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Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running?
Abstract
Objectives: Outdoor environments might amplify or hinder psychological benefits of exercise. Using types of outdoor environment commonly available for exercise, we assessed the moderating effect of environment on attentional and emotional restoration during a run.Design: We conducted a field experiment with environment (park, urban), occasion (first run, second run), and time (pre-run, post-run) as within-subjects factors, and gender as a between-subjects factor.Methods: Twelve regular runners (6 female, 6 male; mean age = 39.7 years) provided self-reports of emotions and behavioral measures of attention before and after each of two 1-hour runs in each of the two environments. The routes differed in amount of greenery, proximity to water, and presence of traffic, buildings, and other people. We also obtained background measures of stress and evaluations of the running environments.Results: Characteristic of restoration, running reduced anxiety/depression and anger. It had inconsistent effects on attention. No Time x Environment interactions reached statistical significance. However, those for tranquility and anxiety/depression had medium-sized effects (rs ≈ 0.30) and were consistent with the hypothesis that the park would promote restoration while running to a greater degree than the urban environment. The runners preferred the park over the urban environment and perceived it as more psychologically restorative.Conclusions: The findings encourage replication with greater statistical power. The study provides a point of departure for further research on potential moderating effects of commonly accessible outdoor environments on the psychological benefits of exercise.
... Eighteen studies compared two different spaces. Physical exercise intervention in urban green space was compared with that in an urban environment (referring to urbanized areas with minimal or no vegetation, including densely populated residential areas, commercial or industrial zones, and city streets with no significant green spaces), 27,30,[33][34][35][36][40][41][42][43]46,48,49,[54][55][56] one study compared an urban green space with an indoor space, 52 and one study compared a forest park with an urban park. 32 The remaining studies focused on physical activity in a single urban green space. ...
... A total of 22 articles, [27][28][29][30][31][33][34][35]38,39,[42][43][44][45][47][48][49][50][52][53][54][55] were selected to evaluate mental well-being, including 2 that contained 2 studies each. 42,47 Among the most evaluated measures were mood (16/22, 72.7%), 27,[29][30][31][33][34][35]39,[42][43][44][47][48][49][50]55 followed by restoration (7/22, 13.6%), 27,29,[47][48][49]52,55 stress (6/22, 27.7%), 28,29,38,43,45,53 self-esteem (2/22, 9%), 39,44 arousal (2/22, 9%), 45,55 and meditative states through electroencephalogram (EEG; 2/22, 9%). ...
... A total of 22 articles, [27][28][29][30][31][33][34][35]38,39,[42][43][44][45][47][48][49][50][52][53][54][55] were selected to evaluate mental well-being, including 2 that contained 2 studies each. 42,47 Among the most evaluated measures were mood (16/22, 72.7%), 27,[29][30][31][33][34][35]39,[42][43][44][47][48][49][50]55 followed by restoration (7/22, 13.6%), 27,29,[47][48][49]52,55 stress (6/22, 27.7%), 28,29,38,43,45,53 self-esteem (2/22, 9%), 39,44 arousal (2/22, 9%), 45,55 and meditative states through electroencephalogram (EEG; 2/22, 9%). 52,54 There was a discrepancy between the total number of psychological wellbeing outcomes assessed and the total number of included studies because most studies evaluated multiple outcomes simultaneously. ...
Background:
Engaging in physical exercise in urban green spaces is increasingly recognized as a crucial factor for well-being, offering a range of benefits for physical, mental, and social health in growing urban environments.
Objective:
This systematic review aimed to analyze the scientific literature exploring the correlation between participating in physical exercise and sports activities in urban green spaces and the well-being of participants, encompassing physical, psychological, mental, and social aspects.
Methods:
This systematic review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search strategy included articles published in English, Spanish, or Portuguese within the databases Medline (PubMed), Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS) up to 15 June 2023. Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, which included descriptive and observational epidemiological study designs and a population of adults 18–65 years of age. The Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) tool was used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies.
Results:
A total of 6,634 studies were identified, of which 31 met all the inclusion criteria. The review identified evidence suggesting that physical exercise in urban green spaces can have a positive impact on health, including improvements in diastolic blood pressure and cardiovascular health, such as heart rate, heart rate variability, cardiac and vascular function, as well as mood and self-esteem. In addition, evidence supports an association with decreased stress and a lower risk for mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression, in addition to a strengthening of social cohesion and social interaction.
Discussion:
This systematic review suggests that physical exercise in urban green spaces is associated with positive health outcomes. The findings support a link between such activities and improvements in physical, psychological, mental, and social well-being. Despite variations in defining urban green spaces, the results highlight the importance of promoting physical activity programs in these environments to enhance the overall well-being of urban populations.
... Jogging is a prevalent physical activity on greenways and is widely recognized as a popular [19], highly health-beneficial [20,21], moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). However, the relationship between greenways and jogging remains poorly understood. ...
... While some studies have explored the promotion of jogging in various built environments such as urban streetscapes [22,23], large parks [24], and community streets [8], limited attention has been given to the association with greenways. Safety concerns [25][26][27], naturalness factors including vegetation cover and biodiversity presence [20,21,[23][24][25][28][29][30][31][32], and continuity [23,26,27,30] aspects along with uninterrupted pathways are frequently discussed in relation to jogging promotion. Additionally, surface materials [25,33,34] and spatial design elements are also considered important factors influencing joggers' experiences [23,25]. ...
... Exposure to natural environments has been found to have positive effects on mood regulation and stress reduction, thereby influencing the environmental preferences of joggers [21]. Paths situated in parks and suburban areas are perceived as more appealing compared to urban roads [24,32], particularly those that are closer to water bodies and exhibit a higher presence of vegetation [24,25]. ...
Active transportation and lifestyles are important components of a sustainable city. Greenways play a crucial role in providing conducive environments for jogging. To investigate the influence of micro-scale characteristics on perceived jogging supportiveness (PJS), 230 video clips of greenways within Fuzhou City were collected as samples. PJS was evaluated using a Likert scale, perceptual characteristics were assessed through a semantic difference scale, and physical characteristics were computed via semantic segmentation. By employing SHAP values and dependence plots within an XGBoost framework, the findings reveal the following: (1) Regarding perceptual characteristics, continuity, culture, and facility affordance exhibit the highest relative importance to PJS (|SHAP| ≥ 0.1). Continuity, naturalness, and vitality generally have positive impacts on PJS, while disturbance is negative. Facility affordance, scale, culture, openness, and brightness demonstrate more complex nonlinear influences that suggest optimal value ranges. (2) Concerning physical characteristics, fences, motor vehicles, and surface material are deemed most influential (|SHAP| ≥ 0.1). The presence of fences, walls, and construction generally negatively affect PJS, while excessive openness is also unfavorable. Comfortable road surfaces are associated with higher levels of PJS. Natural elements and the presence of people and vehicles have promoting effects up to certain thresholds, but beyond that point, they exert opposite influences. Finally, suggestions for designing greenways that encourage jogging are proposed. This study provides practical references for optimizing greenway design to promote active transportation and lifestyles, reinforcing the contribution of green infrastructure to public health in sustainable cities.
... Other benefits of outdoor exercise include increased exercise intensity and duration and decreased sedentary time (5,12). Exercising outdoors exposes one to nature (green, blue, and brown landscapes) and additional sensory inputs (sun, wind, etc.) that support psychological restoration (6). As such, outdoor exercise can be more enjoyable, increase self-esteem, improve mood, and enhance psychological well-being (3,14). ...
... Ineffective stress management in students has been associated with increased worry, loneliness, nervousness, and sleep disruptions (38). Given the trends in rising stress among college students, finding effective stress management strategies is critical (2, 6,12,13,35,41). ...
... Participation in outdoor exercise may be a better stress-coping mechanism than indoor exercise. Furthermore, outdoor exercise is associated with physiological, psychological, and social benefits (6). ...
Emerging evidence suggests that outdoor group exercise may reduce stress more than indoor group exercise because the outdoor environment provides unique mental health benefits. Stress leads to illnesses and diseases, but exercise mitigates harmful impacts. This study explored differences in perceived stress and outdoor physical activity participation among college students in an indoor or outdoor group exercise class. Data were collected pre-, mid- (after four sessions), and post-intervention (after eight sessions). Seventeen participants indicated an interest in the study, but 13 signed up. Participants completed a four-week group exercise intervention that met twice weekly in outdoor and indoor conditions. Mixed ANOVAs with Tukey post hoc tests determined between-group differences in perceived stress and outdoor physical activity levels. Partial eta-squared (η2p) estimated effect sizes. Significant differences in perceived stress scores existed across time for the whole sample [f(2, 12) = 48.359, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.890] and for the interaction between time and condition [f(2, 12) = 10.051, p = 0.003, η2p = 0.626]. Post hoc analysis revealed that the outdoor group's perceived stress (p < 0.001) was reduced more than the indoor group post-intervention (p = 0.028).
... Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car. In contrast, five studies found no significant difference between PENE and PEAE (Bayley et al., 2018;Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Bratman et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Fuegen & Breitenbecher, 2018 ...
... MMost research included college students as samples, except for one that studied athletes (Bodin & Hartig, 2003), adult volunteers (Bratman et al., de Brito et al., 2019) and studied children with attention deficit (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2009). Regarding the tests used to measure DA, most cases included the Digital Span Backward test; three studies opted for Necker Cube Pattern Control (NCPCT) (Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013;Hartig, Evans, Jamner, Davis, & Gärling, 2003). ...
... Regarding the tests used to measure DA, most cases included the Digital Span Backward test; three studies opted for Necker Cube Pattern Control (NCPCT) (Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013;Hartig, Evans, Jamner, Davis, & Gärling, 2003). With respect to the main physical tests performed, these were walking between 15 and 50 minutes ( Bayley et al., 2018;Berman et al., 2008;Bratman et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Fuegen & Breitenbecher, 2018;Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013;Hartig et al., 2003;Mayer et al., 2009), running (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Rogerson & Barton, 2015) or cycling (Rogerson et al., 2016). ...
Background: There is sufficient evidence to confirm that practice of physical exercise improves cognitive and emotional performance. This idea is also related to UNESCO's current trend of establishing connections with its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and educational actions. Furthermore, the relationship of humans with nature seems to produce an improvement in different cognitive variables and specifically in directed attention. The mere presence of the human being in nature produces psychological, well-being and directed attention benefits. However, there is little research on the syn-ergistic effect of physical exercise in natural environments, and how this affects directed attention, as a determining variable in academic performance. oBjective: The main objective is to show the effect of the physical exercise in natural environments on the directed attention in comparison with those performed in urban or built environments. The present systematic review analyzed studies that had evaluated the performance of directed attention when physical exercise in natural environments was practiced. Methods: A Declarations: This research was financed by the research projects of the "Instituto Estu-dios Giennenses en el área de conocimiento Ciencias Naturales y Tecnologıá" (Diputación provincial de Jáen). Authorship Contributions: SBM lead the project, established the protocol and wrote and revised the original manuscript. FTGF, OGT and ABE wrote and revised the original manuscript. Correspondence to: Francisco Tomás González-Fernández. (E-mail: ftgonzalez@ugr.es) Physical exercise in natural environments and its influence on directed attention. 153 results: Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria of the review. Most of these studies were crossover or controlled trials investigating the effects of short-term exposure in natural environments during physical exercise. There is no consensus on the benefits of the physical exercise in natural environments for the directed attention. conclusion: The studies provide theoretical foundations that could explain some of the potential benefits. However, more rigorous research is needed to control the variables that may influence the improvement of directed attention.
... Second, how human perceptions are related to running behavior is largely unknown. The existing literature has mainly focused on the perceived mental benefits of running, such as restoration, stress relief, and satisfaction (Blue, 1979;Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Deelen et al., 2017;Hansmann et al., 2007). Besides, the evaluation of self-reported perceptions often relied on predefined questions (Deelen et al., 2019;Ettema, 2016), which might limit the understanding of the general rule of the on-going extensive running behavior. ...
... For example, runners often intended to run inside and near parks to avoid a fragmented experience (Edensor et al., 2018). revealed that natural exposure with both top-down and eye-level measurements could improve running satisfactions, which coordinates with the findings of most prior studies (Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Deelen et al., 2019;Ettema, 2016;Shashank et al., 2022;Shipway and Holloway, 2010). Besides the greenness, some other BE features like street light (Le, 2021), traffic light , terrain slope (Campbell et al., 2019), surface texture (Ettema, 2016;Hockey and Collinson, 2006), traffic volume and intersections (Krenichyn, 2006;Nixon, 2012) were reported effects on running experience. ...
... Although most of the prior running studies measured the street features using the conventional methods (Bodin and Hartig, 2003; Holloway, 2010), the wide use of SVI data has provided relatively easy and remote access to abundant eye-level objective data from human perspectives (Ito and Biljecki, 2021). SVI data is open-sourced and more efficient and accurate at large geographic scales (Seiferling et al., 2017), which has been proved reliable (Griew et al., 2013). ...
The built environment is found to relate to running behaviors. However, the impacts of the street environment on running were less addressed due to the lack of running data in large geospatial urban regions, while the potential of semi-open data sources like Strava Heatmap for running studies is rarely verified. Moreover, how objective features and subjective perceptions of the street environment are related to running is still largely unknown. We hypothesize that the eye-level subjective and objective streetscapes may complement the macro-scale built environment factors to better inform running amount prediction. Therefore, we evaluated the associations between running and street attributes by applying multi-sourced data, street view imagery (SVI) and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, taking Boston as an example. We found that, first, the street environment is significantly correlated with running. Accounting for the spatial effects, the collective strength of street attributes was almost the same as the counterpart of the built environment, validating the value of including subjective and objective streetscapes measures in running studies. Second, street factors can complement built environment factors, indicating the necessity of using both macro-scale and eye-level environmental features to interpret running. Third, in addition to higher accessibility and more public transportation, the safer, wider and relatively open streets with more natural views, street lights, amenities and furniture, could promote running, while the enclosed environment, dense and overwhelming buildings, and excessive interruptions on streets might hinder running. Our study provides an important example of using semi-open running data and integrating multi-sourced data and AI to bring new insights into running and urban environmental studies. The findings could provide instructive suggestions for the establishment of a running-friendly urban environment and ultimately help to improve public health.
... There is strong evidence that various built environment features can influence running. For example, Bodin and Hartig [21] suggested that outdoor environments promote running by regulating the runner's psychology. The authors of [22] found that the physical environment had an important impact on runners' running performance. ...
... Many studies have shown that runners prefer to be in nature and away from the hustle and bustle of the urban environment. The authors of [21,27] found that runners prefer green environments more than urban settings due to their attractiveness and lack of association with daily troubles. The authors of [28,29] indicated that runners tended to run inside parks and to stay away from traffic and intersections to avoid a fragmented experience. ...
... Areas with a higher POI entropy are associated with a higher degree of functional mixing; in other words, those areas tend to be more urbanized. Previous studies have indicated that runners are more likely to run in environments that are closer to nature and away from the downtown core [6,10,11,21]. For example, Bodin and Hartig [21] suggested that runners indeed prefer green running environments over urban settings and report that they are better at offering fascination and escape from daily hassles. ...
Running can promote public health. However, the association between running and the built environment, especially in terms of micro street-level factors, has rarely been studied. This study explored the influence of built environments at different scales on running in Inner London. The 5Ds framework (density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit) was used to classify the macro-scale features, and computer vision (CV) and deep learning (DL) were used to measure the micro-scale features. We extracted the accumulated GPS running data of 40,290 sample points from Strava. The spatial autoregressive combined (SAC) model revealed the spatial autocorrelation effect. The result showed that, for macro-scale features: (1) running occurs more frequently on trunk, primary, secondary, and tertiary roads, cycleways, and footways, but runners choose tracks, paths, pedestrian streets, and service streets relatively less; (2) safety, larger open space areas, and longer street lengths promote running; (3) streets with higher accessibility might attract runners (according to a spatial syntactic analysis); and (4) higher job density, POI entropy, canopy density, and high levels of PM 2.5 might impede running. For micro-scale features: (1) wider roads (especially sidewalks), more streetlights, trees, higher sky openness, and proximity to mountains and water facilitate running; and (2) more architectural interfaces, fences, and plants with low branching points might hinder running. The results revealed the linkages between built environments (on the macro- and micro-scale) and running in Inner London, which can provide practical suggestions for creating running-friendly cities.
... Table 1. Evaluation factors, utilizing the PRS, are categorized according to their intended subscale designations from ART, with the inclusion of items related to restorative potential (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989;Kaplan, 1995;Hartig et al.,1996;Korpela and Hartig 1996;Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Herzog et al., 2003) Evaluation factors Fascination 1. Encourages people to spend more time exploring the place, discovering its nuances, and becoming more familiar with it. Being away 2. Offers a respite from people's daily routines and helps them feel distant from their everyday thoughts and worries. ...
... Analysis of restorative properties showed strong endorsement of "Fascination" items and lower endorsement of "Extent" items, indicating the selected model's potential for exploration but less effectiveness in mental distraction (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989;Kaplan, 1995;Hartig et al.,1996;Korpela and Hartig, 1996;Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Herzog et al., 2003). Furthermore, a positive relationship was observed between "Restorative potential" and all other components, suggesting areas with higher restorative potential exhibit higher levels of Fascination, Being away, Extent, and Compatibility. ...
The contemporary urban lifestyle, marked by heightened stress levels, contributes to a global surge in mental health issues. Urban sidewalks, where daily interactions occur, offer potential respite, making the design of restorative urban streets crucial for enhancing mental well-being. While previous research acknowledges the restorative value of urban green spaces, there is a pressing need for new studies to identify effective green strategies for mental health promotion. This study focuses on identifying urban green spaces positively affecting mental health and assessing various green strategies from the pedestrian perspective. Using virtual reality (VR), participants evaluated 3D model urban scenes on mobile screens within VR glasses, featuring different sidewalk vegetation and building facades, resulting in 16 experimental conditions. Participants, including individuals from architectural and non-architectural backgrounds and undergraduate students and professionals, expressed unanimous preference for green areas on sidewalks and building facades. The most restorative model featured trees on sidewalks and open front yards on building facades. Additionally, a positive correlation emerged between "Restorative Potential" and Attention Restoration Theory (ART) components, shedding light on factors influencing urban green space preferences. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into designing urban green spaces for promoting mental well-being. Policymakers and planners can leverage this evidence to craft urban environments offering restorative benefits, enhancing residents' overall quality of life in cities worldwide.
... Engaging in outdoor jogging is a highly sought-after aerobic exercise that immensely benefits one's physical and mental well-being (Cook, 2021;Cook et al., 2016;Deelen et al., 2019;Pascual et al., 2009). This activity positively impacts cardiovascular endurance, reduces stress, and enhances overall mood (Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Passi-Solar et al., 2020;Pretty et al., 2005;Wolf and Wohlfart, 2014). Additionally, it is a wonderful way to inspire people to lead active lifestyles, enjoy the great outdoors, and decrease healthcare costs. ...
... Similar to walkability and bikeability, runnability refers to an assessment of the jogging-friendliness of the street environment based on multiple indicators (Harden et al., 2024;Shashank et al., 2022). Traditionally, field surveys or questionnaires have been used to select related metrics affecting jogging/walking/cycling and their weights from experts or residents (Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Deelen et al., 2019;Schuurman et al., 2021;Winters et al., 2016). Alternatively, various methods have been used to determine weights based on questionnaires, such as equal weight method (Ito and Biljecki, 2021), entropy weight method (Gu et al., 2018;He and He, 2023), analytic hierarchy process (AHP) (Eliou et al., 2009), principal component analysis (PCA) (Dai et al., 2023), etc. ...
Jogging, historically marginalized in the realms of urban and transportation strategy since it is not about commuting , is garnering appreciation for its health-related merits. The growing public focus on health underscores the urgent need for planning and infrastructure to support outdoor physical activities, yet current evaluations of urban environments' friendliness toward such activities are insufficient. This investigation unveils a runnability evaluation framework predicated on accessible geospatial big data. Initial steps involved delineating potential metrics from the built environment, pedestrian perceptions, and the natural setting, as informed by literature. This was followed by constructing a backward stepwise regression analysis, utilizing jogging frequency as the response variable against the identified metrics as predictors. The ensuing model retained certain variables, which were then deemed valid metrics, and their regression coefficients were appropriated as weights to compute a runnability index for individual street segments. This framework was applied in Guangzhou, affirming the mod-el's objectivity and validity. The introduced framework furnishes researchers and urban planners with an objective and reproducible tool for the evaluation of runnability and possesses the versatility for an extension to assess walkability and bikeability. This study encourages the attention and support of jogging activities.
... Developed based on ART, the PRS was introduced by Hartig et al. (1996) and has undergone multiple versions since its inception (Bodin and Hartig 2003;Hartig, Kaiser, and Bowler 1997;Korpela and Hartig 1996;Purcell, Peron, and Berto 2001). The PRS comprises specific statements assessing the four dimensions of ART, with respondents providing scores based on their level of agreement. ...
... 1. Respondent's data 2. Activities (general activity information, environmental aspect preferences, activities at the location, and feelings while being at the location) 3. The PRS, developed by Bodin and Hartig (2003), consists of twenty-four statements. ...
... Besides, studies that investigate the associations between running pleasantness and environmental attributes have rarely adopted spatial statistics approaches [8,31], thereby neglecting the environmental exposure of the true geographic context where running activity occurs. Running exercise indicates specific characteristics concerning intensity and spatial extent [6,32]. Thus, it is difficult to locate and analyse the actual running environment spatially. ...
... This result is supported by Kajosaari and Pasanen [37] who suggested that exercising in natural environments cultivated more restorative benefits than exercise performed in the urban settings. Additionally, in Sweden, Bodin and Hartig [32] found that runners preferred the greenspaces over the urban area and considered it as psychologically more restorative. The results of the eye-level greenness were also in line with the prior findings indicating that street greenery was positively related to running behaviour, since it can better represent the perceptions of runners on streets [15]. ...
Running is one of the most frequently practiced exercises worldwide. Perceived pleasantness of running contributes to exercise motivation and thereby can promote running behaviours. However, the associations between environmental factors and running experience have been largely overlooked. This study adopts a public participation GIS approach to collect the mapped point features (N = 941) and assess running pleasantness from 222 runners who resided in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Finland. The results of a global regression model indicated that nature exposure (including eye-level greenness, top-down greenness, and blue space availability) and housing price were positively related to running pleasantness. Intersection density, traffic noise, and population density were negatively associated with running pleasantness. The spatial heterogeneity of these associations across the study area was revealed by adopting a local regression (MGWR) approach. Positive environmental attributes (e.g. blue space availability) increase running pleasantness more effectively when such attributes are more abundant, while negative attributes (e.g. traffic noise) strongly affect running pleasantness in settings where such environmental features are relatively rare. Given that the spatially-varying and scale-varying relationships between running pleasantness and environmental variables were observed across the study area, our findings provide evidence-based knowledge for planners and related policymakers, which suggests that utilizing a single approach without targeting specific settings is unwise to promote running exercise. Activity-based locations tend to have various environmental characteristics, the exposure of which needs to be adjusted uniquely and separately. Therefore, location-targeted interventions would be more effective in promoting running exercise and other physical activities than blanket approaches.
... The exercise environment can influence exercise self-efficacy (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Katula, 2000). A social (group) environment has been shown to result in a statistically significant improvement in sensory state responses compared to exercising alone (McAuley, Blissmer, Katula, & Duncan, 2000). ...
... It may seem like a well-established topic that the exercise environment influences exercise selfefficacy (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Katula, 2000;. What is intriguing in our study is that this environment encompasses not only the physical collective setting but also the psychological environment that has changed due to a sudden external stimulus (such as . ...
Introduction: The COVID-19 outbreak since 2019 seriously affected both physical and mental health, making relief for long-term negative emotions a top priority. While dance behavior in physical education is known to alleviate negative emotions, few researchers explored its effect after sudden crises like COVID-19 and antecedents of sustained dance behavior, i.e., factors influencing dance self-efficacy under such specific conditions. This study conducts empirical research by distributing 307 questionnaires to dance school students from two universities in China and South Korea, aiming to address gaps in related fields and offer guidance to future researchers and practitioners.\n\nMethods: In this study, structural equation modeling was carried out using a questionnaire. Empirical data were collected separately from two universities in China and Korea to examine the relationship between the constructs. Theoretical framework construction utilized the stimulus-organism-response framework and social cognitive theory for an in-depth exploration of the psychological factors affecting dance self-efficacy and whether continuous dance behavior can alleviate negative emotions after a crisis.\n\nResults: The findings reveal that dance self-efficacy emerges as a crucial factor in sustaining individuals\' ongoing dance intentions, with dance activities positively impacting mood improvement. Both mastery experience and vicarious experience significantly influence dance self-efficacy, albeit with differing effects. Mastery experience positively enhances dance self-efficacy, while vicarious experience has a negative impact. Augmented feedback also affects dance self-efficacy, though to a lesser extent compared to the former two factors. In contrast, physiological and affective states differ from those in other disciplines as common sources for evaluating dance self-efficacy. Moreover, environmental factors influence dance self-efficacy in the aftermath of a crisis or external stimulus. \n\nDiscussion: This study extends the stimulus-organism-response framework and social cognitive theory to the context of physical education. It aims to reveal the antecedents of dance self-efficacy behavior in physical education activities and explore whether persistent dance activities after a sudden crisis have a soothing effect on emotions. The research results enrich the relevant literature on dance education and provide theoretical support and management inspiration for those engaged in physical education activities.
... Most research studying the effect of the environment on human health is focused on pedestrians and cyclists, while running is among the most popular physical activities [42]. Within urban areas, traffic noise and unexpected pedestrian movements may counteract the psychological benefits of running [43]. It has been reported that routes in downtown areas and near traffic have low safety and general runnability, whereas routes near parks and in residential areas with low traffic have higher safety for runners [42]. ...
... Moreover, the field study of the current research, as already mentioned above, showed a negative association between urban green space exposure and heart rate. Stressful conditions during running, such as traffic noise, air pollution, and unexpected movements of pedestrians in an urban setting, can counteract the emotional benefits of running [43]. ...
The beneficial effects of green and blue areas on human wellbeing are significant. Physical activity is a crucial factor for the promotion of good human health and wellbeing, and running constitutes one of the most popular forms of outdoor physical activity. This study examines the effect of six urban “route landscapes” with different landscape characters used for outdoor running on the heart rates and speeds of 30 people wearing a smartwatch while running. These routes included: (1) a running track in a stadium; (2) a road without street trees; (3) a road with street trees; (4) an urban park without sea view; (5) an urban park with sea view; and (6) a road by the sea. Additionally, a questionnaire survey was conducted to determine participants’ perceptions and preferred “route landscape” for running. In the study, higher heart rates were recorded on routes without trees, including the stadium. The lowest heart rate was recorded in the park by the sea, followed by the road by the sea, which were at the lowest altitudes amongst the routes studied. Additionally, the highest mean speed of participants was recorded during the run on the road by the sea. The results also showed that irrespectively of the routes, increases in altitude and gradient caused an increase in the heart rates. In the survey, the majority of respondents stated that they would have felt calm and joy during a run either in a park or in a park by the sea. With rising sea levels dictating not to build, carbon capture being necessary in parks, and trees by roads reducing the heat island effect, this study reveals the best “route landscapes” for runners’ health and global warming.
... [3,13,28,29] * Forests facilitate health through enabling physical activity: Forest visits are usually connected to (more or less intense) physical outdoor activity. On the contrary, indoor leisure activities are frequently sedentary and thus obesity promoting (e.g., watching TV, use of computers/internet). [12,30] Economic aspects * Employment and income generation: Forests offer possibilities for subsistence economies and employment opportunities. [2,11] Resources: Forests generate economic resources such as timber and non-wood forest products [2,31] ...
... Currently, the provision of urban fitness services in countries such as China faces issues of insufficiency and imbalance, with the expansion of fitness venues and equipment supply being considered a crucial measure [1]. Jogging, a popular form of daily exercise [2,3], has been proven to confer benefits to both physical [4][5][6][7] and mental [8,9] health. Unlike other sports that require specialized venues, jogging can be performed in informal fitness spaces within the city [10], particularly on streets [11][12][13]. ...
Improving street jogging environments can promote urban health and sustainability, especially within urban built-up areas. Public attention to the environment during jogging has not been sufficiently studied, and the recommended route data from the fitness app offers an opportunity for multiscale spatial exploration. Initially, by analyzing the recommendation reason text, the study identified 22 environmental factors and proposed the Environmental Factor Public Attention Intensity (EFPAI) for quantification, with subsequent comparisons to expert opinions. Further, by analyzing five types of data from the recommended routes, the relationships between EFPAI and jogging frequency, route shape, spatial distribution, and seasonal variations were uncovered. The study revealed: (1) discrepancies between expert opinions and public attention, with experts more likely to overlook factors such as slope, visual quality, width, and acoustic quality; (2) the public tends to notice factors like pedestrians, green spaces, waterfront spaces, landscapes, culture, sports facilities, and accessibility on routes with high jogging frequency; (3) EFPAI for traffic infrastructure, waterfront spaces, landscapes, residential areas, and campuses is associated with route shape; (4) EFPAI of certain environmental factors is influenced by urban geographical spatial factors, and substantial differences exist between different cities. Specific recommendations were provided from three different scales—site scale, street block scale, and urban scale—to guide the resolution of issues in planning and decision-making processes for urban renewal.
... Environmental perception factors involve abstract spatial sensations, predominantly represented by adjectives, including safety [47,48], vibrancy [28], cleanliness [49], slope [25], width [15,50], accessibility [14,19], connectivity [28], air quality [22,51], scenic beauty [14,18], greenery [23,24], lighting [52,53], soundscape [28], and temperature [20,54]. Environmental elements factors primarily include concrete spatial entities, represented mostly by nouns, including vehicles [51,53], pedestrians [14,32], traffic infrastructure [28,55], landscape [14], green space [24,50], waterfront space [26,32], service facilities [14,15], lighting facilities [52,53], pavement [48,56], culture [57], buildings [15,58], and vertical elements [25]. ...
Land use types other than specialized athletic fields provide a variety of jogging environments, addressing the shortage of urban fitness facilities and promoting urban health as well as sustainability. Currently, there is limited research comparing the differences in jogging support among various land use types, which can assist decision-makers in setting priorities and targeted strategies for urban renewal, especially in urban built-up areas with limited land resources. Initially, spatial information, statistical data, and recommendation reason text were extracted from recommended routes in mobile fitness apps and categorized into six land use types. Subsequently, spatial potential was measured through descriptive statistics, buffer area analysis, spatial autocorrelation analysis, and line density analysis. Environmental preferences were gauged by text analysis using jieba word segmentation and grouped word frequency calculation. Finally, the measurement results of different land uses were compared, including scale differences, spatial differentiation, environmental perception, and environmental elements. The research found that streets, residential areas, campuses, parks, and greenways possess significant potential to support jogging, particularly streets. These types of land use exhibit varying spatial potentials and attractions in environmental preferences. Targeted recommendations have been proposed to support the renewal of urban built-up areas and research in related fields.
... The research on whether the restorative environment of urban parks, as assessed by PRS (Perceived Restoration Scale), can reduce fatigue has been continuously conducted, with the majority of studies confirming the effects through comparisons between natural and non-natural elements in urban settings [26,52,53]. Liu et al. [5] and Zhao et al. [54] evaluated the positive impact of different landscape elements in urban parks on individuals using PRS. ...
Urban parks support community well-being and foster social connections through their restorative effects. This study examined the benefits of visiting parks, particularly perceived stress reduction and community attachment. Moreover, we analyzed the restoration effects as perceived by park users to gauge potential improvements in stress management and community bonding. Our findings revealed that spending time in urban parks offers significant benefits, notably enhancing stress management abilities and attachment to the community. In particular, park users’ perception of restorative effects was associated with increased levels of community attachment. A lack of perceived restorative effects negatively impacted stress management capabilities. These findings have critical implications for the sustainability of urban park development and management, emphasizing their contribution to residents’ mental health and community bonding. By recognizing and maximizing the restorative potential of urban parks, policymakers and park managers can create spaces that foster improved mental health, stronger social connections, and enhanced community well-being.
... ▶ "Green exercise" (e.g., in a city park, green space, or wilderness) appears to have psychological health benefits that indoor fitness environments do not (Pretty et al. 2005). Those who ▶ exercise outdoors, in natural settings (a "green gym"), are less depressed and have better psychological well-being compared to people who exercise indoors (Bodin and Hartig 2003). Active ▶ commuting (such as walking or biking) has direct benefits for physical health (increased exercise). ...
... Running has numerous documented health benefits including the reduction of risks associated with cardiovascular disease, a leading cause of death globally (Lee et al., 2014;Maclagan & Tu, 2015;Wolf & Wohlfart, 2014;World Health Organization, 2021). Further, running in pleasantly perceived environments, such as forests, is linked to improved psychological wellbeing (Akpınar, 2019;Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Paul et al., 2020;Pretty et al., 2005). Running serves as a low barrier alternative to other forms of exercise, which may require significant time and financial investment or specialized settings to participate. ...
... 2023, 12, 611 3 of 17 2015; Reining et al. 2021). Exposure to nature also has other positive psycho-physiological effects, including reduced risk of disease (e.g., Lemieux et al. 2012; see also Kaplan and Kaplan 1989) and reduced anxiety and depression (Bodin and Hartig 2003). More broadly, nature contact has been linked to increased life satisfaction (Hartig et al. 2014) and vitalitythe state of having "positive energy available for oneself" (Pasanen et al. 2018). ...
This paper explores the relationship between nature contact, wellbeing and belonging in the resettlement experiences of young refugees in Finland. Drawing on qualitative data, including participant-made artworks and semi-structured interviews, it explores the different ways refugees encounter nature in their past, present and (imagined) future. Using a relational wellbeing approach, the paper considers how subjective, material and relational dimensions of wellbeing arise and interrelate within refugees’ encounters with nature and how these encounters link with refugees’ developing sense of belonging to people and places in Finland. The paper describes how, in the context of refugee resettlement, nature encounters can foster a sense of belonging in three ways: through restoration and attachment in the present, through maintaining links with the past, and through shaping desires about a future in which to thrive. Considering refugees’ sense of belonging in Finland as part of the relational wellbeing generated, in part, from their encounters with nature, these three aspects of belonging represent particular interrelations between subjective, material and relational dimensions of refugees’ wellbeing.
... A variety of studies show that some environments can facilitate and enhance the health bene ts of running, while others hinder them. Therefore, it matters where (e.g. in what geographic location, indoors or outdoors) a person runs (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Hansmann, 2007). ...
Running outdoor has a positive impact on human health. Study attempted to address the issue of what are other aspects motivating to take up running. We were particularly interested in the landscape. Goal was also to determine the landscape values of the competition routes, which determine their popularity. We conducted surveys among the participants of the runs and spatial analyzes using GIS tools. Great landscape values of running routes can contribute to the activation of running society, especially women and city dwellers. The high diversity of the landscape of the cross-country routes, especially in terms of their relief and land use, significantly affects their high landscape rating. Route profile and running challenges are as important as landscape values. The landscape that runners observe during long-distance runs affects their regeneration and motivates them to finish the competition. People want to run in a visually beautiful mountain and foothill landscape. This study illuminates how the enchanting tapestry of landscapes not only fuels the passion for outdoor running but also underscores the intricate relationship between humans and their surroundings. The results enable us to establish the key principles for designing new running routes that support runners during their exertion.
... Spending a long time sitting in areas that provide privacy is important for patients [21], [42]. The results of Shukor's study in 2012 show that young patients do not use gardens because of insufficient opportunities in their outdoor environment [35]. ...
This study aims to evaluate hospital outdoor design landscaping requirements. In addition to taking into account user groups such as adult and child patients, hospital staff and visitors, also such elements as hospital entrances and exits, parking areas, hospital roads, children’s playgrounds, rest areas, water elements, art elements, field furniture, planting and maintenance subjects were determined to be important in a successful hospital garden design. A checklist has been prepared that includes these identified issues. The checklist was tested on five selected hospitals in Baku, Azerbaijan. According to a comparative analysis of hospital outdoor designs, it was determined that the Liv Bona Dea Hospital topped the list, followed by the National Oncology Hospital as having the most successful open space hospital designs.
... However, they found no differences between the groups in working memory performance. Bodin and Hartig [68] did not find evidence for either EF or mood improvements in nature, though it is worth noting that they had a small sample size (N =12). ...
Purpose of Review
Given the global burden of mental health issues, new solutions are needed to promote mental health. Nature exposure represents a promising option to promote mental health, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. Recent frameworks have argued that changes in mental health in nature are caused by activity changes in the vagus nerve, which connects the heart and the brain, and that these changes also improve executive functioning (EF) abilities. This suggests that changes in mental health symptomology in nature should be accompanied by changes in vagus nerve activity, as well as changes in executive functioning. Yet, little work has systematically examined co-variation of these outcomes in empirical studies. The present manuscript systematically examines whether changes in mental health in nature are accompanied by changes in vagus nerve activity (approximated by heartrate variability) and changes in executive functioning.
Recent Findings
There is compelling evidence that spending time in nature can increase heartrate variability, improve mental health, and improve executive functioning. However, despite strong theoretical claims that these three outcomes should be linked after spending time in nature settings, few studies directly examine such co-occurrence.
Summary
The study systematically examines whether studies that considered both mental health and executive functioning (n = 6) showed co-occurring effects in response to nature exposure. Similarly, the study also considers if studies examining mental health and heartrate variability (n = 6) showed similarly directional effects following nature exposure. This systematic review concludes with discussion about the limited number of studies (n =1) that include all three measures. We find mixed results of co-occurrence with these variables, suggesting that the relationship between these three constructs in nature may be more nuanced than current theory suggests. Perhaps more importantly, our results demonstrate that there is very little existing work linking changes in mental health to changes in EF and vagal tone. We conclude with justification for why it may be beneficial for researchers to include all three metrics as well as guidance on how to do so.
... However, the accessibility of park is limited due to distance, opening hours, or ticket access restrictions. In contrast, residents can freely exercise in the streets (Bodin and Hartig, 2003). Road running, as an important exercise, is healthy and easy to participate in. ...
Urban streets provide environment for road running. The study proposes a non-parametric approach that uses machine learning models to predict road running intensity. The models were developed using route check-in data from Keep, a mobile exercise application, and street geographic information data in Beijing’s core district. The results show that blue space and trail continuity are the most important factors in improving road running intensity. There is an optimum design value for the sky openness and the street enclosure, which need to be balanced with shade while meeting the light of the road. And it is also important to provide appropriate visual permeability. Furthermore, unlike daily activities, it was found that higher function mixture and function density did not have significant positive effects on the road running intensity. This study provides empirical evidence on road running and highlights the key factors that planners, landscape architects, and city managers should consider when design running-friendly urban streets.
... These challenges have negative psychological effects on well-being such as increased stress and decreased attention (Kaplan, 1995;Ulrich, 1983). To alleviate these negative effects on well-being, extensive efforts have been made to enhance restoration through different approaches, including mental training (e.g., meditation; S. , rehabilitative strategies (e.g., therapies; Hartig, 2004), physical activities (e.g., exercise and leisure activities; Bodin and Hartig, 2003;Weng and Chiang, 2014), and exposure to restorative environments ( Van den Berg et al., 2007). Among the different approaches, researchers focused on the role of the restorative environment (Staats, 2012), and emphasized the natural environment as an effective restorative environment (Berman et al., 2008;Hartig et al., 1996;Ulrich, 1981), that enhances well-being (White et al., 2017). ...
Vegetation in the built environment is known to affect human well-being. Although previous studies have provided quantitative evidence of the benefits of indoor vegetation on human well-being, the effects of vegetation density in indoor environments remain to be explored. To bridge this gap, this study explored the effects of indoor vegetation density on well-being, particularly on perceived restorativeness, stress reduction, and selective visual attention. This study employed the perceived restorativeness scale (PRS-11) and psychophysiological restorativeness (EEG) and found a positive association between increased indoor vegetation density and restorativeness. Despite the restorative effect, there was an inflection point in the indoor environments at 13%–24% vegetation density. For perceived restorativeness and stress reduction, 13%–24% was the most efficient density within indoor environments. Thus, this study contributes a baseline guideline and reference for designers and decision makers to understand efficient vegetation density in indoor environments.
... Along these lines, the positive effects of natural environments on people's health and well-being have been extensively documented [27,28]. For example, the presence of vegetation favours psychological restoration [29][30][31][32], in addition to the reduction of pathologies such as stress, anxiety or depression [33][34][35] or the increase in life satisfaction [36]. ...
Public spaces are considered areas that promote users’ physical and mental health. The role of these people in public spaces makes it necessary to evaluate such areas. In this study, 12 urban parks on the island of Tenerife were evaluated, combining the assessment of a trained observer and the perception of users, to analyse and categorise the environmental quality of the parks. The findings of this study conclude that users are good evaluators of public spaces; that the Public Space Characteristics Observation Questionnaire (PSCOQ) tool allows the classification of public spaces and that physical order is capable of predicting the environmental quality and the restorative capacity of spaces, as perceived by users. The PSCOQ observation tool makes it possible to detect the strengths and weaknesses of public spaces so they can be improved and adapted to the needs of users.
... ▶ "Green exercise" (e.g., in a city park, green space, or wilderness) appears to have psychological health benefits that indoor fitness environments do not (Pretty et al. 2005). Those who ▶ exercise outdoors, in natural settings (a "green gym"), are less depressed and have better psychological well-being compared to people who exercise indoors (Bodin and Hartig 2003). Active ▶ commuting (such as walking or biking) has direct benefits for physical health (increased exercise). ...
... Beyond such effects, several studies emphasize that spending time in nature has a positive effect on children's mental and physical health such as blood pressure, cholesterol, outlook on life, stress, and behavioral problems (Moore, 1981;Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989;Hartig et al., 1991;Rohde & Kendle 1997;Leather et al., 1998;Parsons et al., 1998;Frumkin, 2001;Godbey, 2009). The common outcome of numerous studies is that outdoor and adventure/extreme sports support physical activity throughout life (Rosenberger et al., 2009;Thompson Coon et al., 2011;Kux & Wolfgan, 2014;Izenstark et al., 2016;White et al., 2016;Bodin & Hartig, 2003). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has created unprecedented chaos worldwide in the current century. Thousands of people died, and millions of people caught the COVID-19 virus. In this tough time, people locked themselves down in their homes for a long time, either voluntarily or mandatorily as part of governmental precautions against the rapid spreading of the virus. This difficult time forced people to change their daily life routines to a sedentary life which affected them mentally and psychologically. Following the lifting of the restrictions, people have started to make an intense effort to do physical activity and spend more time in nature to relax. Consequently, physical activity in a safe environment has become a priority for most people. With this challenging period, open spaces have become more preferred areas for physical activity rather than closed areas. Outdoor and adventure sports have started to consider the safest way of physical activity. Intense physical activity can be done in outdoor and adventure sports, depending on the type of activities. With the necessary precautions taken during the activities, doing outdoor and adventure sports has become a critical step in reducing the effects of mental and psychological factors such as stress, pessimism, bad mood, and unhappiness. Moreover, these sports physically contribute positively to lung capacity. This study provides useful information about outdoor and adventure sports along with highlighting important points and possible risks when doing physical activity in open spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic. Keywords: adventure sports, COVID-19, physical activity, outdoor sports.
... While a contradiction to expectations, it still is consistent with some of the previous literature. Specifically, Bodin and Hartig [72] found no significant attentional benefits from running in a large nature reserve versus running on urban sidewalks and streets despite constructing four versions of the DSST (pen-and-paper version) and using a different test on each occasion. While the participants showed slight improvements in digitcapacity post-test, Emfield and Neider [37] found that performance was independent of the type of environment experienced, suggesting that performance was due to increased familiarity with the task after completing it for a second time. ...
The factors contributing to urbanization, such as population growth and the development of mega-cities, have increased environmental stressors on top of everyday stressors, resulting in information overload. This has led to the increasing incidence of direct attentional fatigue, which causes stress and mental fatigue. The attention restoration theory centres on the environment’s capacity to restore attentional deficits and suggests that there are certain qualities in the environment that restore attention, which leads to improvements in our physical, mental, and social well-being. An environment can be restorative through the activation of involuntary attention, which limits the need for directed attention. This study explored for effects of natural, built, and mixed environment types and levels of mystery on attention restoration in university undergraduates. Perceived and actual levels of attention restoration were measured using a perceived restoration scale (PRS) and the digit symbol substitution task (DSST), respectively. A total of 101 participants viewed a restorative image followed by the completion of the DSST and the PRS for each of the 18 images depicting different environments. Actual attention restoration was measured by latency values in the DSST instead of through both speed and error rates due to some operational issues with the DSST which interfered with the full achievement of the study’s aims. There was an effect of different environments and mystery on perceived attention restoration. However, there appeared to be no effect on actual attention restoration, indicating a disconnect between perceived and actual restoration. Further research is required to confirm the specific effects of natural and built environments and mystery on attention restoration.
... Awareness of the environment as a direct contributor to the running experience, rather than as a backdrop, could improve public health initiatives and infrastructure planning [3,22]. For example, running near green spaces is associated with additional benefits to cardiovascular and mental health [10,[23][24][25][26]. A growing body of literature highlights similar health benefits from blue spaces, which are water bodies such as rivers, ...
Running can improve physical health and psychological wellbeing. However, the characteristics of conducive running environments are relatively unknown. This study determines neighborhood factors that attract running and explores how age and gender mediate built environment preferences. Spatial patterns of runners in Metro Vancouver were identified using crowdsourced fitness data from Strava, a popular application for tracking physical activities. The influence of socio-economic status (SES), green and/or blue space, and urbanicity on route popularity was assessed using a Generalized Linear Model (GLM). The influence of these neighborhood variables was also calculated for runners by age and gender. The results show high neighborhood SES, the presence of green and/or blue space, and high population density are associated with increased running activities in all age and gender groups. This study contributes a novel approach to understanding conducive running environments by demonstrating the utility of crowdsourced data in combination with data about urban environments. The patterns of this large group of runners can be used to inform planning for cities that promote running, as well as seek to encourage equal participation among different ages and genders.
... In addition, interventions using different outdoor natural environments, such as Yuelu Mountain and the Changsha Tongguan Kiln attractions, as mental health promotion or therapeutic environments showed positive results [47,48]. Exercise on outdoor mountains can play a key role as a mental health-promoting environment or resource, especially in urban areas where exercise and socially interactive play in outdoor natural environments are widely accepted as effective means of preventing or treating poor mental health and specific conditions in certain groups. ...
Background: Together with the rapid development of China’s economy, the number of urban residents suffering from depression and psychological disorders has been increasing as a result of the general increase in life stress. As a consequence, this study investigates the effects on users’ mental health through exercise and social interaction in three different outdoor natural landscapes, and provides theoretical and practical guidance for urban landscape planning and design. Methods: In this study, pre- and post-DASS21 (depression, anxiety and stress) data were obtained by using the DASS21 scale (used to assess depression, anxiety, and stress) to test a population of users performing simple exercise and social interactions in three natural environments, and the data scale values were statistically analyzed using SPSS. Results: (1) In the natural outdoor environment within the community, there was a relationship between the outdoor environment and perceived atmospheric temperature, with (single) and (group) perceived outdoor temperatures in the community having smaller effects on the mood of community residents; (2) After analyzing the data by descriptive statistics (p < 0.05), it was found that there was a slight change in the mean scores both before the participants climbed Yuelu Mountain and after they reached the summit; the mean scores of stress, anxiety, and depression decreased after they reached the summit, and the condition improved; (3) There was a slight change in the mean of both scores before the departure to and after the return from the Tongguan Kiln attractions, with a slight improvement in the condition after the return of the stress and depression mean scores. Conclusions: Enhancing social relationships through exercise and social interaction in a natural environment in different populations significantly increases the benefits for mental health (depression, anxiety, and stress) and assists recovery from stress-related mental disorders. Different landscape types and landscape attribute characteristics have different effects on urban residents’ preferences and mental health. Rich natural landscapes, providing green exercise environments, and t social interactions have positive effects on the mental health of urban residents. Especially in environments where the change in altitude is around 200 m, climbing is very beneficial to psychological emotions.
... Regarding people's exercise setting preferences, their choices between different forms of exercise and their decisions about when or even whether to exercise are affected by numerous factors in many different ways (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Box et al., 2019). Dual process theories offer a theoretical framework to understand the role of automatic processes in this behavioral regulation process (Rhodes et al., 2019). ...
Taking a closer look at affective responses to exercise- and physical activity (PA)-related stimuli (regardless of whether they are automatic or deliberative in nature) still represents an area of research on exercise or PA motivation that involves many open questions. From this starting point, the central question is, why so many individuals feel uncomfortable while exercising and further, is this perhaps fundamental to why so many people fail to be sufficiently physically active although they know, that it would be good for them? The main aim of this dissertation, entitled Automatic affective processes toward different types of exercise and physical activity in adults and children, was to provide new insights into automatic affective processes toward PA and exercise according to different types of exercise, and adults as well as to children. Based on theoretical assumptions of the Affective-Reflective theory of physical inactivity and exercise (ART; Brand & Ekkekakis, 2018), the focus lies on the automatic (type-1) process by establishing an Evaluative Priming (EP) task to assess automatic affective processes (AAP). Furthermore, this type-1 process is related to outcomes of the reflective (type-2) process.
The first publication (Limmeroth & Hagemann, 2020) expands the general finding that the greater the amount of exercise, the more positive AAP toward exercise (in this case toward running stimuli), and vice versa (Chevance et al., 2019; Schinkoeth & Antoniewicz, 2017). Importantly, based on assumptions by Antoniewicz and Brand (2014), the preferred type of exercise (in our case running) also accounts for differences in automatic affective processes toward running. In addition, according to the results of this study, it can be suggested that that reflective processes and AAP can independently contribute to exercise (i.e., running) behavior. The second study (Limmeroth & Braun, 2022) represents an development and improvement of the first study and is dedicated to the degree of specificity of AAP regarding different types of exercise: exercising in fitness centers and mountain biking. The results indicate that AAP toward exercising in fitness centers can be differentiated between those, who perform fitness activities compared to those, who do not or only participate little in exercise activity. In contrast, AAP toward mountain biking resulted in a nonsignificant group difference. However, the tendency on a descriptive level was similar (active mountain bikers provided the most positive AAP toward mountain biking) with a smaller effect. Nevertheless, these results contribute to a better understanding of individual’s choices for specific preferences for different types and settings of exercise. Furthermore, AAP and reflective processes were unrelated in this study as well, which adds to existing knowledge that both processes can independently influence exercise related decisions (e.g. Phipps et al., 2021). After previously focusing on different types and settings of exercise, the last and third publication within this thesis (Limmeroth & Raboldt, 2022) now aims to investigate AAP toward PA in a different, much younger sample, namely in children. This study marks one of the first of its kind in assessing AAP toward PA in children. The results indicate PA-related AAP are associated with children’s PA behavior, as has previously been found in adults (Chevance et al., 2019). Furthermore, it should be emphasized that in line with other studies, in this study less than 23% of the children met daily (minimum) step recommendations (Pereira da Silva et al., 2015) and compared to boys, girls are less physically active, in our study too (e.g., Kantanista et al., 2015). For a better understanding of how and whether AAP toward PA are associated with the corresponding PA behavior already present in children and how important it is to foster positive affective experiences associated with PA during childhood, this study marks an important starting point for further research.
In general, the conducted studies might, first, facilitate a better understanding of AAP and their role for exercise- and PA-related decisions. Second, the modifications of the EP task to assess AAP seems a promising development of the original procedure, especially regarding younger participants. Overall, it was envisioned that the three presented publications as part of this dissertation may contribute to the further development of the field of exercise psychology regarding the theoretical framework of dual-process approaches and its assumptions about the influence of automaticity and affective experiences for exercise and PA motivation. All in all, results underline that affective responses to exercise, whether automatically driven or reflexively accessible, are maybe the most important driving or restraining force for future exercise- and PA-behavioral decisions (Ekkekakis et al., 2020; Ekkekakis et al., 2018; Lewin, 1951). Positive as well as negative affective experiences with exercise and PA have a major impact on the corresponding future behavior (Allen Catellier & Yang, 2013; Chen et al., 2020).
Background
While evidence consistently demonstrates that physical activity is beneficial to mental health, it remains relatively unknown how physical activity benefits mental health, and which factors influence the effect of physical activity on mental health. This understanding could vastly increase our capacity to design, recommend, and prescribe physical activity in more optimal ways. The purpose of this study was to systematically review and synthesise evidence of all mediators and moderators of the relationship between physical activity and mental health.
Methods
Systematic searches of four databases (i.e., Scopus, PsycINFO, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus) identified 11,633 initial studies. Empirical studies that quantitatively assessed physical activity, or conducted a physical activity intervention, measured a mental health outcome, and tested one or more mediator or moderator of the relationship between physical activity and mental health were included. A total of 247 met the inclusion criteria; 173 studies examined mediation and 82 examined moderation.
Results
Results of the best-evidence synthesis revealed strong evidence for 12 mediators including affect, mental health and wellbeing, self-esteem, self-efficacy, physical self-worth, body image satisfaction, resilience, social support, social connection, physical health, pain, and fatigue. Moderate evidence was identified for a further 15 mediators and eight moderators.
Conclusions
Findings should inform the design of future physical activity interventions to ensure optimal effects on mental health related outcomes. Additionally, if health professionals were to take these mediators and moderators into consideration when prescribing or recommending physical activity, physical activity would likely have a greater impact on population mental health.
Understanding the exercise behaviors of urban residents in green open spaces is crucial for optimizing future urban spatial planning and improving residents’ quality of life. This study provides an in-depth analysis of residents’ running behaviors across 87 green open spaces in Nanchang City. Running data collected from the exercise platform Keep, coupled with urban geographic data and field research, reveals the spatial distribution and temporal variations of running activities, including running flow, distance, time, and pace. A set of indicator systems, such as total area, landscape form index, surrounding residential land area, and road conditions, is used to analyze its relationship with the environmental elements of green open spaces. The research results show that the running flow, running distance, and running time in green open spaces in Nanchang City are significantly influenced by different objective elements, while running pace shows little correlation with these environmental elements. Specifically, the study highlights the significant impact of elements such as total area and road length, as well as the number of nearby bus stops and population density, on residents’ running behaviors in Nanchang City’s green open spaces.
Egzersiz ortamı, egzersizin yapıldığı yere göre (açık/kapalı alan) farklılık gösterebilir. Doğal ve açık alanlarda yapılan egzersiz, literatürde yeşil egzersiz olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Yeşil egzersiz katılımcıları parkları, ormanları ya da yeşil alanları tercih ederken, kapalı alanda egzersiz yapanlar daha çok spor salonları (fitness vb.) ya da ev gibi yapay alanları tercih etmektedirler. Bu araştırmanın amacı, yeşil egzersiz ve kapalı alan egzersiz katılımcılarının psikolojik ve zihinsel iyi oluşlarının incelenmesidir. Nicel araştırma yaklaşımıyla planlanan bu çalışmada tarama yöntemi ve bu yöntemde sıklıkla kullanılan anket tekniğinden faydalanılmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklem grubunu Trabzon ve Rize şehirlerinin doğal (yeşil) alanlarında ve Trabzon’daki fitness salonlarında egzersize katılan 18 yaş ve üzerinde 100’ü kadın ve 232’si erkek olmak üzere toplam 332 kişi oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak, kişisel bilgi formu yanında, “Psikolojik iyi oluş ölçeği” ve “Warwick-Edinburgh mental iyi oluş ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Veriler bizzat araştırmacılar tarafından egzersizin hemen bitiminde toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde, betimsel istatistikler, T testi ve Korelasyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda, yeşil egzersiz katılımcılarının psikolojik ve mental iyi oluş puan ortalamalarnın kapalı alanda egzersiz yapan bireylerin ortalamalarından yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. Ayrıca yeşil ve kapalı alan egzersiz katılımcılarının mental iyi oluş puan ortalamaları arasındaki fark anlamlıdır (bu bulgu her iki cinsiyette de aynıdır). Yeşil egzersiz ve kapalı alan egzersiz katılımcılarının psikolojik iyi oluş ve mental iyi oluşları arasında orta düzeyde pozitif ve anlamlı bir ilişkinin olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
Existing research on the effects of nature exposure on the mental health of adults indicates that spending time in nature reduces depressive symptoms and stress, increases quality of life and mood and improves mental health. This meta‐analysis aimed to answer the question: what are the effects of nature exposure on the social, mental and physical health of adults with symptoms of mental illness? The meta‐analysis included all studies relevant to the study research questions which collected quantitative data on nature exposure using validated instruments for at least two time points on each participant and which were published between 1990 and 2020. Regarding the impact of nature exposure on adults with symptoms of mental illness, analyses showed significant, moderate effect sizes for all studies and smaller, but significant, effect sizes for studies with control groups Analyses also yielded critical information regarding the effect size of the type of nature dosage, nature setting, nature‐based activity, key mental health outcomes and other factors. These findings from the present study results have important implications regarding the potential benefits of nature exposure for adults and its role in healthcare.
Most people seek to perform outdoor sport and activities, especially where it is in
close contact with nature under the fresh air. Nowadays, sporting organizations are searching for new locations where it does not attract only athletes but also spectators and companions.
Purpose The purposes of this research was to study the influence of the marketing
mix on participating in the trail running event decision, in the aspect of sports tourism
promotion.
Methods The samples were 296 participatants in the Phu Kradueng Wake Up Run
trail running event. The samples were collected by purposive sampling. The research instruments were questionnaires and data were analyzed by frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation.
Results It was found that participants in the trail running events had an opinion of the
marketing mix in the highest level among 7 aspects, with an average of 4.25. The order
was, sorted by the high to low average score, were the people, price, physical evidence and presentation, place, process, promotion, and product and service, respectively. Conclusion Our results indicate that the person, price, physical evidence and presentation, and place were factors that influence the marketing mix. Thus, the organizers of the trail running event could apply these results for enhancing the marketing strategies and developing the products or services corresponding to the participant’s demand by focusing on these factors to gain an advantage
in competition with competitors and develop products or services to meet the needs of colleagues.
This handbook is the first to comprehensively study the interdependent fields of environmental and conservation psychology. In doing so, it seeks to map the rapidly growing field of conservation psychology and its relationship to environmental psychology. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental and Conservation Psychology includes basic research on environmental perceptions, attitudes, and values; research on specific environments, such as therapeutic settings, schools, and prisons; environmental impacts on human well-being; and ways to promote a more sustainable relationship between people and the natural environment. This handbook presents an extensive review of current research and is a thorough guide to the state of knowledge about a wide range of topics at the intersection of psychology and the physical environment. Beyond this, it provides a better understanding of the relationship between environmental and conservation psychology, and some sense of the directions in which these interdependent areas of study are heading.
Outdoor running has a positive impact on human health. Our study attempted to address the issue of what other aspects motivate people to take up running. We were particularly interested in the landscape and its significance at the stage of decision making regarding participation in races. Our goal was also to identify the landscape features of routes, which determine their popularity. We conducted surveys among running participants and spatial analyses using GIS tools. Great landscape values of running routes can contribute to the activation of a running society, especially those including women and city dwellers. The high diversity of the landscape of cross-country routes, especially in terms of their relief and land use, significantly affects their high landscape rating. Route profiles and running challenges are as important as landscape values. The landscape that runners observe during long-distance runs affects their regeneration and motivates them to finish competitions. Runs organised in mountain and foothill landscapes, characterised by a wide variety of landscapes, are particularly attractive for runners. This study illuminates how the enchanting tapestry of landscapes not only fuels the passion for outdoor running but also underscores the intricate relationship between humans and their surroundings. The results enable us to establish the key principles for designing new running routes that support runners during their exertion.
Urban green spaces (UGSs) ensure many benefits for well-being, but the percentage of UGSs in Indonesia had not reached the minimum percentage of the required green area. Therefore, sustainability programs for green spaces should be taken to prevent unwanted future problems. Fostering the human-environment relationship is probably the first step to go to sustainability in urban green spaces. This study was conducted to search for what visitors and designers can do for UGSs sustainability based on the sense of place factors: physical characteristics, visitors’ activity, and meaning of place. Sense of place is a grounded theory that shows the human-environment relationship in some levels. The first study (N=211) showed some important factors determining physical characters and activities. The second study (N=145) will show the integration of factors that build visitors’ participation using the sense of place level. The data were analyzed by FA and PCA for determining latent factors in each variable for correlation analysis. The result shows that visitors’ involvement depends on the physical characteristics provided in parks. Involvement is created through activities and meanings of a place and should be fostered through providing visitors’ needs (relaxation needs, enjoyment needs, and exploration needs). If visitors’ needs meet with places, the relationship will be created, and a sense of place level will be fostered. Visitors’ sense of place level (familiarity, attachment, and sacrifice) will determine the sustainability of parks in the future. Designers and government should take more concern in providing parks with adequate and well-maintained facilities.
This paper shows that most people are drawn towards natural environments and that passive as well as active exposure to the natural world has beneficial effects on the health and well-being of individuals (for overviews see Frumkin, 2001; Kahn 1997; Maller et al., 2005; Ulrich, 1993). The paper will also show that although there is a lot we know, there is also a lot we don’t know, particularly in relation to the psychological processes which underlie the inter-action between people and the natural environment. This is just one of the potential areas upon which environmental and counselling psychologists might collaborate.
Yapılan araştırmalar gösteriyor ki; sporcuların performansının iyileştirilmesinde güven
konusu önemli yer tutmaktadır (Moritz ve ark., 2000). Bunun sonucunda da güncel araştırmalar takım
güvenine odaklanarak, sporcuların takımın yeteneklerine karşı duydukları güvenin takımın başarısı
için güçlü bir faktör olduğunu göstermektedir (Morgan ve ark., 2013). Özellikle takımın oynayacağı
zorlu müsabakalarda kazanmak ya da kaybetmek için güven etkili bir noktadadır. Çünkü bu tür
müsabakalarda zihinsel baskı ve risk yüksek düzeydedir. Biz de bu çalışmada özellikle takımların
gelişimleri ve eğilimlerini güven açısından ele almak istedik.
The natural environment has been widely recognized as an important way of alleviating mental disorders. While a growing number of studies have discussed the restorative effect of the natural environment, the role of sounds in the natural environment (i.e., soundscape) on promoting mental restoration is under limited exploration. Therefore, we examined the restorative effect of visual stimuli and the combination of audio and visual factors in the natural environment. A total of 149 college students were divided into five groups, and exposed to different combinations of photos and sounds (with ‘silence’ as a control group) collected along the East Lake Greenway—the longest urban greenway in China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the correlation between characteristics of the natural environment and volunteers’ mental restoration, with place attachment as a mediator. Results showed that: (1) sound can alter the effect of visual factors on mental restoration; (2) birdsong can significantly enhance the restorative benefit of urban greenways; (3) an environment that is covered in greenery and consists of water sounds will contribute to a higher level of mental restoration; (4) human noise will have a negative impact on mental restoration; (5) place attachment is a mediator between the natural environment and mental restoration. This study highlights the effectiveness of sounds in the natural environment in promoting mental restoration, and broadens our understanding of the link between the natural environment and mental health. We propose that not only visual factors, but also audio-visual combinations, should be considered when creating restorative environments.
Although the environment is related to psychological well-being, the psychological benefits of the built environment—in particular, third places—have been understudied. This study analyzed the psychological benefits of third places, focusing specifically on eating and drinking places. 722 students from the University of California, Irvine, participated in an online survey and answered an open-ended question and photo-based close-ended questions. Findings indicated that cafés and coffee shops can provide psychological benefits like that of urban parks. Interestingly, like urban parks, a large-chain coffee shop was a preferred and pleasant place to rest. The findings also demonstrated that preference for an environment can be related to an individual's place orientedness and perceptions of the restorative quality of, and pleasant sentiment towards, that environment. Collectively, these findings revealed the important role that third places play in the mental health of students in America by serving as places of leisure—like urban parks.
Increasing evidence suggests that regular physical activity can have considerable psychological, as well as physical, benefits in the elderly. Although factors such as exercise dosage may be implicated in exercise-induced affect responses, it has also been suggested that social and psychological factors might influence this relationship. This study examined the roles played by exercise environment (group versus alone) and self-efficacy in affective change in 80 older adults (M age = 66 yrs) over the course of three acute exercise bouts. Using latent growth curve methodology and statistically controlling for duration and intensity of exercise, we were able to demonstrate that social (group) environments resulted in statistically significant improvements in feeling state responses when contrasted with a condition in which the participants exercised alone. In addition, increases in self-efficacy were associated with more positive and less negative feeling states. Environmental factors that might influence the exercise-affect response are discussed and recommendations for subsequent exercise, efficacy, affect research made.
S. Kaplan suggested that one outcome of mental fatigue may be an increased propensity for outbursts of anger and even violence. If so, contact with nature, which appears to mitigate mental fatigue, may reduce aggression and violence. This study investigated that possibility in a setting and population with relatively high rates of aggression: inner-city urban public housing residents. Levels of aggression were compared for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to buildings with varying levels of nearby nature (trees and grass). Attentional functioning was assessed as an index of mental fatigue. Residents living in relatively barren buildings reported more aggression and violence than did their counterparts in greener buildings. Moreover, levels of mental fatigue were higher in barren buildings, and aggression accompanied mental fatigue. Tests for the proposed mechanism and for alternative mechanisms indicated that the relationship between nearby nature and aggression was fully mediated through attentional functioning.
Most of our knowledge on the effects of exercise on anxiety and mood relies on two, pre-and post-treatment, measurements. In this study a simple question was raised: disregarding all but very stressful life events, are runners less anxious and/or in a better mood on their running days as opposed to their non-running days? Forty runners completed a set of questionnaires every evening, before bed, for 21 consecutive days. Average values for anxiety and mood were calculated for running and non-running days. The latter two were statistically different in measures of state anxiety, exhaustion, tranquillity, positive engagement and revitalization. However, when the effect sizes were examined the differences were small. It is concluded that on average, in lack of control for various life events, runners report lesser anxiety and better mood on the days when they run in contrast to their non-running days. These results, obtained via an in situ methodology, lend support to the positive implication of running in health.
In a review of the literature on the effect of physical exercise on information processing and cognition, the studies were classified according to the intensity and duration of the exercise intervention. The studies were evaluated on the basis of current theories of information processing. Although several studies suggest that exercise produces short-term facilitative effects on mental tasks, the relation remains problematic. It is concluded that inconsistencies among studies are due to the failure of researchers to use a theory-based parametric approach to the issue. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the structure of a revised Daily Hassles Scale (DHS—R) and attempted to clarify its relationship to measures of psychological and somatic symptoms. 923 undergraduates served as Ss in the initial exploratory analysis. 823 undergraduates and 259 recurrent headache sufferers comprised the 2 cross-validation samples. A 2nd set of analyses, using a subset of the undergraduate samples, was then used to examine the relationship between the DHS—R factors and psychological and somatic symptoms. Analyses suggest that hierarchical factor structure comprised of 7 primary and 2 higher-order factors provides a useful framework for conceptualizing the DHS—R. The primary factors identified emphasized different life domains (e.g., work, family), while the higher-order factors appeared to distinguish between public and private experiences. Six of the 7 DHS—R primary factors did not appear confounded with either psychological or somatic symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review of experimental and correlational studies suggests that the aftereffects of stress on performance are due to a wide range of unpredictable, uncontrollable stressors including noise, electric shock, and bureaucratic stress. These effects are not limited to stressful situations that involve a lack of predictability and controllability over a distracting stimulus; they can also be induced by increased task demand. Interventions that increase personal control and/or stressor predictability are effective in reducing poststressor effects. There is also evidence for poststimulation effects on social behavior which generally involve an insensitivity toward others following stressor exposure. Studies of exposure to environmental stressors in naturalistic settings report effects similar to those found in laboratory settings. Several theories (e.g., psychic cost, learned helplessness, arousal) are examined. Some receive more support than others, but it is concluded that the reliability and generality of poststimulation effects have many causes. (86 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Within the behavioral field, self-report inventories measuring emotional condition from a state/trait perspective are in frequent use. Some of these measures have insufficient standardisation and/or are out of date. In order to upgrade some of the frequently used self-report inventories a nation-wide survey (N = 2500) was performed. Measures of negative affect (state-anxiety STAI-S, trait-anger STAS-T), and depression (CES-D), dispositional style (LOT) and daily hassles (DH) were examined. Psychometric data and demographic differences for all the inventories used are presented. The reliability measures for the scales show high consistency, ranging from 0.76 to 0.95 (Cronbach's alpha). The overall results indicate that females are more hassled, depressed, anxious, hostile, and have a more negative dispositional style than males. These results are most pronounced among younger females.
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
遠隔記憶障害を検出する場合，想起された内容の真実性，再学習の有無，興味や関心の個人差，時間的傾斜の検出の可否が問題となる。社会的なことがらを利用した遠隔記憶検査では興味や関心の個人差が，自伝的なことがらを利用した遠隔記憶検査では想起された内容の真実性が特に問題となる。また，比較的やさしい課題で健常群の天井効果を認める場合，または，比較的難しい課題で健忘群の床効果を認める場合には，時間的傾斜の有無に関して確実なことがいえなくなる。流暢性ベースの遠隔記憶検査は，単位時間内に知人の名前や体験した出来事をできるだけたくさん想起する課題であり，検査の構造上，天井効果が起こりえないために時間的傾斜の問題を考える場合には好都合である。また，内容の異なる遠隔記憶でも流暢性ベースで質問することにより，記憶以外の条件を等しくできる利点もある。コルサコフ症候群において，自伝的記憶流暢性検査の成績は，従来までの自伝的記憶検査の成績と有意な相関を認めており，遠隔記憶検査として有用性が高いと思われた。
Examined the influence of leadership behavior on exercise-induced feeling states and self-efficacy beliefs following an acute bout of physical activity. 46 females (mean age 18.3 yrs) participated in a single session of physical activity that involved either socially enriched or bland social interactions by an activity leader. Ss completed the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI) and self-efficacy measures prior to and 10 min following the experimental treatments. Ss in the enriched condition reported greater increases in Revitalization. There was a similar trend for the Positive Engagement subscale, and those in the enriched condition reported much larger increases in self-efficacy. There was no evidence that self-efficacy was related to the change seen in EFI responses; however, enjoyment of the instructors' approach to the class was related to residualized change scores for both Revitalization and Positive Engagement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[considers] the positive psychosocial benefits of physical activity / psychosocial outcomes as discussed herein are restricted to perceptions of self-esteem, psychological well-being, and self-efficacy (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes the development and validation of a measure designed to assess feeling states that occur in conjunction with acute bouts of physical activity, the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI). The EFI consists of 12 items that capture 4 distinct feeling states: revitalization, tranquility, positive engagement, and physical exhaustion. The multidimensional structure of the EFI is supported by confirmatory factor analysis. The subscales have good internal consistency, share expected variance with related constructs, are sensitive to exercise interventions, and appear responsive to the different social contexts in which activity may occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Within the behavioral field, self-report inventories measuring emotional condition from a state/trait perspective are in frequent use. Some of these measures have insufficient standardisation and/or are out of date. In order to upgrade some of the frequently used self-report inventories a nation-wide survey (N=2500) was performed. Measures of negative affect (state-anxiety STAI-S, trait-anger STAS-T), and depression (CES-D), dispositional style (LOT) and daily hassles (DH) were examined. Psychometric data and demographic differences for all the inventories used are presented. The reliability measures for the scales show high consistency, ranging from 0.76 to 0.95 (Cronbach’s alpha). The overall results indicate that females are more hassled, depressed, anxious, hostile, and have a more negative dispositional style than males. These results are most pronounced among younger females.
We compared psychophysiological stress recovery and directed attention restoration in natural and urban field settings using repeated measures of ambulatory blood pressure, emotion, and attention collected from 112 randomly assigned young adults. To vary restoration needs, we had half of the subjects begin the environmental treatment directly after driving to the field site. The other half completed attentionally demanding tasks just before the treatment. After the drive or the tasks, sitting in a room with tree views promoted more rapid decline in diastolic blood pressure than sitting in a viewless room. Subsequently walking in a nature reserve initially fostered blood pressure change that indicated greater stress reduction than afforded by walking in the urban surroundings. Performance on an attentional test improved slightly from the pretest to the midpoint of the walk in the nature reserve, while it declined in the urban setting. This opened a performance gap that persisted after the walk. Positive affect increased and anger decreased in the nature reserve by the end of the walk; the opposite pattern emerged in the urban environment. The task manipulation affected emotional self-reports. We discuss implications of the results for theories about restorative environments and environmental health promotion measures.
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the influence of acute physical activity and meditation (noncultic)on state anxiety. Seventy-five adult male volunteers served as Ss with 25 Ss randomly assigned to either an exercise, meditation, or control group. Physical activity was performed at 70% of self-imposed maximal exercise heart rate for 20 minutes by Ss in the exercise group; Ss assigned to the meditation group practiced Benson's Relaxation Response for 20 minutes; and Ss in the control group simply rested quietly in a Lazyboy chair for 20 minutes. State anxiety was measured with the Spielberger Scale, and it was assessed (1)prior to, (2)immediately following, and (3)10 minutes following each treatment. Oxygen consumption, heart rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure were also measured as confirmatory variables under selected conditions. The data were analyzed by means of a two-way repeated measures ANOVA, and this analysis revealed that a significant reduction in anxiety occurred for each treatment. This held for both those Ss falling within the normal range for state anxiety and those Ss regarded as high-anxious. It was also noted that none of the physiological variables differed significantly following the control and meditation treatments. The present evidence suggests that acute physical activity, noncultic meditation, and a quiet rest session are equally effective in reducing state anxiety.
This study is based on a theoretical view which suggests that under increased demands for attention, individuals' capacity to direct attention may become fatigued. Once fatigued, attentional restoration must occur in order to return to an effectively functioning state. An attention-restoring experience can be as simple as looking at nature. The purpose of this study was to explore whether university dormitory residents with more natural views from their windows would score better than those with less natural views on tests of directed attention. Views from dormitory windows of 72 undergraduate students were categorized into four groups ranging from all natural to all built. The capacity to direct attention was measured using a battery of objective and subjective measures. Natural views were associated with better performance on attentional measures, providing support for the proposed theoretical view.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
The aims of the present study were a) to compare the outcome of running exercise performed on a treadmill (laboratory) and an outdoor track (field) using an RPE production protocol and b) to study this kind of protocol used over time (3-5 wk). A group of 11 healthy male subjects participated, with ages varying from 33 to 65 yr (mean = 42.9 +/- 11.0 yr). Two test sessions consisting of both treadmill and track exercise were performed in a rotated order to control for sequential effects. All subjects exercised according to an identical protocol: two successive trials (3 min each) at RPE 11 (light exertion), followed by a RPE 13 (somewhat hard) trial (11 min) and, finally, a RPE 15 (hard) trial (5 min). Results show significantly different levels of heart rate (HR), blood lactate, and velocity at the three RPE levels. Large differences were also observed in all measured variables between field and laboratory. These differences were consistent over time. A high internal consistency, measured by test-retest reliability (alpha greater than 0.9), was obtained for both velocity and HR between the first two trials at RPE 11. In conclusion, the RPE method functioned well as a means of monitoring and regulating exercise intensity.
The standard life events methodology for the prediction of psychological symptoms was compared with one focusing on relatively minor events, namely, the hassles and uplifts of everyday life. Hassles and Uplifts Scales were constructed and administered once a month for 10 consecutive months to a community sample of middle-aged adults. It was found that the Hassles Scale was a better predictor of concurrent and subsequent psychological symptoms than were the life events scores, and that the scale shared most of the variance in symptoms accounted for by life events. When the effects of life events scores were removed, hassles and symptoms remained significantly correlated. Uplifts were positively related to symptoms for women but not for men. Hassles and uplifts were also shown to be related, although only modestly so, to positive and negative affect, thus providing discriminate validation for hassles and uplifts in comparison to measures of emotion. It was concluded that the assessment of daily hassles and uplifts may be a better approach to the prediction of adaptational outcomes than the usual life events approach.
This study was designed to examine some of the psychoneuroendocrine effects of exercise-induced emotional experiences and the mediating effects of environmental setting and subjects' attentional focus. Trained runners were tested during an outdoor run and two indoor treadmill running conditions. Excretions of catecholamines and cortisol significantly increased after all running conditions but not after a control condition. Results indicate that patterns of endocrine and concomitant emotional change through exercise differ when environmental setting and attentional focus are altered in such a way that a normally pleasant task such as running becomes tedious and negatively evaluated. These findings support the notion that setting, attention, and cognitive appraisal may alter the emotional experience associated with physical exercise.
This paper documents the recent (1976-1995) literature on the acute mood effects associated with participation in single sessions of exercise. Issues regarding experimental design, "ecological validity' and the operational definition of mood are addressed. Results from these studies suggest that both clinical and nonclinical subjects may benefit acutely from even a single bout of exercise. Finally, possible mechanisms and recommendations for future research are discussed.
Negative Mood (NM) is a 19–items adjective check–list developed to assess negative mood and stress responses. The items of the scale reflect dimensions such as depressed mood, anxiety, anger and time urgency. The data were collected from four different samples, two random population samples and two smaller selective samples.
The psychometric properties of the NM showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha). When analysed with principal components analysis, three factors emerged, anxiety/depression, time pressure, and anger. The factors emerged in all four samples, within samples and between gender. The NM factors were tested for convergent and discriminative validity by correlating them with other more established measures of different aspects of negative mood. The results showed high convergent and discriminative validity for two of the NM factors, i.e., anxiety/depression, and anger, whereas the results for the third factor, time pressure, were more ambiguous. This scale has proven to be useful in capturing some vital dimensions of negative affect across different kinds of populations.
Environmental effects on ratings of perceived exertion in males and females Jourr~al of Sporr Behavior Dinletzsiotzer i t)p A-beteende (Ditrletzsiorls in Type-A behavior; u~lpub-lislzed nlarluscript)
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HassmCn, P. (1996). Environmental effects on ratings of perceived exertion in males and females. Jourr~al of Sporr Behavior, 19, 235-245. rM. Bodill, T. Hurtig /Psycl~ology of Sport and Exercise 4 (2003) 141-153 Hesly, H., Ronngren, B., & Semb, G. (1985). Dinletzsiotzer i t)p A-beteende (Ditrletzsiorls in Type-A behavior; u~lpub-lislzed nlarluscript). Department of Psychology: Uppsala University
Dimensioner i typ A-beteende (Dimensions in Type-A behavior; unpub-lished manuscript) Department of Psychology The Daily Hassles scale (revised): Does it measure stress or symptoms? Behav-ioural Assessment
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, H., Rö, B., & Semb, G. (1985). Dimensioner i typ A-beteende (Dimensions in Type-A behavior; unpub-lished manuscript). Department of Psychology: Uppsala University. Holm, J. E., & Holroyd, K. A. (1992). The Daily Hassles scale (revised): Does it measure stress or symptoms? Behav-ioural Assessment, 14, 465–482.
Neuropsychological assessment
- M D Lezak
Lezak, M. D. (1983). Neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Environmental effects on ratings of perceived exertion in males and females
- Hassmén
Hassmén, P. (1996). Environmental effects on ratings of perceived exertion in males and females. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 19, 235-245.
Dimensioner i typ A-beteende (Dimensions in Type-A behavior; unpublished manuscript)
- H Hesly
- B Rönngren
- G Semb
Hesly, H., Rönngren, B., & Semb, G. (1985). Dimensioner i typ A-beteende (Dimensions in Type-A behavior; unpublished manuscript). Department of Psychology: Uppsala University.
- M Bodill
- T Hurtig
M. Bodill, T. Hurtig /Psycl~ology of Sport and Exercise 4 (2003) 141-153
Aggression and violence in the inner city: Impacts of environment via mental fatigue
- Kuo