provisioning ecosystem service as wild food. The abundance of this resource shows high annual and interannual variability, particularly in Mediterranean ecosystems. Climate conditions have been considered the main factor promoting mushroom production variability, but several evidences suggest that forest composition, age and growth play also a role. Long-term mushroom production datasets are critical to understand the factors behind mushroom productivity. We used 22 and 24 year-long time series of mushroom production in Pinus pinaster and Pinus sylvestris forests in Central Spain to evaluate the effect of climate and forest productivity on mushroom yield. We combined climatic data (precipitation and temperature) and remote sensing data (soil moisture and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI, a surrogate of primary productivity) to model mushroom yields for each forest and for the main edible species of economic interest (Boletus edulis and Lactarius deliciosus). We hypothesized that mushroom yield would be related to (i) forest primary productivity inferred from NDVI affects mushroom yields, that (ii) soil moisture inferred from remote sensors will equal the predictive power precipitation data, and that (iii) combining climatic and remote sensing will improve mushroom yield models. We found that (i) previous year NDVI correlated (r = 0.41–0.6) with mushroom yields; (ii) soil moisture from remote sensors rivaled the predictive power of precipitation (r = 0.63–0.72); and (iii) primary production and climate variances were independent, thus the combination of climatic and remote sensing data improved models with mean R²adj as high as 0.629. On the light of these results, we propose as a working hypothesis that mushroom production might be modelled as a two step process. Previous year primary productivity would favour resource accumulation at tree level, potentially increasing resources for mycelia growth, climatic conditions during the fruiting season control the ability of mycelia to transform available resources into fruiting bodies.
... L'utilisation et la récolte des PFNL en milieu naturel suscitent souvent des questions liées à la sur-collecte et à l'effet néfaste qu'elle pourrait avoir sur la survie de l'espèce ou l'équilibre de son écosystème. Plusieurs projets de très longue durée (de 10 à 29 ans) ont démontré que la cueillette des sporophores n'a pas d'effet négatif sur les productions ultérieures et la composition des mycocénoses (Egli et al. 2006 ;Arnolds 1995). En général, et c'est aussi le cas au Haut-Katanga, ce n'est pas la cueillette mais la destruction des arbres-hôtes qui cause la disparition des espèces ectomycorrhiziennes. ...
... This ecosystem service is not jeopardized by intensive picking of basidiomes, as this type of extraction does not affect fungal diversity nor future basidiome production (Arnolds, 1995;Egli et al., 2006). African miombo woodlands are also not really threatened by logging because a very low proportion of its timber species are commercially valuable (Campbell, 1996). ...
Article
Full-text available
Description of the subject. Edible mushrooms are highly valuable non-wood forest products exploited for food and trade by local populations in the miombo area. Fungal diversity and natural production of edible mushrooms in African miombo woodlands are assessed and quantified for the first time. Objectives. The study aims to characterize the mycodiversity and compare the natural production in different miombo types to help manage this vulnerable ecosystem service. Method. A standardized data collection method was used in three study sites with different miombo types of Burundi and DR Congo. Sixty field surveys were conducted weekly in 22 permanent plots during fruiting periods. Results. The study revealed a high variation in mycodiversity according to the miombo type. Based on fresh biomass production and compared to saprotrophic taxa, it is shown that ectomycorrhizal fungi represent the most productive edible fungal component in African miombo woodlands. Conclusions. Since ectomycorrhizal host trees are systematically felled for fuelwood and charcoal production, their obligate symbiotic fungal partners are particularly vulnerable. It is suggested that for sustaining ecosystem services delivered by wild edible ectomycorrhizal fungi, forests dominated by host trees from the genera Julbernardia, Brachystegia, Isoberlinia, Uapaca and Marquesia, should be separed from clear-felling or frequent and excessive coppicing.
... Concepts like maximum sustainable yield may be harder to identify for these kinds of organisms than for mammals or birds. Counterintuitive patterns of insensitivity to harvest levels that have been widely observed for mushrooms [65] or sea-turtles [66], may be linked to this high-fecundity life-strategy [64]. Elsewhere it has been argued that range size is one of the best predictors of risk of local extinction from habitat loss [67,68], so that range rather than collection pressure determine its resistance to anthropogenic pressures such as collection. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: In Epirus, Greece, orchids have been traditionally harvested for the production of salep, a beverage made from their tubers. Over-collection of orchids for salep is believed to be a growing threat to wild species, yet very little research has concentrated on orchid populations in the wild. Here, we studied the impact of salep collection on population demographic parameters and uniformity of distribution patterns of the Elder-flowered orchid, Dactylorhiza sambucina, the most commonly collected orchid in northern Greece. Methods: We carried out fieldwork in four meadows where salep harvesting occurs, and conducted interviews in villages close to these sites. Fieldwork focused on the demographic parameters of orchid populations and on the characteristics of their habitat (natural-anthropogenic). We also measured population size and distribution, extent and multi-scale density, comparing distributions to Poisson and fractal models. Results: According to interviews, salep collection by the local community has decreased, contrary to collection by people outside the community, which is increasing. Interviewees did not believe that orchid abundance was higher in the past; they claim that it can be very variable. None of the participants seemed aware of the legislation to conserve orchids. Demographic parameters did not seem to be strongly dependent on whether it was a harvested and non-harvested sites and population density was greatest in the site of highest collection pressure. Conclusions: Our findings show that salep collection is still ongoing in Epirus. Our interview results and our population study indicate that current levels of collection are not significantly affecting the abundance of the Elder-flowered orchid in Epirus subalpine meadows. However, the expanding commercial collection could reach levels that threaten the species. There is a need for a longer-term monitoring of these orchid populations, and a more effective modeling of the species' response to different harvesting pressures.
Article
There is a need for innovative approaches that can accommodate the rural population and manage to keep the rural population in the settlement. At this point, it is important to carry out actions that will adequately meet the living conditions of rural areas and to increase the income levels of rural people. The protection of forests and the maintenance of biological diversity are important in terms of non-wood forest products collected from the forests by the villagers living in that region, and it is very important for the sustainability and economic future of life in the region. In this study, a questionnaire was collected from 130 households living in the region to determine the importance of mushrooms, which grew naturally in the mountains of Strandja and were used for consumption, in terms of family economy and development. The empirical analysis was based on a face-to-face survey of 130 respondents living in villages close to the Strandja Mountains and collecting mushrooms in 2019. The answers given to the questions, which determined the opinions of the participants about the mushrooms growing in nature, were taken with a 5-point Likert scale and factor analysis was performed. Villagers collecting mushrooms could not get the income they wanted from the products they obtained. It was determined that the income of mushroom collectors from mushrooms contributed to their daily needs, but did not make a significant contribution to increasing their welfare level. For this, villagers needed to establish cooperatives and create their own sales points. Since the mushroom collectors used the mushrooms in their diets, the villagers should be trained in mushroom drying and canning to ensure mushroom consumption throughout the year. In the research, it was observed that the local people were aware of the contribution of mushrooms to the economy and that a large part of their food consumption consisted of mushrooms grown in nature and therefore it was important in rural development.
Article
Wild edible mushrooms (WEM) constitute a relevant component of indigenous cultures worldwide; their use is part of forest management practices that promote conservation by local communities. However, global biocultural diversity is threatened by socioeconomic, political, and cultural changes. Through participatory research, this study analyzes the cultural significance of selected mushroom species, local traditional knowledge about conditions and processes affecting WEM communities, and traditional practices employed in their extraction in an indigenous community in Central Mexico. We carried out ethnomycological hikes and participatory mapping to characterize collection sites and conducted semi-structured interviews with people from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds about the importance of WEM, extraction and conservation sustainable practices, and anthropogenic and environmental factors affecting them. Fifty species of WEM were registered. We developed an index of the cultural importance of WEM that led us to establish the species of the highest cultural relevance. Vegetation type, rainfall, soil composition, selected logging by outsiders, fires, and the use of traditional harvesting techniques were recognized as factors affecting mushroom production. Traditional harvesting techniques locally perceived as adequate include leaving part of the stipe in place, collecting only mushrooms of large size while leaving those of smaller size, and cleaning and shaking them at the place of collection. Results suggest that the prevalence of biocultural knowledge about WEM is influenced by age, main economic activity, and household's distance to the forest. Integrating traditional knowledge and the community context by combining ethnographic and quantitative methods, resulted in a complementary approach to spatial, temporal, and environmental characterization of mushroom collection sites; it also allowed understanding factors influencing WEM cultural significance, and traditional local knowledge of WEM communities and their management.
Article
Full-text available
Terfezia arenaria is a desert truffle native to the Mediterranean Basin region, highly appreciated for its nutritional and aromatic properties. Despite the increasing interest in this desert truffle, T. arenaria is not listed as an edible truffle authorized for trade in the European Union. Therefore, our objective was to showcase T. arenaria’s nutritional and chemical composition and volatile profile. The nutritional analysis showed that T. arenaria is a good source of carbohydrates (67%), proteins (14%), and dietary fibre (10%), resulting in a Nutri-Score A. The truffle’s volatile profile was dominated by eight-carbon volatile compounds, with 1-octen-3-ol being the most abundant (64%), and 29 compounds were reported for the first time for T. arenaria. T. arenaria’s nutritional and chemical compositions were similar to those of four commercial mushroom and truffle species, while the aromatic profile was not. An electronic nose corroborated that T. arenaria‘s aromatic profile differs from that of the other four tested mushroom and truffle species. Our data showed that T. arenaria is a valuable food resource with a unique aroma and an analogous composition to meat, which makes it an ideal source for plant-based meat products. Our findings could help promote a sustainable future exploitation of T. arenaria and ensure the quality and authenticity of this delicacy.
Chapter
Fungal natural products are among some of the earliest described sources of bioactive compounds. Basidiomycetes have been a prolific source of compounds, particularly as a source of antibiotics and antifungals. Despite advances in target-based and synthetic methods for drug discovery, natural products continue to be an important source of novel compounds. This book is a comprehensive guide to many important fungal species with a focus on their phytochemistry, potential sources of bioactive compounds, known chemistry and toxicology. This book is an ideal companion to researchers and postgraduates in phytochemistry and natural product pharmacology, and mycologists.
Article
Temporary activities and events may have significant environmental impacts. However, they are often outside the scope of environmental assessment (EA) processes. Environmental requirements in authorisation processes of activities are rare, except for some major events in sensitive areas. This paper analyses firstly the environmental impacts of outdoor temporary activities and events through a literature review; all the analysed activities may have significant negative impacts. Then the authorisation of temporary activities, and their inclusion in EA systems, in a sample of jurisdictions worldwide was analysed. Applying EA processes is more an exception than a rule for temporary activities. The paper discusses the factors that influence activities' impacts, the conflict between precaution and operation, and the benefits and drawbacks of the application of different EA schemes to temporary activities, concluding with some proposals to improve the consideration of environmental aspects in activities' authorisation. Before the authorisation of activities and events, their environmental impacts should be analysed, and taken into account. This can be achieved through regulations in management plans submitted to strategic environmental assessment, through screening processes or through environmental impact assessment when significant impacts are expected. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;00:0-0. © 2023 SETAC.
Chapter
In the current context in which mycological resources have acquired a strong socio-economic interest, forest mycological management is necessary, with objectives of ecological sustainability in their use and conservation. The key implication of soil fungi in forest biogeochemical processes and the new knowledge on ectomycorrhizal networks and edaphic microbial ecology, make it necessary to rethink traditional silviculture and to study its effects on forest fungal communities. In the Mediterranean region, the current prospects of climate change seem to increase the stress on forest soils and forest life, already affected by poor management and commercial overexploitation of mushrooms, among other causes. We review in this chapter the literature on silvicultural practices that have positively or negatively affected soil fungal diversity and yield, focusing especially on experiences in the Mediterranean forest. We briefly analyze the potential of mycorrhizal applications and the knowledge of ectomycorrhizal networks for their application in forest management. The application of retention silviculture practices, retaining trees, tree patches or understory during forest harvesting can help to preserve ectomycorrhizal networks, buffering the disturbances generated by silvicultural treatments.
Article
Full-text available
Patterns in species × sample tables of communities depend above all on the organisms of the data sets and the conditions involved. Patterns that surpass individual sets are of special interest. Our question, looking for a shared pattern in 12 sets, is if relative abundances among species are independent of the sample, or formulated alternatively, if species have abundances that are correlated with total abundances over samples. For exploration we study the overdispersion/aggregation of the data. A relatively high variation in the total abundances of samples is noticed, indicating an effect of environmental variation. Overdispersion imposes constraints on the accommodation of relatively high abundance values to samples with a relatively low total abundance. The null hypothesis of ‘no association’ is modelled by permutation/resampling of the data at the level of the individual. A correlation study of actual and permuted sets is performed. All actual sets contain a significant number of species that defy our question. These species flourish when many do not. The relation of our question with issues in theoretical ecology, such as the assumption of a neutral effect of environmental conditions and/or of neutral characteristics of species, is discussed.
Article
Mycotourism, or mushroom tourism, is an innovative specialized tourism product which is successfully being introduced in some areas of the world. In a competitive global market which requires the supply of available tourism to be customized, mycological tourism helps to combat seasonality and contributes towards the economic development of rural areas, a priority goal for policymakers and stakeholders alike. In an effort to help provide more precise tourism marketing management, the present study aims to segment mycotourists based on their motivations. The factor-clustering method identifies ‘thrill-seekers’ as those looking for distraction and to ‘get away from it all’ and whose mycotourism is motivated by the search for adventure, while ‘leisure-seekers’ are tourists attracted by nostalgia and driven by childhood memories. The study was carried out in the region of Castilla y León (Spain), one of the most highly developed mycological regions in the Iberian Peninsula.
Chapter
In 2007, 42 Pinus radiata and 10 Pinus sylvestris seedlings mycorrhized by Lactarius deliciosus (saffron milk cap) were planted separately at 5 × 5 m spacing in two blocks on lawns at Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand. Over 8 years following planting, the number of mushrooms produced per tree and the total yield of mushrooms were recorded. Saffron milk caps were first produced from Pinus radiata 2 years after planting, with 88% of trees productive after five fruiting seasons. Mushrooms were first produced from Pinus sylvestris 4 years after planting, with all trees productive after four fruiting seasons. For both plantations, the average mushroom yield per tree increased year by year until the fifth fruiting season when it reached a maximum of 1.11 kg per tree on P. radiata (444 kg/ha) and 1.23 kg per tree (490 kg/ha) on P. sylvestris. In the sixth and seventh years of fruiting, the number of mushrooms per P. radiata tree declined by 22% from the peak, while the average weight of mushrooms dropped by 45%; the mean yield of 0.37 kg/tree for these 2 years was 67% less than the mean yield in 2014 (1.1 kg/tree). The decline in yields from P. radiata could be attributed to canopy closure, which started 7 years after planting, and/or dry conditions in the autumns of 2015 and 2016. Pinus sylvestris trees grew an average 30% slower than P. radiata and, after 9 years, have not reached canopy closure. After five fruiting seasons, P. sylvestris yielded 1.23 kg/tree. This study provides unprecedented reports of the dynamics of mushroom yields in pine orchards. The long-term monitoring of these trials and the development of new treatments, such as pruning, plantation layout, selection of best partners, soil moisture, and temperature, will be crucial to develop efficient saffron milk cap farming techniques.
Article
Full-text available
Wild edible mushrooms have been collected and consumed by human groups for centuries, and today they represent a relevant source of food and income for many rural families worldwide. Preserving these non-timber forest products is of great interest, and there is concern about the damage caused by intensive mushroom harvesting on macromycete communities. The aim of this study was to evaluate variation in diversity and composition of macromycete species between areas regularly used for mushroom harvesting and non-harvested areas in the Mixteca region of Oaxaca, Mexico, as well as to assess the influence of microclimatic and environmental factors on this variation. We selected two harvested and two non-harvested sites within the study area. In each one, we established 10 permanent plots of 10 m × 10 m where we sampled all the observed fruit bodies weekly from June to October 2017. We recorded a total of 856 individuals corresponding to 138 species, and 23 of these were identified as edible. Overall macromycete diversity, edible species diversity and composition were similar in Sites 1 (non-harvested) and 3 (harvested), and in Sites 2 (non-harvested) and 4 (harvested). Variation of diversity and species composition along the studied area was mainly related to microclimatic variables, while most environmental variables and variables related to vegetation structure similarly affected macromycete species in the four sites. Our results indicate that intensive harvesting of wild edible mushrooms is not affecting the diversity and distribution of macromycete species in our study area. Knowledge on the sustainability of mushroom harvesting practices can help improve current regulations regarding the management of these valuable non-timber forest products.
Book
Full-text available
Wild edible fungi are collected for food and to earn money in more than 80 countries. There is a huge diversity of different types, from truffles to milk-caps, chanterelles to termite mushrooms, with more than 1100 species recorded during the preparation of this book. A small group of species are of economic importance in terms of exports, but the wider significance of wild edible fungi lies with their extensive subsistence uses in developing countries. They provide a notable contribution to diet in central and southern Africa during the months of the year when the supply of food is often perilously low. Elsewhere they are a valued and valuable addition to diets of rural people. Commercial harvesting is an important business in countries such as Zimbabwe, Turkey, Poland, the USA, North Korea and Bhutan. The export trade is driven by a strong and expanding demand from Europe and Japan and is predominantly from poor to rich countries. This is good for local businesses and collectors, providing important cash income that pays for children to go to school and helps to reduce poverty in areas where the options for earning money are limited. Local markets around the world reveal a widespread though smaller individual trade in an extensive range of species. Though difficult to measure compared to the more visible export of wild edible fungi, local trade is of considerable value to collectors and increases the supply of food to many areas of weak food security. Collection and consumption within countries varies from the extensive and intensive patterns of China to more restricted use by indigenous people in South America. Substantial quantities are eaten through personal collections that may go unrecorded and their contribution to diet is substantially higher than previously indicated. The nutritional value of wild edible fungi should not be under-estimated: they are of comparable value to many vegetables and in notable cases have a higher food value. Wild edible fungi play an important ecological role. Many of the leading species live symbiotically with trees and this mycorrhizal association sustains the growth of native forests and commercial plantations in temperate and tropical zones. The saprobic wild edible fungi, though less important in terms of volumes collected and money earned from local sales, are important in nutrient recycling. The saprobic species are the basis for the hugely valuable global business in cultivated mushrooms, currently valued at around US$23 billion each year. This is an increasing source of income for small-scale enterprises in developing countries. Wild edible fungi are one of a number of non-wood forest products (NWFP) that have increased in importance as logging bans and a reduction in wood-based forestry activities have declined. They are one of the most valuable NWFP with much potential for expansion of trade, but there are also challenges in the integration of their management and sustainable production as part of multiple use forests. There are concerns about the impact of excessive harvesting which require better data on yields and productivity and a closer examination of collectors and local practices. Closer cooperation between forest managers and those using wild edible fungi is needed and suggestions are made on how this might be achieved. There is a strong emphasis on subsistence uses of wild edible fungi and their importance to rural people in developing countries though this is an area where there are still significant gaps in information. There is also significant commercial harvesting in developed countries, such as the USA and Canada and in the emerging economies of eastern Europe, for example Poland and Serbia. However, countries in the North are of greater significance to wild edible fungi as a destination for exports and as a source of scientific expertise, especially in mycology (the study of fungi). This scientific expertise is increasingly being applied to help achieve the major development goals which include poverty alleviation and sustainable use of natural resources. Real progress has been and continues to be made in the roles that wild edible fungi contribute towards these goals.
Book
Full-text available
Chanterelles are globally renowned as one of the best edible forest mushrooms, and their international commercial value likely exceeds a billion dollars annually. A variety of chanterelle species fruit plentifully in Pacific Northwest forests, and their abundance has spawned a significant commercial harvest industry during the last two decades. Because chanterelles grow symbiotically with the roots of forest trees, managing the fungi for sustainable harvests also means managing forest habitats. This publication summarizes what we currently know about chanterelles. Our intent is to provide forest managers, policymakers, mushroom harvesters, mushroom enthusi- asts, and research mycologists with accurate information for an informed debate about chanterelle management. Our commercial harvest in the Pacific Northwest originates within a broad historical, cultural, ecological, and international trade context, and much relevant information about the organism comes from research in Europe. Therefore we also discuss chanterelles throughout North America and worldwide; the interna- tional chanterelle market; chanterelle biology, ecology, chemistry, and nutrition; recent chanterelle productivity declines reported from parts of Europe; and current research on chanterelle cultivation. Returning our focus to Pacific Northwest chanterelles, we describe local species, discuss management issues, summarize recent research, and conclude with future research and monitoring designed to ensure a continued abun- dance of chanterelles in our forests.
Article
Fungi play vital roles in all ecosystems, as decomposers, symbionts of animals and plants and as parasites. Thus their ecology is of great interest. It has been estimated that there may be as many as 1. 5 million species of fungi, many of which are still undescribed. These interact in various ways with their hosts, with their substrates, with their competitors (including other fungi) and with abiotic variables of their environment. They show great variation in morphology, reproduction, life cycles and modes of dispersal. They grow in almost every conceivable habitat where organic carbon is available: on rock surfaces, in soil, the sea and in fresh water, at extremes of high and low temperature, on dry substrata and in concen­ trated solutions. Fungal ecology is therefore an enormous subject and its literature is voluminous. In view of this we have had to be selective in the material we have included in this book. We have chosen to concentrate on subjects in which we have some personal experience through either research or teaching. We preferred to tackle a few subjects in depth instead of attempting to cover a wider range of topics superficially. We are conscious of the extensive gaps in coverage: for example on the ecology of lichens, of fungal plant pathogens and of the complex interactions between fungi and animals. It is some justification that book-length treatments of these subjects are available elsewhere.
Article
The mycorrhiza-forming mushroom Cantharellus cibarius has shown a marked decline in The Netherlands over the past 30 yr. Changes in the soil are responsible for the decline, changes partly due to natural succession, partly due to air pollution. -from Authors
Article
There are about 2500 recorded species of edible mushrooms. The most expensive and sought after of these mushrooms belong to the mycorrhizal group and include Tuber melanosporum Vitt. (Perigord black truffle), Tuber magnatum Pico & Vitt. (Italian white truffle), Tricholoma matsutake (Ito & Imai) Sing. (matsutake), Boletus edulis Bull: Fr. sensu lato (porcini) Cantharellus cibarius Fr.: Fr. (chanterelle), and Amanita caesarea (Scop.: Fr.) Pers: Schw. (Caesar's mushroom). The total market for these is measured in billions of US dollars. Over the past 100 years, harvests of many mycorrhizal mushrooms have declined dramatically, which has prompted interest in the development of methods for their cultivation. So far only a few species of truffles have been produced in commercial quantities, although methods have been developed that may see the cultivation of species such as Cantharellus cibarius, Lyophyllum shimeji (Kawam.) Hongo, and Lactarius deliciosus (L.: Fr.) Gray. Despite this, many of the most expensive mycorrhizal mushrooms, including Tuber magnatum Pico & Vitt. and Tricholoma matsutake, have defied cultivation. Our paper will attempt to highlight possible reasons why mycorrhizal mushrooms have proven to be so difficult to grow and how we might better manage mycorrhizal mushroom forests to sustain natural production.
Article
Nature is the international weekly journal of science: a magazine style journal that publishes full-length research papers in all disciplines of science, as well as News and Views, reviews, news, features, commentaries, web focuses and more, covering all branches of science and how science impacts upon all aspects of society and life.
Article
Summary • The knowledge of temporal and spatial structure of populations of ectomycorrhizal fungi, together with the origin and maintenance of their genetic variation, is critical to understanding how populations of these fungi establish, evolve and disappear at different stages of development of forest ecosystems. • Identification and spatial delimitation of genets in populations of the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes, Laccaria amethystina, Xerocomus chrysenteron and X. pruinatus were inferred from the polymorphism of two codominant genetic loci, the nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and intergenic spacers (IGS), and anonymous dominant RAPD markers from basidiocarps collected in a mixed mature forest in the fungal reserve of La Chanéaz (Switzerland). • The L. amethystina population showed numerous small, short lifespan genets; most closely spaced basidiocarps were genetically unique. Our results confirmed that sexual spore propagation is important in the life history of L. amethystina in undisturbed mature forests. By contrast, we found a single genet for each of the boletoid species colonizing a nearby plot indicating that clonal growth dominated. • In La Chanéaz forest, the intrinsic biological features of the investigated species appear to play a higher role in colonization strategy than the features of local habitat.
Article
Abstract • Changes in above- and below-ground ectomycorrhizal species composition are reported following nitrogen addition for 2 yr to a subalpine spruce (Picea abies) stand. • The macrofungal sporocarp production was recorded before and during N addition. Belowground ectomycorrhizal diversity was measured by PCR-RFLP analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA extracted from single mycorrhizal root tips before, and after 1 and 2 yr of fertilization. • Sporocarp surveys showed that diversity of the ectomycorrhizal community was drastically reduced following 1 yr of N addition, whereas the saprobic fungal community was not affected. The impact on belowground ectomycorrhizal diversity was less pronounced with no change either in the number of ectomycorrhizal taxa or in Simpson’s index of diversity. However, a change in belowground species composition 2 years after N addition was observed with significant changes in abundances of single species. • Species which produced large sporocarps accounted for 25% of all sampled root tips. At least 44% of all ectomycorrhizas were formed by species belonging to the Thelephoraceae and Corticiaceae, taxa which produce inconspicuous sporocarps. • Addition of N caused a shift in ectomycorrhizal abundance from species forming large sporocarps to species with no or resupinate sporocarps.
Article
Fungal fruit bodies were surveyed on a plot area of 1500 m2 from 1975–99 (excluding 1980–83) in the fungal reserve La Chaneaz in western Switzerland. Fruit bodies were identified and counted on a weekly basis. Species richness and abundances varied strongly between years. More than 400 species were encountered. Many species were transient; particularly rich years showed species occurring for only one year. This indicates that the number of species will substantially increase if the survey is continued. Within years, the species richness, abundances and periods of fruiting were tightly correlated. The abundance data of species within a year seemed symmetrically distributed over their fruiting period. The relation between species richness and abundances within years was studied by fitting species-abundance plots, known from numerical ecology. The surface area under the curves was taken as a parameter for ecological/fungal diversity. Productivity was correlated with the precipitation from June until October. The time of fruit body appearance was correlated with the temperatures in July and August. As groups, mycorrhizal and saprotrophic species behaved similarly over the years. The productivity of species was compared with their distribution in The Netherlands indicating a correlation between the level of local abundance and the geographic range of species.
Article
Recent changes in the species diversity and sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi in different regions of, and forest communities within, Europe are discussed with special emphasis on events in The Netherlands. In some forests in some regions fewer ectomycorrhizal fungi are now producing sporocarps, notably those associated with trees more than 40 years old and in particular conifers, for instance species of Phellodon, Hydnellum, Suillus, Tricholoma and Cortinarius. It is argued that this decline in different parts of Europe is coincident with decreased numbers of mycorrhizas. A scheme of progressive changes with three phases of ectomycorrhizal impoverishment and seven subphases is presented. The more probable causes of decline are discussed, namely forest succession, the collection of sporocarps (of edible mycorrhizal fungi), changes in forest management, direct influences of air pollutants, acidification of forest soils and consequent increased availability of aluminium in soil solution, nitrogen deposition, increased litter accumulation, changes in the herb layer of forests and reduced tree vitality.
Article
Wild edible mushrooms are harvested in the forests of the Pacific Northwest, where both trees and mushrooms grow in the same landscape. Although there has been some discussion about the value of trees and mushrooms individually, little information exists about the joint production of, and value for, these two forest products. Through four case studies, the information needed to determine production and value for three wild mushroom species in different forests of the Pacific Northwest is described, and present values for several different forest management scenarios are presented. The values for timber and for mushrooms are site- and species-specific. On the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, timber is highly valued and chanterelles are a low-value product by weight; timber has a soil expectation value (SEV) 12 to 200 times higher than chanterelles. In south-central Oregon, timber and American matsutake mushrooms have the potential to have about the same SEV. In eastern Oregon, timber is worth 20 to 110 times as much as the morels that grow in the forest. Production economics is concerned with choices about how much and what to produce with what resources. The choices are influenced by changes in technical and economic circumstances. Through our description and analysis of the necessary definitions and assumptions to assess value in joint production of timber and wild mushrooms, we found that values are sensitive to assumptions about changes in forest management, yields for mushrooms and trees, and costs.
R: A language and environment for statistical computing Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available from Species richness, abundance, and phenology of fungal fruit bodies over 21 years in a Swiss forest plot
  • R Development
  • Core Team
R Development Core Team, 2004. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available from: http://www.R-project.org. Smith, S.E., Read, D.J., 1997. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Academic Press, London. Straatsma, G., Ayer, F., Egli, S., 2001. Species richness, abundance, and phenology of fungal fruit bodies over 21 years in a Swiss forest plot. Mycol. Res. 105, 515–523.
South Eastern Europe mushrooms menaced by global demand
  • Peric
Peric, B., Pinguli, E., 2001. South Eastern Europe mushrooms menaced by global demand. The Bulletin 10/4, 16-17.
Effect of trampling on fructification of Cantharellus cibarius and Boletus edulis in Scots pine forests
  • Kasparavicius
Kasparavicius, J., 2001. Effect of trampling on fructification of Cantharellus cibarius and Boletus edulis in Scots pine forests. Biologija 3, 21-23.
R: A language and environment for statistical computing In: R Foundation for Statistical Computing
  • R Development
  • Core Team
R Development Core Team, 2004. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available from: http://www.R-project.org.
Ecology and Management of Commercially Harvested Chanterelle Mushrooms
  • D Pilz
  • L Norvell
  • E Danell
  • R Molina
Pilz, D., Norvell, L., Danell, E., Molina, R., 2003. Ecology and Management of Commercially Harvested Chanterelle Mushrooms. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-576. Portland OR: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, pp. 1-83.