Article

Precautionary management of deep-sea mining

March 2002
Marine Policy 26(2):103-106

Source
RePEc

Authors:

University of Toronto

Interest in deep-sea mining developed in the early 1970s, with a focus on manganese nodules in international waters. Mining may actually occur first, however, on rich polymetallic sulfide deposits associated with hydrothermal vents within exclusive economic zones. Even though mining for polymetallic sulfides may not take place for several years, precautionary performance standards, environmental regulations, and the establishment of Marine Protected Areas may help guide the marine mining industry toward a goal of minimizing environmental impacts. Once substantial investments in prospecting and exploring a potential mining site are made, implementation of environmental regulations may prove to be much more difficult.

New report applies the mitigation hierarchy and deep-ocean science to determine risks and impacts of deep-seabed mining

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2020

New report applies the mitigation hierarchy and deep-ocean science to determine risks and impacts of deep-seabed mining - Volume 54 Issue 4 - Pippa Howard, Nicky Jenner, Guy Parker

Deep Sea Uncertainty: Studies in Environmental Ethics and Decision-Making

Thesis

Full-text available

Aug 2019

Espen Dyrnes Stabell

Should we mine the ocean floor? Deep-sea mining involves retrieving minerals – such as copper, zinc, and rare earth elements – from the ocean floor at great depths. This form of mining is still in its infancy, with high expectations for societal benefits and economic gain. At the same time, there are significant uncertainties regarding environmental impact and how to mitigate potential harm. The thesis contains three philosophical studies of relevance to the question of whether we should mine on the ocean floor. The first study concerns the role that “existence value” should play in evaluating activities involving a risk of species extinction, such as deep sea mining. Existence value refers to the value we may ascribe to the existence of something, for instance a certain species or ecosystem, regardless of whether it is or will be of any particular use to us. In the study, it is argued that existence value based on preference satisfaction has ethical significance and should be taken into consideration in evaluating activities that come with a risk of species extinction. The second study concerns decision-making among options – for instance, whether we should allow or not that a certain deep-sea mining project proceeds – when it is not clear how to compare the options with regard to relevant criteria (such as environmental damage and societal benefit). It is argued that the idea of choices expressing a moral identity – reflected in statements about what kind of people or society we think we should be – may lead us in the direction of a plausible solution to these challenging cases. Several authors argue for a precautionary approach to deep-sea mining. Precautionary measures may involve substantial burdens for actors and affected parties, for instance in the form of economic costs. In the third and final study of the thesis, which is co-authored by Daniel Steel, we propose a framework for the fair distribution of costs of taking precautionary measures against environmental risk. The thesis concludes with general recommendations for how deep-sea mining projects should be evaluated, and for further research on philosophical and ethical aspects of deep-sea mining.

Seabed Mining and Approaches to Governance of the Deep Seabed

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2018

Commercial seabed mining seems imminent, highlighting the urgent need for coherent, effective policy to safeguard the marine environment. Reconciling seabed mining with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals will be difficult because minerals extraction will have irreversible consequences that could lead to the loss of habitats, species and ecosystems services. A dialog needs to take place around social, cultural, environmental and economic costs and benefits. Governance of human interactions with the seabed is fragmented and lacks transparency, with a heavy focus on facilitating exploitation rather than ensuring protection. In the light of high uncertainties and high stakes, we present a critical review of proposed policy options for the regulation of seabed mining activities, recommend actions to improve seabed governance and outline the alternatives to mining fragile deep-sea ecosystems.

Assessing the feasibility of deep-seabed mining of polymetallic nodules in the Area of seabed and ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, as a method of alleviating supply-side issues for cobalt to US markets

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Alexander Cunningham

The growing importance of cobalt to the US economy has led to its categorisation as a critical mineral. Cobalt demand is increasing due to its requirement in lithium-ion batteries, which will significantly contribute to the energy transition. Supply is threatened for various reasons, primarily regarding supply chain concentrations, with the majority of the world’s cobalt originating in terrestrial deposits in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and being refined in China. There remain environmental and ethical concerns over the present supply chain. Previous discussions around reducing cobalt’s criticality have suggested diversifying processing locations to reduce geographical and jurisdictional reliance where possible. This study assesses the viability of extracting cobalt from polymetallic nodules (PMNs) located on the deep-seabed in the Area, as an alternative strategy to reduce cobalt’s criticality. Assessments are made of the viability of PMN extraction considering ongoing barriers to introduction, contrasted with current arguments supporting PMN extraction. PMN mining offers a more stable and decentralised alternative to current cobalt supply. There exist impediments to its introduction, notably potential environmental impacts, which remain poorly understood. Technical and political restrictions must also be overcome. It is argued that the wider environmental benefits of increased cobalt supply from PMN mining may offset its detrimental environmental impacts. It is suggested that PMN mining be used in a wider strategy to improve supply security of cobalt to US markets.

Ecological risk assessment for deep-sea mining

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019
OCEAN COAST MANAGE

Ecological risk assessment for deep-sea mining is challenging, given the data-poor state of knowledge of deep-sea ecosystem structure, process, and vulnerability. Polling and a scale-intensity-consequence approach (SICA) were used in an expert elicitation survey to rank risk sources and perceived vulnerabilities of habitats associated with seabed nodule, sulfide, and crust mineral resources. Experts identified benthic habitats associated with seabed minerals as most vulnerable to habitat removal with a high degree of certainty. Resource-associated benthic and pelagic habitats were also perceived to be at risk from plumes generated during mining activities, although there was not always consensus regarding vulnerabilities to specific risk sources from different types of plumes. Even for risk sources where habitat vulnerability measures were low, high uncertainties suggest that these risks may not yet be dismissed. Survey outcomes also underscore the need for risk assessment to progress from expert opinion with low certainty to data-rich and ecosystem-relevant scientific research assessments to yield much higher certainty. This would allow for design and deployment of effective precautionary and mitigation efforts in advance of commercial exploitation, and adaptive management strategies would allow for regulatory and guideline modifications in response to new knowledge and greater certainty.

A procedural framework for robust environmental management of deep-sea mining projects using a conceptual model

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2017
MAR POLICY

Robust environmental management of deep-sea mining projects must be integrated into the planning and execution of mining operations, and developed concurrently. It should follow a framework indicating the environmental management-related activities necessary at each project phase, and their interrelationships. An environmental management framework with this purpose is presented in this paper; it facilitates the development of environmental information and decision-making throughout the phases of a mining project. It is based environmental management frameworks used in allied industries, but adjusted for unique characteristics of deep-sea mining. It defines the gathering and synthesis of information and its use in decision-making, and employs a conceptual model as a growing repository of claim-specific information. The environmental management activities at each phase have been designed to enable the implementation of the precautionary approach in decision making, while facilitating review of adaptive management measures to improve environmental management as the quantity and quality of data increases and technologies are honed. This framework will ensure fairness and uniformity in the application of environmental standards, assist the regulator in its requirements to protect the environment, and benefit contractors and financiers by reducing uncertainty in the process.

Peripheral communities of the Eastern Lau Spreading Center and Valu Fa Ridge: Community composition, temporal change and comparison to near-vent communities

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2016
MAR ECOL-EVOL PERSP

Western Pacific hydrothermal vents will soon be subjected to deep-sea mining and peripheral sites are considered the most practical targets. The limited information on community dynamics and temporal change in these communities makes it difficult to anticipate the impact of mining activities and recovery trajectories. We studied community composition of peripheral communities along a cline in hydrothermal chemistry on the Eastern Lau Spreading Center and Valu Fa Ridge (ELSC-VFR) and also studied patterns of temporal change. Peripheral communities located in the northern vent fields of the ELSC-VFR are significantly different from those in the southern vent fields. Higher abundances of zoanthids and anemones were found in northern peripheral sites and the symbiont-containing mussel Bathymodiolus brevior, brisingid seastars and polynoids were only present in the northern peripheral sites. By contrast, certain faunal groups were seen only in the southern peripheral sites, such as lollipop sponges, pycnogonids and ophiuroids. Taxonomic richness of the peripheral communities was similar to that of active vent communities, due to the presence of non-vent endemic species that balanced the absence of species found in areas of active venting. The communities present at waning active sites resemble those of peripheral sites, indicating that peripheral species can colonize previously active vent sites in addition to settling in the periphery of areas of venting. Growth and mortality were observed in a number of the normally slow-growing cladorhizid stick sponges, indicating that these animals may exhibit life history strategies in the vicinity of vents that differ from those previously recorded. A novel facultative association between polynoids and anemones is proposed based on their correlated distributions.

Assessment of Possible Environmental Impacts Using Flow-Cytometric Analysis of Metal Toxicity in Marine Phytoplankton

Chapter

Jun 2024

Mineral resources are abundant in submarine hydrothermal areas. The development of submarine resources is expected to be accompanied by metal-ore mining. This has raised concerns that mining is detrimental to marine environments because of the presence of heavy metals and arsenic. Innovations in collecting environmental baseline data and new onboard assessment methods for marine environmental impacts are required as a precautionary approach. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of an onboard on-chip benchtop flow cytometry (FCM) system and establish a technique to analyze the ecotoxic effects of metals on marine phytoplankton based on the FCM assay. The benchtop unit was installed on the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) research vessel Kaimei. Experiments were conducted onboard using seawater collected onsite. The effects of heavy metals on marine cyanobacteria were evaluated by staining nucleic acids with SYBR Green I and propidium iodide (PI). PI is a stain that permeates membranes differently depending on cell damage. We found that the metal sensitivities of Prochlorococcus in oligotrophic waters differed depending on the ambient nutrients. A similar trend was observed in culture-based laboratory experiments.

Ophiotholia (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea): A little-known deep-sea genus present in polymetallic nodule fields with the description of a new species

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Introduction The Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the Northeast Pacific Ocean holds the largest deposits of polymetallic nodules at abyssal depths. These nodules are rock formations containing valuable metals and minerals targeted for mining. They further provide diverse habitat for a range of deep-sea species. Little is known so far on the taxonomy, natural history and biogeography of these deep-sea animals which is vital for accurate assessment of the risk of species extinctions from large-scale mining. One of the most abundant megafaunal groups in the CCZ is the Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), of which Ophiotholia is one of the more abundant genera found in the area. The genus Ophiotholia has a world-wide distribution and currently holds six species. Methods Material collected from seven scientific cruises to the CCZ was examined, morphologically, together with comparative material from all the known species. The small size and the damage caused during sampling often impeded their identification. The specimens were also genetically analyzed using a fragment of the mitochondrial COI gene. Scanning Electron Microscope images of the key microstructural characters were made using selected specimens from CCZ as well as from the comparative material. Result and discussion One morphotype was identified as the known species Ophiotholia supplicans Lyman, 1880, while the second is new to science and is described in this paper. The umbrella spines and the arrangement of their articulations on the lateral arm plate, were selected as the most relevant morphological characters in the taxonomy of the genus Ophiotholia and a revised identification key of all characters from all known Ophiotholia species is provided as a table in the supplement material. The identification and description of such a little-known genus improves the evaluation of the biodiversity not only in the CCZ but also for the deep sea.

Electrifying passenger road transport in India requires near-term electricity grid decarbonisation

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Battery-electric vehicles (BEV) have emerged as a favoured technology solution to mitigate transport greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in many non-Annex 1 countries, including India. GHG mitigation potentials of electric 4-wheelers in India depend critically on when and where they are charged: 40% reduction in the north-eastern states and more than 15% increase in the eastern/western regions today, with higher overall GHGs emitted when charged overnight and in the summer. Self-charging gasoline-electric hybrids can lead to 33% GHG reductions, though they haven’t been fully considered a mitigation option in India. Electric 2-wheelers can already enable a 20% reduction in GHG emissions given their small battery size and superior efficiency. India’s electrification plan demands up to 125GWh of annual battery capacities by 2030, nearly 10% of projected worldwide productions. India requires a phased electrification with a near-term focus on 2-wheelers and a clear trajectory to phase-out coal-power for an organised mobility transition. India’s plans to electrify transport is complicated by its reliance on coal-power. Here the authors call for diverse policy and technology solutions, including a focus on cleaner grids, electric 2-wheelers, and hybrid 4-wheelers in the near-term.

Environmental monitoring data reveals geographic and depth-based differentiation of benthic fjord communities

Article

Feb 2022
ESTUAR COAST SHELF S

Multi-fjord studies require resources and time usually not afforded to academic projects. We used data from environmental monitoring surveys to conduct an extensive multi-fjord study that allowed us to explore large scale patterns of benthic communities of fjords along the Norwegian coast. We found a distinction between the subarctic Finnmark subprovince and the more temperate West Norwegian subprovince, and within the latter, a distinction between shallow stations (less than 220 m water depth) and deeper stations (greater than 220m water depth). Sedimentary total organic carbon (TOC) content was lower among Finnmark stations compared to West stations at similar water depths and this could account for species that thrive in organic rich sediment being abundant in the latter, as well as the near absence of chemosynthesis-based species from the Finnmark stations. However, neither lower marine primary production due to extensive polar night periods nor less terrigenous carbon input due to sparse tree cover appear to explain the lower TOC of Finnmark stations. In fact, despite the northernmost tree and forest line running through Finnmark, stations in this region had higher C/N rations, which can be indicative of terrigenous carbon input, which could be due to permafrost derived peatlands and marshes that are abundant in this region. We suggest that the observed biogeographic differentiation is not based just on terrestrial or vertical water column carbon fluxes but additionally on sedimentary carbon retention capacity which is linked to grain size. Sediment reworking by species such as capitellid worms could potentially further impact sediment organic matter content. The coarser sediment of Finnmark stations furthermore supports taxa that rely on larger grain sizes. Though few deepwater species were observed, two-thirds of the total taxa enumerated in this study were absent from deep stations (>220 m water depth). Environmental parameters were largely not statistically different between deep stations and shallow stations of either subprovince, but species differences suggest that sediment grain size could explain some of the community differences. This study highlights the value of monitoring data that can be used for gaining understanding over large spatial scales that is not possible through academic budgets and research-funding periods.

Seafloor Massive Sulfides: Their Role in Biodiversity of the Abyssal Ocean and the Threat of Deep-Sea Mining

Preprint

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Lauren Geiser

Seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) at hydrothermal vents present huge opportunity for deep-sea mining (DSM) due to their abundance and high mineral grade. Little is known about the deep-sea; however, hydrothermal vents are some of the most biologically active deep-sea ecosystems, providing significant biodiversity and other ecosystem services that maintain the entire planet. The mining of SMS, which may commence within the decade, poses serious risk to hydrothermal vents as mining methods will likely require the destruction of active and/or nonactive vents, which will in turn affect these ecosystems and their services. The environmental impacts of mining SMS deposits must be carefully considered alongside the benefits from moving away from terrestrial mining before DSM is allowed to commence on the largescale.

Ecological considerations for marine spatial management in deep-water Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021
OCEAN COAST MANAGE

The United Republic of Tanzania has jurisdiction over a large marine area (223,000 km²) of which over 92% is deeper than 200 m. These deep areas extend from, in most cases <10 km from shore, have connections to shallow and coastal marine habitats through oceanographic processes, and support important living and non-living resources, which are becoming increasingly exploited to support a valuable blue economy. Recognising the need for sustainable development, implementation of conservation and management measures in Tanzania's offshore waters has begun, with the development of coastal protected areas and marine spatial plans (e.g. the Coastal and Marine Spatial Plan for Zanzibar). As yet, the deeper areas of Tanzania have not been considered in marine spatial planning. Here we present a synthesis of available data on the habitats and biological communities of deep-water Tanzania, including new data collected in collaboration with the deep-water oil and gas industry, to provide an indication of regional-scale patterns and areas of potential importance. We also discuss the value and multiple uses of the deep ocean areas to Tanzania, and assess the ecological effects of impacts in these environments. This information is valuable to the Tanzanian government to help inform development of management measures to continue to make sustainable use of valuable deep-water resources. To facilitate uptake, we provide a series of recommendations on considering the Tanzanian deep ocean areas in marine spatial planning to boost future management of the important and sensitive offshore domain.

Offshore Geological Hazards: Charting the Course of Progress and Future Directions

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Offshore geological hazards can occur in any marine domain or environment and represent a serious threat to society, the economy, and the environment. Seismicity, slope sedimentary instabilities, submarine volcanism, fluid flow processes, and bottom currents are considered here because they are the most common hazardous processes; tsunamis are also examined because they are a secondary hazard generated mostly by earthquakes, slope instabilities, or volcanic eruptions. The hazards can co-occur and interact, inducing a cascading sequence of events, especially in certain contexts, such as tectonic indentations, volcanic islands, and canyon heads close to the coast. We analyze the key characteristics and main shortcomings of offshore geological hazards to identify their present and future directions for marine geoscience investigations of their identification and characterization. This review establishes that future research will rely on studies including a high level of multidisciplinarity. This approach, which also involves scientific and technological challenges, will require effective integration and interplay between multiscale analysis, mapping, direct deep-sea observations and testing, modelling, and linking offshore observations with onshore observations.

Investing in Blue Natural Capital to Secure a Future for the Red Sea Ecosystems

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

For millennia, coastal and marine ecosystems have adapted and flourished in the Red Sea’s unique environment. Surrounded by deserts on all sides, the Red Sea is subjected to high dust inputs and receives very little freshwater input, and so harbors a high salinity. Coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and mangroves flourish in this environment and provide socio-economic and environmental benefits to the bordering coastlines and countries. Interestingly, while coral reef ecosystems are currently experiencing rapid decline on a global scale, those in the Red Sea appear to be in relatively better shape. That said, they are certainly not immune to the stressors that cause degradation, such as increasing ocean temperature, acidification and pollution. In many regions, ecosystems are already severely deteriorating and are further threatened by increasing population pressure and large coastal development projects. Degradation of these marine habitats will lead to environmental costs, as well as significant economic losses. Therefore, it will result in a missed opportunity for the bordering countries to develop a sustainable blue economy and integrate innovative nature-based solutions. Recognizing that securing the Red Sea ecosystems’ future must occur in synergy with continued social and economic growth, we developed an action plan for the conservation, restoration, and growth of marine environments of the Red Sea. We then investigated the level of resources for financial and economic investment that may incentivize these activities. This study presents a set of commercially viable financial investment strategies, ecological innovations, and sustainable development opportunities, which can, if implemented strategically, help ensure long-term economic benefits while promoting environmental conservation. We make a case for investing in blue natural capital and propose a strategic development model that relies on maintaining the health of natural ecosystems to safeguard the Red Sea’s sustainable development.

The Provision and Utility of Science and Uncertainty to Decision-Makers: Earth Science Case Studies

Preprint

Oct 2018

Impact of small-scale disturbances on geochemical conditions, biogeochemical processes and element fluxes in surface sediments of the eastern Clarion–Clipperton Zone, Pacific Ocean

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020
BG

The thriving interest in harvesting deep-sea mineral resources, such as polymetallic nodules, calls for environmental impact studies and, ultimately, for regulations for environmental protection. Industrial-scale deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules most likely has severe consequences for the natural environment. However, the effects of mining activities on deep-sea ecosystems, sediment geochemistry and element fluxes are still poorly understood. Predicting the environmental impact is challenging due to the scarcity of environmental baseline studies as well as the lack of mining trials with industrial mining equipment in the deep sea. Thus, currently we have to rely on small-scale disturbances simulating deep-sea mining activities as a first-order approximation to study the expected impacts on the abyssal environment. Here, we investigate surface sediments in disturbance tracks of seven small-scale benthic impact experiments, which have been performed in four European contract areas for the exploration of polymetallic nodules in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the NE Pacific. These small-scale disturbance experiments were performed 1 d to 37 years prior to our sampling program in the German, Polish, Belgian and French contract areas using different disturbance devices. We show that the depth distribution of solid-phase Mn in the upper 20 cm of the sediments in the CCZ provides a reliable tool for the determination of the disturbance depth, which has been proposed in a previous study from the SE Pacific (Paul et al., 2018). We found that the upper 5–15 cm of the sediments was removed during various small-scale disturbance experiments in the different exploration contract areas. Transient transport-reaction modeling for the Polish and German contract areas reveals that the removal of the surface sediments is associated with the loss of the reactive labile total organic carbon (TOC) fraction. As a result, oxygen consumption rates decrease significantly after the removal of the surface sediments, and, consequently, oxygen penetrates up to 10-fold deeper into the sediments, inhibiting denitrification and Mn(IV) reduction. Our model results show that the return to steady-state geochemical conditions after the disturbance is controlled by diffusion until the reactive labile TOC fraction in the surface sediments is partly re-established and the biogeochemical processes commence. While the re-establishment of bioturbation is essential, steady-state geochemical conditions are ultimately controlled by the delivery rate of organic matter to the seafloor. Hence, under current depositional conditions, new steady-state geochemical conditions in the sediments of the CCZ are reached only on a millennium scale even for these small-scale disturbances simulating deep-sea mining activities.

The provision and utility of science and uncertainty to decision-makers: earth science case studies

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

This paper investigates how scientific information and expertise was provided to decision-makers for consideration in situations involving risk and uncertainty. Seven case studies from the earth sciences were used as a medium for this exposition: (1) the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence in New Zealand, (2) agricultural farming-system development in North West Queensland, (3) operational flood models, (4) natural disaster risk assessment for Tasmania, (5) deep sea mining in New Zealand, (6) 3-D modelling of geological resource deposits, and (7) land-based pollutant loads to Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. Case studies are lead-authored by a diverse range of scientists, based either in universities, industry, or government science agencies, with diverse roles, experiences, and perspectives on the events discussed. The context and mechanisms by which scientific information was obtained, presented to decision-makers, and utilised in decision-making is presented. Sources of scientific uncertainties and how they were communicated to and considered in decision-making processes are discussed. Decisions enacted in each case study are considered in terms of whether they were scientifically informed, aligned with prevailing scientific evidence, considered scientific uncertainty, were informed by models, and were (or were not) precautionary in nature. The roles of other relevant inputs (e.g. political, socioeconomic considerations) in decision-making are also described. Here we demonstrate that scientific evidence may enter decision-making processes through diverse pathways, ranging from direct solicitations by decision-makers to independent requests from stakeholders following media coverage of relevant research. If immediately relevant scientific data cannot be provided with sufficient expediency to meet the demands of decision-makers, decision-makers may (i) seek expert scientific advice and judgement (to assist with decision-making under conditions of high epistemic uncertainty), (ii) delay decision-making (until sufficient evidence is obtained), and/or (iii) provide opportunities for adjustment of decisions as additional information becomes available. If the likelihood of occurrence of potentially adverse future risks is perceived by decision-makers to exceed acceptable thresholds and/or be highly uncertain, precautionary decisions with adaptive capacity may be favoured, even if some scientific evidence suggests lower levels of risk. The efficacy with which relevant scientific data, models, and uncertainties contribute to decision-making may relate to factors including the expediency with which this information can be obtained, the perceived strength and relevance of the information presented, the extent to which relevant experts have participated and collaborated in scientific communications to decision-makers and stakeholders, and the perceived risks to decision-makers of favouring earth science information above other, potentially conflicting, scientific and non-scientific inputs. This paper provides detailed Australian and New Zealand case studies showcasing how science actions and provision pathways contribute to decision-making processes. We outline key learnings from these case studies and encourage more empirical evidence through documented examples to help guide decision-making practices in the future.

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystem principles: Identification of ecosystem processes, services and communication of value

Article

Mar 2019
MAR POLICY

Difficulties in quantifying the value of an ecosystem have prompted efforts to emphasize how human well-being depends on the physical, chemical and biological properties of an ecosystem (i.e., ecosystem structure) as well as ecosystem functioning. Incorporating ecosystem structure and function into discussions of value is important for deep-sea ecosystems because many deep-sea ecosystem services indirectly benefit humans and are more difficult to quantify. This study uses an ecosystem principles approach to illustrate a broader definition of value for deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Expert opinion, solicited using an iterative survey approach, was used to develop principles that describe hydrothermal vent processes and their links to human well-being. Survey participants established 28 principles relating to ecosystem structure (n = 12), function (n = 6), cultural services (n = 8) and provisioning services (n = 2), namely the provision of mineral deposits and genetic resources. Principles relating to cultural services emphasized the inspirational value of hydrothermal vents for the arts and ocean education, as well as their importance as a frontier in scientific research. The prevalence of principles relating to ecosystem structure and function (n = 18) highlights the need to understand subsequent links to ecosystem services. For example, principles relating to regulating services were not established by the expert group but links between ecosystem function and regulating services can be made. The ecosystem principles presented here emphasize a more holistic concept of value that will be important to consider as regulations are developed for the exploitation of minerals associated with deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Numerical modelling impact assessment tools for sustainable deep-sea mining

Conference Paper

Jan 2018

Deep-sea mining is emerging as an attractive potential solution to provide non-living resources for the worldwide industry. This interest is evidenced by the growing number of deep-sea exploration applications submitted to the International Seabed Authority (ISA). The analysis of the potential deep-sea exploitation activities impacts in European oceans, and particularly in the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), is therefore a current research topic. There is the concern that the sensitive ecosystems located in the vicinity of the mineral resources can be altered during mining operations, causing negative impacts that can persist over time. An environmental impact assessment analysis is therefore essential to support the design of guidelines to minimize and mitigate the risk for the environment. In this work, performed in the frame of the project CORAL, we developed a numerical model for deep-sea dynamics, which aims the establishment of scenarios to support the definition of deep-sea mining standards.

Development of physical modelling tools in support of risk scenarios: A new framework focused on deep-sea mining

Article

Oct 2018
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

Deep-sea mining has gained international interest to provide materials for the worldwide industry. European oceans and, particularly, the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone present a recognized number of areas with polymetallic sulphides rich in metals used in high technology developments. A large part of these resources are in the vicinity of sensitive ecosystems, where the mineral extraction can potentially damage deep-ocean life services. In this context, technological research must be intensified, towards the implementation of environmental friendly solutions that mitigate the associated impacts. To reproduce deep-sea dynamics and evaluate the effects of the mining activities, reliable numerical modelling tools should be developed. The present work highlights the usefulness of a new framework for risk and impact assessment based on oceanographic numerical models to support the adoption of good management practices for deep-sea sustainable exploitation. This tool integrates the oceanic circulation model ROMS-Agrif with the semi-Lagrangian model ICHTHYOP, allowing the representation of deep-sea dynamics and particles trajectories considering the sediments physical properties. Numerical simulations for the North Mid-Atlantic Ridge region, revealed the ability of ROMS-Agrif to simulate real deep-sea dynamics through validation with in-situ data. Results showed a strong diversity in the particle residence time, with a dependency on their density and size but also on local ocean conditions and bottom topography. The highest distances are obtained for the smaller and less dense particles, although they tend to be confined by bathymetric constrains and deposited in deepest regions. This work highlights the potential of this modelling tool to forecast laden plume trajectories, allowing the definition of risk assessment scenarios for deep-sea mining activities and the implementation of sustainable exploitation plans. Furthermore, the coupling of this numerical solution with models of biota inhabiting deep-sea vent fields into ecosystem models is discussed and outlined as cost-effective tools for the management of these remote ecosystems.

Decadal Comparisons of Particulate Matter in Repeat Transects in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean Basins

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017

Basin-wide sections of beam cp (proxy for particle concentration) in ocean basins collected during numerous oceanographic programs over the last four decades record variable concentrations in euphotic surface waters, very low concentrations through most of the water column, and very low to very high concentrations near the seafloor. Sections resampled at decadal intervals show that intense benthic nepheloid layers (BNLs) recur in the same general locations in these repeat sections, most often where eddy kinetic energy (EKE: cm2 s�2) is high in overlying waters. Areas beneath regions of low surface EKE consistently have weak to no BNLs. The decadal persistence of the close connection between surface and benthic EKE and presence or absence of BNLs is clear. Understanding the location and causes of intense versus weak BNLs helps in assessing scavenging of adsorption-prone elements in the deep sea and quantifying the impact of deep ocean sediment dynamics on sediment redistribution.

Global assessment of benthic nepheloid layers and linkage with upper ocean dynamics

Article

Jan 2018
EARTH PLANET SC LETT

Available online 14 Nov 2017. Editor: M. Frank Keywords: benthic nepheloid layers, eddy kinetic energy, particulate matter, benthic storms, erosion resuspension. -------- Global maps of the maximum bottom concentration, thickness, and integrated particle mass in benthic nepheloid layers are published here to support collaborations to understand deep ocean sediment dynamics, linkage with upper ocean dynamics, and assessing the potential for scavenging of adsorption-prone elements near the deep ocean seafloor. Mapping the intensity of benthic particle concentrations from natural oceanic processes also provides a baseline that will aid in quantifying the industrial impact of current and future deep-sea mining. Benthic nepheloid layers have been mapped using 6,392 full-depth profiles made during 64 cruises using our transmissometers mounted on CTDs in multiple national/international programs including WOCE, SAVE, JGOFS, CLIVAR-Repeat Hydrography, and GO-SHIP during the last four decades. Intense benthic nepheloid layers are found in areas where eddy kinetic energy in overlying waters, mean kinetic energy 50 m above bottom (mab), and energy dissipation in the bottom boundary layer are near the highest values in the ocean. Areas of intense benthic nepheloid layers include the Western North Atlantic, Argentine Basin in the South Atlantic, parts of the Southern Ocean and areas around South Africa. Benthic nepheloid layers are weak or absent in most of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic basins away from continental margins. High surface eddy kinetic energy is associated with the Kuroshio Current east of Japan. Data south of the Kuroshio show weak nepheloid layers, but no transmissometer data exist beneath the Kuroshio, a deficiency that should be remedied to increase understanding of eddy dynamics in un-sampled and under-sampled oceanic areas.

Australia state of the environment 2016: Marine environment. Independent report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Atlantic Sciaenid Habitats: A Review of Utilization, Threats, and Recommendations for Conservation, Management, and Research

Technical Report

Jan 2017

Precaution and Fairness: A Framework for Distributing Costs of Protection from Environmental Risks

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2018
J AGR ENVIRON ETHIC

While there is an extensive literature on how the precautionary principle should be interpreted and when precautions should be taken, relatively little discussion exists about the fair distribution of costs of taking precautions. We address this issue by proposing a general framework for deciding how costs of precautions should be shared, which consists of a series of default principles that are triggered according to desert, rights, and ability to pay. The framework is developed with close attention to the pragmatics of how distributions will affect actual behaviours. It is intended to help decision-makers think more systematically about distributional consequences of taking precautionary measures, thereby to improve decision-making. Two case studies—one about a ban on turtle fishing in Costa Rica, and one about a deep-sea mining project in Papua New Guinea—are given to show how the framework can be applied.

Atlantic Sciaenid Habitats: A Review of Utilization, Threats, and Recommendations for Conservation, Management, and Research.

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Sciaenid fishes are found worldwide, containing approximately 70 genera and 270 species (Nelson 1994), of which 21 genera and 57 species have been described in the western Atlantic (Chao 1978). Globally, most sciaenids occur in marine and estuarine waters, while 28 species occur in freshwater. Marine species of sciaenids are found on shallow continental shelves in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, but are absent from islands in the mid-Indian and Pacific oceans (Nelson 1994). Most sciaenids (with the exception of kingfish), produce deep drumming sounds by contracting and beating muscles against the swim bladder, hence the common names croaker and drum. In the western Atlantic Ocean, sciaenids are found from Maine to Mexico, with centers of abundance most concentrated from New York to North Carolina, depending on the species. Sciaenids live in shallow coastal waters (less than 125 meters), and in larger bays and estuaries, including their tributaries. In general, they are euryhaline organisms, meaning they can adapt to a wide range of salinities, although preferred salinity varies with species and life stage. Sciaenids utilize a variety of habitats throughout their life stages, including sand and mud substrates, oyster beds, water column, and seagrass. As a group, sciaenids exploit the broadest range of foraging habits, consisting of polychaetes, bivalves, crustaceans, and fishes (Chao and Musick 1977). Their diets vary with locality, prey availability, life stage, and species. Estuaries are important habitats for many sciaenids at every life stage. In the Mid Atlantic Bight, as many as 14 species can be present in estuaries as larvae, juveniles, or adults over the course of a year (Chao and Musick 1977; Cowan and Birdsong 1985; Able and Fahay 1997; Able et al. 2001). Weakfish, for example, use estuaries as primary spawning habitat (Nye et al. 2008), while Atlantic croaker and spot use them as nurseries and seasonal adult foraging grounds (Chao and Musick 1977; Sheridan et al. 1984). As dominant seasonal members of the estuarine fish assemblage, young sciaenids play important roles as both predators and prey (Dovel 1968; Chao and Musick 1977; Grecay and Targett 1996; Able et al. 2001). Adults form spawning aggregations and release sperm and eggs into the water column. The spawning period occurs over several months, and often entails multiple spawning events, but timing varies by Atlantic Sciaenid Habitats 1 species. In fact, sciaenids partition out their spawning and nursery residences, which ultimately reduces competition. It’s difficult to make generalizations about these species as a group because they have evolved to utilize distinct ecological niches in terms of feeding, timing of spawning, and spawning and nursery areas. For example, spot and Atlantic croaker spawn offshore in the winter, while other species such as weakfish, black drum, and northern kingfish spawn in the spring and summer in coastal areas. Spotted seatrout are essentially year-round estuarine residents who infrequently leave their natal estuary (Holt and Holt 2003; Lowerre-Barbieri et al. 2013). Fertilized eggs float in the water column and hatch after 1–2 days depending on the species and water temperature. Soon after hatching, larvae are transported from coastal waters farther up into estuaries through active and passive processes. Nursery habitat use is also somewhat partitioned in space and time among species. For example, young-of-year black drum tend to be found in lower salinity habitats than other species of sciaenids. Young-of-year Atlantic croaker show up in late fall/early winter and overwinter in the estuary. Young-of-year spot are found in late winter/early spring, followed by black drum, weakfish, spotted seatrout, and finally red drum. Structurally complex nursery areas, such as seagrasses and marsh creeks, provide larvae and young fish productive feeding grounds and protection from predators (McIvor and Odum 1988; Hoss and Thayer 1993; Kneib 1997; Rountree and Able 2007). Because estuarine habitat provides such favorable conditions for juvenile growth and reduced mortality, this habitat is critical to ongoing productive coastal fisheries (Boesch and Turner 1984; Fogarty et al. 1991; Deegan et al. 2000).

Valorisation of post-sorption materials: Opportunities, strategies, and challenges

Article

Dec 2016
ADV COLLOID INTERFAC

Adsorption is a facile, economic, eco-friendly and low-energy requiring technology that aims to separate diverse compounds (ions and molecules) from one phase to another phase using a wide variety of adsorbent materials. To date, this technology has been used most often for removal/recovery of pollutants from aqueous solutions; however, emerging post-sorption technologies are now enabling the manufacture of value-added key adsorption products that can subsequently be used for (i) fertilizers, (ii) catalysis, (iii) carbonaceous metal nanoparticle synthesis, (iv) feed additives, and (v) biologically active compounds. These new strategies ensure the sustainable valorisation of post-sorption materials as an economically viable alternative to the engineering of other green chemical products because of the ecological affability, biocompatibility, and widespread accessibility of post-sorption materials. Fertilizers and feed additives manufactured using sorption technology contain elements such as N, P, Cu, Mn, and Zn, which improve soil fertility and provide essential nutrients to animals and humans. This green and effective approach to managing post-sorption materials is an important step in reaching the global goals of sustainability and healthy human nutrition. Post-sorbents have also been utilized for the harvesting of metal nanoparticles via modern catalytic pyrolysis techniques. The resulting materials exhibited a high surface area (> 1000 m²/g) and are further used as catalysts and adsorbents. Together with the above possibilities, energy production from post-sorbents is under exploration. Many of the vital 3E (energy, environment, and economy) problems can be addressed using post-sorption materials. In this review, we summarize a new generation of applications of post-adsorbents as value-added green chemical products. At the end of each section, scientific challenges, further opportunities, and issues related to toxicity are discussed. We believe this critical evaluation not only delivers essential contextual information to researchers in the field but also stimulates new ideas and applications to further advance post-sorbent applications.

“Beyond the vent: New perspectives on hydrothermal plumes and pelagic biology”

Article

Oct 2016
DEEP-SEA RES PT II

Brennan Phillips

Defining “serious harm” to the marine environment in the context of deep-seabed mining

Article

Dec 2016
MAR POLICY

Deep-sea mining prospects in French Polynesia: Governance and the politics of time

Article

Sep 2016
MAR POLICY

Kanak coastal communities and fisheries meeting new governance challenges and marine issues in New Caledonia

Book

Jan 2016

Zinc and copper isotope fractionation in metal leaching from hydrothermal ore deposits: Environmental implications for deep-sea mining

Article

Jul 2024

Impact of resuspended mine tailings on benthic biodiversity and ecosystem processes: The case study of Portmán Bay, Western Mediterranean Sea, Spain

Article

Feb 2022
ENVIRON POLLUT

Industrial seabed mining is expected to cause significant impacts on marine ecosystems, including physical disturbance and the generation of plumes of toxin-laden water. Portmán Bay (NW Mediterranean Sea), where an estimated amount of 60 Mt of mine tailings from sulphide ores were dumped from 1957 to 1990, is one of the most metal-polluted marine areas in Europe and worldwide. This bay can be used to assess the impact on marine ecosystems of particle settling from sediment plumes resulting from mine tailings resuspension. With this purpose in mind, we conducted a field experiment there to investigate subsequent effects of deposition of (artificially resuspended) contaminated sediments on (i) prokaryotic abundance and meiofaunal assemblages (in terms of abundance and diversity), (ii) the availability of trophic resources (in terms of organic matter biochemical composition), and (iii) a set of ecosystem functions including meiofaunal biomass, heterotrophic C production and C degradation rates. The results of this study show that mine tailings resuspension and plume deposition led to the decline of prokaryotic abundance and nematode's biodiversity. The later decreased because of species removal and transfer along with particle resuspension and plume deposition. Such changes were also associated to a decrease of the proteins content in the sediment organic matter, faster C degradation rates and higher prokaryotic C production. Overall, this study highlights that mine tailing resuspension and ensuing particle deposition can have deleterious effects on both prokaryotes and nematode diversity, alter biogeochemical cycles and accelerate C degradation rates. These results should be considered for the assessment of the potential effects of seabed mineral exploitation on marine ecosystems at large.

Responsibility to Ensure: Sponsoring States’ Environmental Legislation for Deep Seabed Mining and China’s Practice

Book

Sep 2021

Xiangxin Xu

The contractors are those private or state-owned companies that carry out exploration and exploitation activities in the Area, which, due to the lack of subjectivity under international law, are not obliged by the UNCLOS. In this book, Xiangxin Xu highlights and analyzes the sponsoring State’s primary responsibility, i.e., ensuring its sponsored contractors’ compliance with environmental obligations under the UNCLOS and related legal instruments by enacting national legislation. She examines how and to what extent the sponsoring State validates and implements the international system at the domestic level and makes up for the shortcomings of the international system in managing contractors. The author further takes China’s legislation as an example and provides how it can be improved.

Une frontière virtuelle : l’exploitation des ressources minérales profondes dans le Pacifique

Article

Mar 2021

The project to exploit deep mineral resources, which dates back to the 1960s, came back to the forefront in the 2000s, in a context of a race for raw materials and the rapid growth of emerging economies, particularly China. Deep-sea mining constitutes a new economic and technological frontier for mining firms and transnational capital, while Pacific Island Countries and Territories are striving to anticipate this encounter by strengthening their sovereign powers and regional cooperation. At stake for indigenous peoples and customary authorities is the cognitive and normative representation of oceanic spaces as an integral part of their universe and life world that feeds specific assertions of "non-Westphalian" sovereignty. However, the realization of the deep-sea mining potential remains slow to emerge. This article proposes to explore this still largely virtual mining frontier through the policies and mechanisms put in place in the French territories of the Pacific, with an emphasis on the case of Wallis and Futuna. It will examine and analyze the effects induced by the encounter between French policy, Oceanian responses and the virtuality of deep-sea mining, particularly from the point of view of the overseas territories' relations to the State and to information, between mistrust, rumor and controversies. The article will show the key role of uncertainty (moral, institutional and ontological) in how social actors understand and negotiate the issues raised by deep-sea mining prospects.

Comparative Study on Collection Performance of Three Nodule Collection Methods in Seawater and Sediment-seawater Mixture

Article

May 2021
APPL OCEAN RES

In this paper, three kinds of polymetallic nodule hydraulic collection methods: suck-up-based method, Coandă-effect-based method, and double-row hydraulic sluicing method are investigated. Nodule collection performances among them are compared from two aspects: pick-up efficiency η and flow field disturbance near the seabed. Influences of flow discharge Q and towing speed V on η are numerically investigated for three nodule pick-up device models based on the three methods. The numerical method's application in simulating the collection flow field and nodule trajectories is validated by comparing the numerical results with experimental results. Collection flow fields are revealed to deepen understanding of the mechanism of hydraulic collection. Furthermore, distributions of the turbulent kinetic energy k and diffusions of the sediment-seawater mixture are simulated to assess the flow field disturbance. The results indicate that the suck-up-based method has the least flow field disturbance and the largest Q for achieving the same η among the three methods. The Coandă-effect-based method shows good performance in both η and small flow field disturbance. The double-row hydraulic sluicing method shows a significant advantage in η but disturbs the seabed greatly. Finally, a qualitative evaluation of collection performances for the three methods is proposed.

Kanak coastal communities and fisheries meeting new governance challenges and marine issues in New Caledonia

Chapter

Jan 2016

Derin Deniz Madenciliği

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2015

Nuray Karapinar

okyanusun derinliklerinde işletilmesi oldukça kolay olan çinko, demir, gümüş ve altın madenleri vardır… Jules Verne, 1870 Denizler Altında 20000 Fersah A rtan dünya nüfusu ve endüstrileşme ile birlikte mineral ham madde kaynaklarına olan talep de doğal olarak artmaktadır. Talep artışına bağlı ola-rak ham madde fiyatlarının yükselmesi, bazı ham madde kaynakları için şeffaf olmayan pazar şartları ve aynı zamanda ham madde kaynak zengini ülkelerin kendi ekonomilerine avantaj yaratma girişimleri gibi nedenler, ham madde kaynakları bakımından ithalata dayalı olan ülkelerin bu kaynaklara erişim kabiliyetini zayıflatmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, ne zaman ki mineral ham madde fiyatları yüksel-miş ve/veya mineral ham madde kaynakları temin riski artmış, ülkeler ihtiyaç duydukları mineral ham madde teminini garanti altına almak için yeni stratejiler geliştirmiştir. Bu stratejilerden biri de "Derin Deniz Madenciliği"dir. Bu bağlamda birçok ülke ve madencilik şir-keti gelecekteki mineral ham madde teminini garanti altına almak için derin deniz madenciliğini hem ekonomik hem de jeopolitik sebeplerle potansiyel alternatif madencilik olarak görmektedir. Aslında, denizden mineral ham madde kaynaklarının çıkarılması yeni bir konu değildir. Çünkü geçmişten günümüze birçok ülkede sahillerde ve sığ sularda plaser madencilik (altın, kalay, titanyum, zirkonyum, nadir top-raklar ve diğer ağır mineraller), elmas, fosfat ve agrega üretimi yapılmaktadır. Ancak, derin deniz madenciliği yeni bir girişimdir. Derin Deniz Mineral Ham Madde Kaynakları Okyanuslar dünya yüzeyinin %71'ini kaplar ve bu alanın %55'i 1.000 m'den daha derin olan derin okyanus base-nidir. Derin deniz baseninde ana mineral potansiyeli söz konusu olduğunda farklı değerli metaller içeren üç tip kaynak üzerine odaklanılmaktadır: Manganez yumruları (polimetalik yumrular): Manganez yumruları, okyanusun 4.000-6.500 m derinlikte sediman kaplı engin düzlüklerinde görülür. Ceviz ve patates büyüklüğü arasında değişen boyutta mineral yumruları olup temelde mangan ve demir olmak üzere ekonomik miktarlarda nikel, kobalt ve bakır ayrıca eser miktarda molibden, nadir toprak elementleri ve lityum gibi değerli elementler içerirler. Manganez yumruları birçok deniz alanında bulunmakla birlikte, okyanusun 4 bölgesinde önemli miktarda bulunur (Şekil 1). Clarion-Clipperton Bölgesi (CCZ): yaklaşık 9 milyon km 2 'lik bir alan olup dünyanın en büyük manganez yumruları böl-gesidir. Pasifik Okyanusu'nda yer alan bölge, Meksika'nın batı sahillerinden Hawaii'ye kadar uzanır. Bölge içerisinde değiş-mekle birlikte ortalama yoğunluk 15 kg yumru/m 2 'dir. En zen-gin bölgesinde manganez yumruları yoğunluğu 75 kg/m 2 'ye kadar ulaşır. Bölgedeki toplam kütlenin yaklaşık 21 milyar ton civarında olduğu hesaplanmıştır. Peru Baseni (PB): Peru Baseni, Peru kıyı bölgesinden 3.000 km uzaklıktadır. Alan olarak Clarion-Clipperton Bölgesi'nin yarısı kadardır. Bölge ortalama 1 m 2 'de 10 kg manganez yum-rusu içerir. Penrhyn Baseni (PEN): Pasifikte yer alan 3. önemli manganez yumruları bölgesi olup Cook Adaları yakınında ve Avustralya'nın birkaç bin kilometre doğusunda yer alır. Bölge yaklaşık 750.000 km 2 alana sahiptir. Cook Adaları kıyı sularının büyük bir bölü-münde deniz tabanında manganez yumru yoğunluğu 25 kg/ m 2 'dir. Şekil 1-Morfoloji, kabuk yaşı ve metal içeriğine göre manganez yumruları olma potansiyeli yüksek alanlar (ECORYS, 2014) CCZ PEN PB HO

DEEP SEA MINING-Papua New Guinea (PNG) Case Study: Analyzing the promise of Deep Sea Mining

Presentation

Full-text available

Apr 2018

Deep-sea mining is a relatively unconventional metal extraction method which is now on focus because of the huge economic potential that it can unleash. It involves mining of valuable metals like cobalt, copper, manganese and most importantly Rare Earth Elements (REEs) from sea-floors. And the huge repository of such minerals which includes Co, Zn, Mg and REEs are very important for any country as they are needed for technological, military and high-grade equipment as well as nation’s infrastructural development and advancement. These categories of metals that are available in deep-sea are widely used in smartphone industries, laptops as well as new emerging hybrid automobiles. Currently, China controls to about more than 85% of global REEs (Cheng Xu, 2017). In the recent decade, it has used this monopoly to drive the market in its way by controlling the production and price of REEs. So, the internal community is trying to find and explore new possibilities for such minerals from other unconventional extraction methods like deep-sea mining. One of the first country to get the license for deep-sea mining was Papua New Guinea. This country has a diverse population which in recent years has been seeing some late economic growth. PNG has huge reserves of natural resources including those of precious gold, copper, silver and gas. Problem with these reserves on land is that not all of them have been identified and due to the difficult terrain of PNG and high infrastructural development costs the mining of many of these reserves has not been possible. This has resulted in the inability of the PNG government to exploit such valuable metals and RREs from the land for their economy. This country is also blessed with rich forests and hence timber as well as great fisheries. But regardless of all this, estimates indicate that more than 50% of the population still lives in poverty (Papua New Guinea Overview, 2017). This presentation comprehensively discusses the potential, opportunities and challenges of deep-sea mining in Papua New Guinea.

Okyanus ve Deniz Altı Madenciliğinin Kısa Tarihçesi

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2018

In this study, the historical development of the ocean and undersea mining has been discussed briefly. The oceans and seas cover about 71% of the earth surface area. The development of the deep-sea and ocean mining has passed through the sea and ocean science (oceanographic) studies. The first studies about sea and submarine carried out by the Cretans and Phoenicians in 2000 B.C. Besides, the first oceanographic studies with the modern techniques have been striking as the bathymetric studies of the ocean in 1855. The British Challenger vessel started a trip that lasted for four years in 1872, discovered all the oceans and seas (except for the Arctic Ocean) and found manganese nodule deposits on the seabed. In 1968, the Golmar Challenger submarine began exploring the submarine and ocean basin. In 2005, the first drilling activities of the Solwara project, the first ocean-undersea mining project, began on the Papua New Guinea.

Responsible mining at the Wrangel Island and the Seabed

Preprint

Full-text available

Apr 2018

Martin Bohle

The text is an attempt to relate different threads of my interests; general system behaviour, conditions to governability, aquatic environments and geoethics. also see IAPG blog: https://iapgeoethics.blogspot.com/2018/07/responsible-mining-at-seabed-wickedness.html

Praktiken der Verantwortungszuschreibung: Transnationale Regelsetzung und politische Autorität privater Unternehmen: Analysen zum Wandel politischer Entscheidungs- und Rechtfertigungspraktiken

Chapter

Jan 2017

Kinetics of sulfide mineral oxidation in seawater: Implications for acid generation during in situ mining of seafloor hydrothermal vent deposits

Article

Oct 2016
APPL GEOCHEM

Growth in global metal demand has fostered a new age of unconventional mining on the seafloor. In situ pulverization and extraction of seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits is economically attractive due to minimal overburden and high ore grades. However, important environmental questions remain on the significance of localized acid generation via irreversible sulfide mineral oxidation. Data on the reaction kinetics are necessary to estimate anthropogenic acid production during seafloor mining. Laboratory experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and surface area on the oxidation rate of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite in seawater. These minerals were chosen to constrain the range of reaction rates because pyrrhotite oxidizes relatively quickly while chalcopyrite is kinetically slow. The rate laws for the abiotic oxidation of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite in seawater at 22 °C are given in the form:Rsp=K(mO2)a(mH+)b where Rsp is the specific rate (moles m⁻² sec⁻¹), k is the rate constant, oxygen and proton concentrations are expressed in molalities (m), and their reaction orders as a and b, respectively. The specific rate laws obtained for each sulfide studied are:Rsp(pyrrhotite)=−10−7.27(mO2(aq))0.51±0.08(mH+)0.08±0.03 Rsp(chalcopyrite)=−10−9.38(mO2(aq))1.16±0.03(mH+)0.36±0.09 When used to quantitatively predict maximum acid generation rates, these rate laws indicate that acid production from in situ SMS mining is insufficient to exceed the buffering capacity of advecting seawater. We also calculated the residence times of crushed sulfides in seawater with low PO2 (0.10 atm, pH of 8, 23 °C) and find that, depending on grain size, mining waste may persist near the seafloor for years. The implications are positive in terms of slow acid production, but potentially problematic considering the potential ecological effects of an unnatural influx of particulates.

Minerals from the Sea: Problem closure, neoliberalism, and ocean grabbing in the Indian EEZ and beyond

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2016

Adam Jadhav

African States and the Institutions of the Common Heritage of Mankind Regime in the Area

Chapter

Jan 2011

Edwin Egede

This chapter will examine the rather intricate institutional framework of the regime established by Part XI of the LOSC, as modified by the 1994 Agreement. It will seek to discover whether the institution reflects effective democratic participation by all States. Are African States adequately represented at the various organs developed under this regime?

Governing the Depths: Conceptualizing the Politics of Deep Sea Resources

Article

Mar 2016

Scott Moore

The deep sea, defined as those parts of the ocean below 200 meters, is increasingly the site of intensive resource exploitation for fish, minerals, and other uses, yet little thought has been given to effective governance by either scholars or policy-makers. This article provides an overview of existing deep-sea governance arrangements, as well as a description of the barriers to developing a more effective institutional framework, with particular focus on the unique status of the deep sea as part of the common heritage of mankind, the logistical challenges inherent in monitoring resource exploitation in the deep sea, and the lack of available scientific data. We call for greater engagement by political scientists and environmental studies scholars in addressing these challenges and protecting one of Earth’s last true frontiers.

Okyanus ve Denizaltı Madenciliğine Kısa Bir Bakış

Data

Mar 2016

The use of multibeam backscatter and bathymetry as a means of identifying faunal assemblages in a deep-sea cold seep

Article

Feb 2016
DEEP-SEA RES PT I

Deep-sea ecosystems have attracted considerable commercial interest in recent years because of their potential to sustain a diverse range of mankind's industrial needs. If these systems are to be preserved or exploited in a sustainable manner, mapping habitats and species distributions is critical. As biodiversity at cold-seeps or other deep-sea ecosystems is driven by habitat heterogeneity, imagery is the obvious choice for characterizing these systems and has indeed proven extremely valuable towards mapping biogenic habitats formed by dense aggregations of large sized species, such as coral reefs, tubeworm bushes or bivalve beds. However, the acquisition of detailed images with resolution sufficient for reliable identification is extremely time consuming, labor intensive and highly susceptible to logistical issues. We developed a novel method for quickly mapping cold seep fauna and habitats over large areas, at the scale of squares of kilometers. Our method uses multibeam echosounder bathymetry and acoustic backscatter data, both segmented and reclassified based on topographical features and then combined to obtain a raster containing unique values incorporating both backscatter and bathymetry data. Two datasets, obtained from 30 m and 8 m above the seafloor were used and the results from the two datasets were compared. The method was applied to a cold seep community located in a pockmark in the deep Congo channel and we were able to ground truth the accuracy of our method against images of the area. The two datasets, obtained from different altitudes gave varying results: the 8 m altitude dataset reliably predicted tubeworms and carbonate rock, while the 30 m altitude dataset predicted tubeworms and vesicomyid clams. The 30 m dataset was more accurate than the 8 m altitude dataset in predicting distributions of tubeworms. Overall, all the predictions were quite accurate, with at least 90% of predictions being within 5 m of real distributions.

Tiefseebergbau - Entwicklungen und Ausblick

Article

Jul 2004

Light at deep sea hydrothermal vents

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1994
Eos Trans. AGU

We usually think of the bottom of the sea as a dark environment, lit only by flashes of bioluminescent light. Discovery of light associated with geothermal processes at deep sea hydrothermal vents forces us to qualify our textbook descriptions of the seafloor as a uniformly dark environment. While a very dim glow emitted from high temperature (350°) vents (black smokers) at mid-oceanic ridge spreading centers has been documented [Van Dover et al, 1988], the source of this light and its role, if any, in the evolution and adaptation of photobiochemical processes have yet to be determined. Preliminary studies indicate that thermal radiation alone may account for the “glow” ]Smith and Delaney, 1989] and that a novel photoreceptor in shrimp-colonizing black smoker chimneys may detect this “glow” [Van Dover et al., 1989; Pelli and Chamberlain, 1989]. A more controversial question, posed by C. L. Van Dover, J. R. Cann, and J. R. Delaney at the 1993 LITE Workshop at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts, is whether there may be sufficient light of appropriate wavelengths to support geothermally driven photosynthesis by microorganisms.

Environmental impact of marine mining

Article

Oct 1998
Neues Jahrbuch Geol Palaontol Abhand

Jürgen Schneider

Many serious potential direct or indirect environmental impacts are to be expected from marine mining of nearshore-, shelf- as well as from deep searesources. Today the more or less harmful hazards cannot be quantified in every detail, but the general dangers for the various marine environments are foreseeable by all means. This is true for coastal and shelf regions offshore of countries which have several of the resources described below as well as for the manganese nodule mining in the international zone of the deep sea. Drastic future conflicts between industrialised and other nations concerning the marine resources, the common heritage of mankind, cannot be excluded. The sea is not only a source for the satisfaction of our present resource needs. Already today the seas are sinks for a large number of harmful pollutants stemming from our civilisation. A plundering of the sea for further economical growth can be disastrous for the various marine environments and means that future generations will be deprivated of the benefits of the sea.

Hydrothermal vent communities in the Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea: Results of the BIOACCESS cruises '96 and '98

Article

Jan 1999

J. Hashimoto

The Manganese Nodule Belt of the Pacific Ocean

Article

Dec 1989

David S. Cronan

Hydrothermal chimneys and associated fauna in the Manus Back-Arc Basin, Papua New Guinea

Article

Jan 1986
Eos Trans. AGU

Between December 6, 1985, and January 9, 1986, the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics Research Vessel Moana Wave surveyed the Manus Basin, north of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. This basin occupies a back-arc position with respect to the New Britain arc-trench system and contains an active plate boundary (Figure 1; also Taylor [1979]). Organized under the aegis of the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in South Pacific Offshore Areas (CCOP/SOPAC), the cruise was part of a program to assess the mineral potential of southwest Pacific marginal basins and included a National Science Foundation-sponsored study of crustal accretion processes in a fastspreading (greater than 100 mm/yr) back-arc basin. The tectonic fabric of the Manus Basin was mapped and defined with the Sea MARC II sidescan sonar and bathymetric mapping system. Then dredge samples and cores were collected, and a towed bottom camera system was used to search for signs of hydrothermal activity.

Enhanced immunogenicity for CD8+ T cell induction and complete protective efficacy of malaria DNA vaccination by boosting with modified vaccinia virus Ankara

Article

Apr 1998

Immunization with irradiated sporozoites can protect against malaria infection and intensive efforts are aimed at reproducing this effect with subunit vaccines. A particular sequence of subunit immunization with pre-erythrocytic antigens of Plasmodium berghei, consisting of single dose priming with plasmid DNA followed by a single boost with a recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) expressing the same antigen, induced unprecedented complete protection against P. berghei sporozoite challenge in two strains of mice. Protection was associated with very high levels of splenic peptide-specific interferon--secreting CD8+ T cells and was abrogated when the order of immunization was reversed. DNA priming followed by MVA boosting may provide a general immunization regime for induction of high levels of CD8+ T cells.

A Kuroko-Type Polymetallic Sulfide Deposit in a Submarine Silicic Caldera

Article

Mar 1999
SCIENCE

Manned submersible studies have delineated a large and actively growing Kuroko-type volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit 400 kilometers south of Tokyo in Myojin Knoll submarine caldera. The sulfide body is located on the caldera floor at a depth of 1210 to 1360 meters, has an area of 400 by 400 by 30 meters, and is notably rich in gold and silver. The discovery of a large Kuroko-type polymetallic sulfide deposit in this arc-front caldera raises the possibility that the numerous unexplored submarine silicic calderas elsewhere might have similar deposits.

Economic geology - Lessons learned from deep-sea mining

Article

Aug 2000

G. P. Glasby

The first attempt to exploit deep-sea manganese nodules ended in failure as a result of the collapse of world metal prices, the onerous provisions imposed by the U. N. Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and the overoptimistic assumptions about the viability of nodule mining. Attention then focused on cobalt-rich manganese crusts from seamounts. Since the mid-1980s, a number of new players have committed themselves to long-term programs to establish the viability of mining deep-sea manganese nodules. These programs require heavy subsidy by host governments. Gold-rich submarine hydrothermal deposits located at convergent plate margins are now emerging as a more promising prospect for mining than deep-sea manganese deposits.

Mining undersea gold: companies are preparing to tackle mining's next frontier-mineral rich deposits on the ocean floor

B Gaylord

B. Gaylord, "Mining undersea gold: Companies are preparing to tackle mining's next frontier-mineral rich deposits on the ocean floor", Far Eastern Economic Review, June 22, 2000.

In: International seabed authority, deep-seabed polymetallic nodule exploration: development of environmental guidelines

C R Smith

Smith CR. In: International seabed authority, deep-seabed polymetallic nodule exploration: development of environmental guidelines. Sanya, China, Kingston, Jamaica. 1999.

Final report: synthesis and analysis of existing information regarding environmental effects of marine mining, US department of the interior, Minerals Management Service

Jan 1993

Continental Shelf

Continental Shelf Associates. Final report: synthesis and analysis of existing information regarding environmental effects of marine mining, US department of the interior, Minerals Management Service, Washington, DC. 1993.

Newsletter of the International Marine Minerals Society, Summer/Fall

J C Wiltshire

J. C. Wiltshire, Newsletter of the International Marine Minerals Society, Summer/Fall 2000.

Workshop on proposed technologies for deep seabed polymetallic nodules

Jan 1999

ISA. Workshop on proposed technologies for deep seabed polymetallic nodules, Kingston, Jamaica. 1999.

Leg 193 scientific prospectus: anatomy of an active, felsic-hosted hydrothermal system

F Barriga
R Binns
J Baldauf
D J Miller

F. Barriga, R. Binns, J. Baldauf, and D. J. Miller, "Leg 193 Scientific Prospectus: Anatomy of an Active, Felsic-Hosted Hydrothermal System", Scientific Prospectus No. 93, 2000.

First move is made to mine the seabed

W J Broad

W. J. Broad, "First move is made to mine the seabed", New York Times, Dec. 21, 1997.

Seafloor Polymetallic Sulphide Deposits

Jan 2000

ISA, "Seafloor Polymetallic Sulphide Deposits," ISA Tech. Brochure, 2000.

Oceanography: an introduction to marine science

Jan 1999

T Garrison

Garrison T. Oceanography: an introduction to marine science, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1999.

Oceanography: An Introduction to Marine Science, 3 rd Edition Continental Shelf Associates, Final Report: Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Marine Mining

Jan 1993

T Garrison

T. Garrison, Oceanography: An Introduction to Marine Science, 3 rd Edition, Wadsworth Pub. Co., Belmont, CA, 1999. 17. Continental Shelf Associates, Final Report: Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Marine Mining, U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Washington, DC, 1993.

Marine minerals mining: Entering a new age of feasiblity?

Jan 1998

D Jones

D. Jones, "Marine minerals mining: Entering a new age of feasiblity?", Underwater Magazine, Spring 1998.

Oceanography: An Introduction to Marine Science, 3 rd Edition

Jan 1999

T Garrison

T. Garrison, Oceanography: An Introduction to Marine Science, 3 rd Edition, Wadsworth Pub. Co., Belmont, CA, 1999.

Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Marine Mining

Jan 1993

Continental Shelf Associates, Final Report: Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Marine Mining, U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Washington, DC, 1993.

Hydrothermal vent communities in the Manus Basin, Paupa New Guinea

Jan 1999
2

Hashimoto

Marine minerals mining: entering a new age of feasiblity. Underwater Magazine

D Jones

Precautionary management of deep-sea mining

Abstract

No full-text available

Recommended publications

Asian Pacific Marine Minerals and Industry Structure

Deep-sea environment and impact experiment to it

Influence of the additives on the properties of zinc-oxide-based varistors

Scientific rationale and international obligations for protection of active hydrothermal vent ecosys...