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Temperature effects on flower formation in saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
Abstract
The temperature conditions for shoot growth and flower formation were characterised for saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Leaf withering occurred during late winter or spring depending on location, and coincided with a rise in temperature. No growth was detectable in the buds during the first 30 days after leaf withering, neither in underground corms nor in lifted corms incubated in the laboratory under controlled conditions. Flower initiation occurred during the first growth stages of the buds. The optimal temperature for flower formation was in the range from 23 to 27 °C, 23 °C temperature being marginally better. To ensure the formation of a maximum number of flowers, the incubation at these temperatures should exceed 50 days, although incubation longer than 150 days resulted in flower abortion. Flower emergence required the transfer of the corms from the conditions of flower formation to a markedly lower temperature (17 °C). Incubation of the corms after lifting at a higher temperature (30 °C), reduced flower initiation and caused the abortion of some of the initiated flowers. No flowers formed in corms incubated at 9 °C. A variable proportion (20–100%) of the corms forced directly at 17 °C without a previous incubation at 23–27 °C formed a single flower. The wide differences in the timing of the phenological stages in different locations we found in this study seemed related to the ambient temperature. Leaf withering was followed shortly by flower initiation, which occurred during late spring or early summer as the rising temperature reached 20 °C. A long hot summer delayed flower emergence which occurred in late autumn as the temperature fell to the range of 15–17 °C.
... High quality and yield are now possible through corms' cultivation in controlled environmental conditions inside plastic tunnels, greenhouses and growth chambers in hydroponic systems [1,[11][12][13][14][15]. Several studies have been already conducted on the optimization of parameters, such as nutrient solution composition and fertilizer [16][17][18], corm dimension and planting density [9,19,20], substrate (perlite, vermiculite, coco peat, peat moss, Bulbfust pin-tray, etc.) [19,21,22] and forcing methods to extend flowering period of corms and increase production by controlling temperature, humidity and illumination [13,[22][23][24]. Among all the environmental factors, light seems fundamental, not only for plant growth and development modulation, but also to improve the nutritional quality and yields of plant products [19,[25][26][27][28][29]. ...
... It was observed that the experimental trials in the greenhouse gave higher yields than those in the clean room. This result is possibly attributable to the day/night temperature difference set in the greenhouse (25/17 • C day/night), while the temperature in the clean room was kept constant at 17 • C. In fact, although at this temperature C. sativus still manages to bloom in the field, temperatures a few degrees higher favor the flowering process [24]. An important role was also hypothesized for irrigation, more frequent for trials in the clean room than for those in the greenhouse. ...
... This second experimental cycle showed that the reduction of the day temperature from 25 to 20 • C was a critical factor in improving both yield and product quality. This result is in agreement with the study by Molina et al. [24] showing that the emergence of flowers is activated already at 20 • C and, although the optimal flowering range is in the range 23-27 • C (with a preferential temperature of 23 • C), prolonged exposure to high temperatures produces a detrimental effect. ...
Soilless cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) in a controlled environment represents an interesting alternative to field cultivation, in order to obtain a standardized high-quality product and to optimize yields. In particular, pharma-grade saffron is fundamental for therapeutic applications of this spice, whose efficacy has been demonstrated in the treatment of macular diseases, such as Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD). In this work, a hydroponic cultivation system was developed, specifically designed to meet the needs of C. sativus plant. Various cultivation recipes, different in spectrum and intensity of lighting, temperature, photoperiod and irrigation, have been adopted to study their effect on saffron production. The experimentation involved the cultivation of corms from two subsequent farm years, to identify and validate the optimal conditions, both in terms of quantitative yield and as accumulation of bioactive metabolites, with particular reference to crocins and picrocrocin, which define the ‘pharma-grade’ quality of saffron. Through HPLC analysis and chromatography it was possible to identify the cultivation parameters suitable for the production of saffron with neuroprotective properties, evaluated by comparison with an ISO standard and the REPRON® procedure. Furthermore, the biochemical characterization was completed through NMR and high-resolution mass spectrometry analyses of saffron extracts. The whole experimental framework allowed to establish an optimized protocol to produce pharma-grade saffron, allowing up to 3.2 g/m2 harvest (i.e., more than three times higher than field production in optimal conditions), which meets the standards of composition for the therapy of AMD.
... Inappropriate temperatures at any time point during the flowering process result in flower atrophy and reduced or no flowering (Wang et al., 2021b). The studies on the effect of varying temperatures during the flowering process have been restricted to flowering physiology (Molina et al., 2005a(Molina et al., , 2005bWang et al., 2021b). Flowering regulation in saffron is not very well studied at the molecular level, with only a few studies confined to flower formation with bud sprouting (Bagri et al., 2017;Hu et al., 2020;Renau-Morata et al., 2021). ...
... Saffron corms remain dormant during summers, without any visible growth aboveground and no roots. It is believed that high temperatures during summers are required to trigger the flower induction process in the apical meristems, similarly to other bulbous crops like Hyacinthus, Narcissus, and Tulip (Le Nard and De Hertogh, 1993;Molina et al., 2005a;Noy-Porat et al., 2013). Antagonistically, a decrease in temperature during this phase inhibits flower induction (Wang et al., 2021b). ...
... In saffron it is known that any alteration in specific temperature requirement during the flowering process leads to flower atrophy (Molina et al., 2005a;Wang et al., 2021b), but how and at what development stage temperatures effect the process is not known. In saffron flower induction occurs after growth cessation and senescence, also termed as dormant stage, during the summer months. ...
Saffron, which comprises the stigma of the Crocus sativus flower, is an important culinary and medicinal product. Saffron productivity depends on its flower formation, which is regulated by temperature. Inappropriate temperatures at the flowering stages result in flower atrophy and reduced or no flowering. The effect of temperature on saffron flowering was investigated using morphological studies coupled with transcriptomics and metabolic studies of meristem-enriched tissue collected from corms stored and grown at two different temperatures [high (25°C) and low (8°C)] during flowering. Morphological and histological studies suggested that high temperature, during the resting phase of the saffron corm life cycle, promotes flowering, whereas low temperature suppresses it. Low temperatures suppress flowering by inhibiting flower induction. Transcriptome analysis during the flower induction stage indicated that sugar metabolism genes were differentially regulated at different temperatures. Genes coding for starch and sucrose metabolism were enriched and differentially regulated at 25°C vs 8°C. High temperature promoted starch breakdown and soluble sugar formation, whereas low temperature had a vice-versa effect. Further, we identified that low-temperature mediated suppression of flowering involves the downregulation of the floral integrator gene CsatFT3. Exogenous sugar feeding, mainly sucrose, can rescue the low-temperature suppression of flower induction via upregulation of the CsatFT3 gene. Overall the results suggest that environmental temperatures alter sugar metabolism, which mediates temperature-dependent flower induction in saffron corms via regulation of the FT3 gene. These findings will aid in identifying temperature driven molecular factors controlling flowering in saffron.
... For this reason, a lot of money is spent on human hand labor for picking up the flowers and separating stigmas. A lot of research has been done to shift cultivation from farm to greenhouse and create conditions for mechanization of saffron production (Molina et al. 2004(Molina et al. , 2005aMaggio et al. 2006;Gresta et al. 2017). ...
... In the last 15 years, there are many reports on saffron production in a hydroponic system with different substrates (Molina et al. 2004(Molina et al. , 2005aMaggio et al. 2006;Gresta et al. 2017;Mollafilabi et al. 2017). ...
... Incubated corms were then transferred to the trays with rock wool as substrate. They reported the successful protocol for forcing the corms and increasing the flowering period time for 1-2 months (Molina et al. 2004(Molina et al. , 2005a. In another study, Maggio et al. (2006) followed the same protocol of incubation and forcing of corms but with different substrates. ...
Red gold is an appellation given to the red stigma of saffron, due to the importance and high value of this plant. This plant is not only the most expensive spice in the world, but also very effective in modern medicine for the treatment of diseases such as Alzheimer's, liver disease, and most importantly cancer. The quality of saffron stigma depends on environmental factors, nutrition, and post-harvest processes such as drying and storage conditions. Despite its value, saffron cultivation has not significantly changed since thousands of years ago. Today, saffron cultivation is facing challenges such as climate change, soil diseases, and labor shortages which reduce saffron production in the world. This chapter reviews studies on new methods of saffron production under controlled conditions to find solutions and meet challenges and help producers to increase healthy and disease-free products with the highest quality by using new cultivation methods.KeywordsPropagationMechanizationIndoor farmingNutritionLighting
... Hydroponics represent a valuable alternative to open-field saffron production (Maggio et al., 2006). It can increase the yield of saffron, while reducing its production costs (Molina et al., 2005b). Furthermore, it has tremendous potential for sustainable production of saffron by providing pathogen-free stock corms. ...
... It has been reported that temperature, among several environmental parameters, plays a pivotal role in saffron flower induction (Kafi et al., 2002;Molina et al., 2005aMolina et al., , 2005b. Therefore, saffron corms were incubated at a moderately high temperature (23 to 27 C) to induce flowering, followed by the exposure to a moderately low temperature (17 C) for floral emergence. ...
... Therefore, saffron plants obtained from larger corms produce more leaf area compared with those from smaller corms (De-Maastro and Ruta, 1993). Earlier growth and larger leaf positively affect the photosynthetate accumulation, finally resulting in larger daughter corms at the end of the growing season (Molina et al., 2005b). ...
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. controlled environment, Crocus sativus, indoor culture, soilless culture SUMMARY. Hydroponics is a promising method for cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus). In this study, saffron corms were sprouted using a gradual decrease in air temperature, and they were cultivated hydroponically in either perlite or volcanic rock for 24 weeks. A nutrient solution was supplied using either an ebb-and-flow system or continuous immersion. First blooming was observed 29 days after transplantation. Among flowering traits, only the stigma length was significantly influenced by the type of hydroponic system. Saffron plants displayed better growth parameters, a higher photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance (g S), as well as daughter corm (cormlet) production under the continuous immersion system, in comparison with the ebb-and-flow system. Small corms (22-25 mm diameter) did not bloom, and the emergence of flowers increased with corm size. Plant growth and photosynthetic parameters, as well as cormlet production, significantly increased with corm size. We obtained the highest stigma yield [number of flowers (1.9), stigma length (39.4 mm), stigma fresh (42.8 mg), and dry weight (5.3 mg)] and cormlet yield [number of cormlets (5.7), average corm diameter (25 mm), and fresh weight (6.4 g)] using mother corms sized $32 mm diameter grown hydroponically in the volcanic rock-based continuous immersion system.
... Hydroponics represent a valuable alternative to open-field saffron production (Maggio et al., 2006). It can increase the yield of saffron, while reducing its production costs (Molina et al., 2005b). Furthermore, it has tremendous potential for sustainable production of saffron by providing pathogen-free stock corms. ...
... It has been reported that temperature, among several environmental parameters, plays a pivotal role in saffron flower induction (Kafi et al., 2002;Molina et al., 2005aMolina et al., , 2005b. Therefore, saffron corms were incubated at a moderately high temperature (23 to 27 C) to induce flowering, followed by the exposure to a moderately low temperature (17 C) for floral emergence. ...
... Therefore, saffron plants obtained from larger corms produce more leaf area compared with those from smaller corms (De-Maastro and Ruta, 1993). Earlier growth and larger leaf positively affect the photosynthetate accumulation, finally resulting in larger daughter corms at the end of the growing season (Molina et al., 2005b). ...
Hydroponics is a promising method for cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus). In this study, saffron corms were sprouted using a gradual decrease in air temperature, and they were cultivated hydroponically in either perlite or volcanic rock for 24 weeks. A nutrient solution was supplied using either an ebband-flow system or continuous immersion. First blooming was observed 29 days after transplantation. Among flowering traits, only the stigma length was significantly influenced by the type of hydroponic system. Saffron plants displayed better growth parameters, a higher photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance (gS), as well as daughter corm (cormlet) production under the continuous immersion system, in comparison with the ebb-and-flow system. Small corms (22–25 mm diameter) did not bloom, and the emergence of flowers increased with corm size. Plant growth and photosynthetic parameters, as well as cormlet production, significantly increased with corm size. We obtained the highest stigma yield [number of flowers (1.9), stigma length (39.4 mm), stigma fresh (42.8 mg), and dry weight (5.3 mg)] and cormlet yield [number of cormlets (5.7), average corm diameter (25 mm), and fresh weight (6.4 g)] using mother corms sized $32 mm diameter grown hydroponically in the volcanic rock–based continuous immersion system.
... Saffron's life cycle is characterized by a summer dormancy period, the emergence of the foliage and flowers in autumn, and long-lasting leaves that senesce by late spring or early summer. Soil and air temperatures play a very important role in the life cycle, controlling the entry and exit of dormancy along with floral induction during the dormancy period (Molina et al. 2005). Corms require exposure to temperatures between 23 and 27°C for more than 50 days during the summer to optimize flower production in the following autumn (Molina et al. 2005). ...
... Soil and air temperatures play a very important role in the life cycle, controlling the entry and exit of dormancy along with floral induction during the dormancy period (Molina et al. 2005). Corms require exposure to temperatures between 23 and 27°C for more than 50 days during the summer to optimize flower production in the following autumn (Molina et al. 2005). Exposure to high temperature (30°C) during the summer also favour the production of larger corms the following spring (Siracusa et al. 2010). ...
... Leaf senescence was greatly delayed in the current study compared with what has been reported in different regions where saffron is grown. In Spain, leaf senescence is completed by early June (Molina et al. 2005), whereas in India and Iran it is completed by early May (Kumar et al. 2009;Fallahi and Mahmoodi 2018). Even in cooler climates such as England, leaf senescence is well advanced by mid-May (Yadollahi et al. 2007). ...
Saffron, an autumn crocus that produces a highly valuable spice, is grown mainly under Mediterranean climates. Nevertheless, saffron farms have been established recently in the province of Quebec. This led us to test cultivation practices that could influence plant phenology, saffron yield and corm growth, including planting depth, planting period, and the application of fertilizers, mycorrhizal fungi and biostimulants at planting. Soil temperature was monitored at the different planting depths throughout the year. Floral initiation was also monitored during spring and summer. Shoot emergence was delayed and final emergence reduced as planting depth increased. However, more shoots were produced buy shallow planted corms, which could lead to the production of corms too small to flower. The best time for planting saffron corm is between the end of July and the third week of August. Mineral fertilization hastened leaf emergence and improved corm production and their nutrient content. Neither the addition of mycorrhizal fungi or of biostimulants had any significant impact on saffron growth or flowering. Floral induction likely took place in July as flower bud appeared in early August. In most years, flower and saffron production was low in this location. It appears that soil temperature did not remain high for long enough during the summer to promote floral induction and autumn temperatures decreased too fast, limiting shoot and flower emergence most years. However, these climatic conditions did not affect corm production; corms could thus be sold to secure revenues for producers.
... It is one of the most expensive spices used in the food industry (Garc ıa-Rodr ıguez et al., 2017;Hosseinzadeh and Nassiri-Asl, 2012). It is also highly appreciated in many cuisines around the world, and saffron has acquired increasing interest given the health effects of its chemical components, especially from safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin (Molina et al., 2005). This species has potential medical applications, particularly those based on its antitumor and antichronic stress properties (Amin et al., 2016;Ghadrdoost et al., 2011;Naeimi et al., 2019). ...
... One of the factors that has proved to be important for the production of high-quality saffron is the environmental temperature at which plants are grown in terms of root and shoot growth, and flower formation (Ahrazem et al., 2015;Molina et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2021). In addition, it is well known that a markedly low temperature (%17 C) is the best for flower emergence or anthesis from the corm (Molina et al., 2005). ...
... One of the factors that has proved to be important for the production of high-quality saffron is the environmental temperature at which plants are grown in terms of root and shoot growth, and flower formation (Ahrazem et al., 2015;Molina et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2021). In addition, it is well known that a markedly low temperature (%17 C) is the best for flower emergence or anthesis from the corm (Molina et al., 2005). This knowledge allows growers to program saffron flowering and increase production in soilless cultivation systems under controlled conditions (Gohari et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2021). ...
Saffron is one of the most appreciated, traditional, and expensive spices in the world. The objective of our study was to evaluate the effect of cooling the nutrient solution on the production, and organoleptic and commercial qualities of saffron grown in soilless culture. The nutrient solution was cooled to 4 to 5 C whereas the control treatment was the fertigation supplied at ambient temperature. Corms were placed in a controlled cultivation chamber. The number of flowers per corms, and the weight and length of stigmas were measured. The amounts of safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin were analyzed spectrophotometrically according to the International Organization for Standardization [ISO/TS 3632-2 (2011) Normative]. Our results show that cooling of the nutritive solution increased flower production, the commercial phytochemical content, and organoleptic properties.
... The second phase of saffron development starts after the flower initiation period and requires lower temperature for flower emergence. Under controlled conditions the optimum temperature for this period has been reported to be 15 CÀ17 C, in this range temperature requirements for flower emergence will be met in 40 days (Molina et al., 2005). ...
... The cardinal temperatures presented in Table 9.2 are to some extent different from those reported by Molina et al. (2005). They reported 15 CÀ17 C as the optimum and 23 C as the ceiling temperature for the flower emergence period of saffron. ...
... They reported 15 CÀ17 C as the optimum and 23 C as the ceiling temperature for the flower emergence period of saffron. In Fig. 9.13 the temperature function for this period (ft 2 ) predicted from field data using the beta function is compared with those reported by Molina et al. (2005) in a controlled environment with constant temperature. The ceiling temperature is similar, but the optimum and the base temperatures estimated in field conditions are respectively 2 C and 4 C higher than those reported in the controlled environment. ...
Production and processing technologies of saffron
... An alternative is to grow the plants in containers in order to facilitate the mechanisation of flower harvesting and stigma separation (Molina et al., 2004). To achieve this goal, the flowering season must be extended as much as possible for the purposes of maximising the use of harvesting systems and, thus, reduce overall installation and running costs (Molina et al., 2005a). ...
... At the beginning of the dry season (April-May), the leaves senesce and wither, and the corms go into dormancy. The transition from vegetative to reproductive stage might occur shortly afterwards in the apex of the buds of underground corms (Molina et al., 2005a). ...
... The saffron flowering physiology has been partially characterised and there is extensive knowledge of the influence of temperature on the flower induction (Molina et al., 2004(Molina et al., , 2005a(Molina et al., , 2005b. Saffron crocus corms have no cold requirement to break dormancy or to complete flower formation, as is often found in geophytes (Dole, 2003;Rees, 1992). ...
The demand for saffron is expected to rise in the coming years due to its nutraceutical and medicinal properties. To cope with this, it will be necessary to develop a mechanised production of saffron. Upgrading the production methods requires accurate control of the flowering time in this species. Nevertheless, little is known about the control of flowering time in Crocus sativus L. The aim of this study is to gain insight into the floral induction regulatory networks operating in this species. A transcriptomic analysis was performed from saffron main buds in different stages of development. The identification of putative integrators of flowering time signals, like FT, as well as meristem identity genes, such as LFY and TFL1, permitted the definition of the time of flowering induction of the buds, being able to use them as molecular markers. The identification of the transcripts encoded by a DROOPING LEAF-like (DL) gene is of particular relevance because this gene might be a novel factor for carpel specification in saffron.
To elucidate the hormonal signalling networks working during flower induction, transcriptomic data were used, and the content of IAA, ABA and gibberellins was determined in competent and non-competent buds to flower, during the saffron life cycle. Our results suggested that ABA might be negatively regulating corm dormancy release, but its involvement in flower induction cannot be ruled out. ABI5 and the mediator of ABA regulated dormancy gene MARD1, could be key players of this pathway. In addition, a drop in GA4 levels may also be a necessary, but insufficient, condition for floral induction and development. DELLA, TFL1 and PIF3 genes might be involved in the gibberellin pathway. Notably, IAA seems to be a positive regulator of the process, involving MP/ARF5 and ANT genes in the pathway. Taken together, these results pave the way to the unveiling of the regulatory networks controlling the vegetative-to-reproductive phase change in saffron.
... According to Amirnia et al., [6] and Siracusa et al., [7] the environment and origin of corm have a significant impact on the number of flowers and stigma yield. Researchers such as Molina et al., [1,8], Gresta et al., [9], and Maggi et al., [10] found that climatic factors (e.g., temperature, soil water content) had a significant impact on the quantitative and qualitative traits of saffron. Singh et al., [11] described that genetic variability provides breeders with an accurate picture of the genetic diversity of various traits for use in breeding programs. ...
... The findings revealed that corm size has a significant impact on saffron yield and there is no flowering observed in smaller corms in either year. These findings are inconsistent with those of Molina et al., [8] and Gresta et al., [22] who found that corm size is an important factor in determining a bulbous plant's ability to flower and produce a higher yield. It is heavily influenced by corm dimension, as large corms with appropriate spacing and management practices increased flower number and yield significantly. ...
The objective of the current study was laid in augmented block design at ARSSSS Pampore, to examine the optimal corm size, and genetic divergence and to observe the phenotypic and genotypic variability (PCV, GCV) for corm attributes. The genetic divergence among selected lines was thoroughly investigated for the identification of elite divergent traits showing economic gains along with their contribution towards yield. Significant differences were observed among populations for all traits, including the multiplication index (MI) (3.0-5.0) with a mean of 3.8, the number of days to 50% sprouting (22- 134) with a mean of 128 days, and the Big Corm Index (BCI) (6-15) with a mean of 10.42g, indicating the presence of a high level of variability and therefore imply considerable scope for saffron improvement via proper corm selection. Bigger corm size (8-12cm) indicates earlier and more persistent flowering, as well as big flower size, implying a direct effect on saffron yield, however, there was no effect on saffron quality. It was also observed that phenotypic variance estimation was greater than corresponding estimates of genotypic variance, indicating an environmental influence on trait expression. Genetic variability studies are critical for understanding the degree of variability and the potential for its future use in subsequent breeding programs.
... In recent years, saffron has acquired a more interesting role in low-input farming systems (no use of fertilizers and chemical treatments, low irrigation water requirement), becoming a viable alternative for sustainable agriculture (Mollafilabi et al., 2021;Dar et al., 2017;Sahabi et al., 2016;Gresta et al., 2008). Indeed, given its morphology and physiology, saffron is a rustic crop able to cope with severe weather conditions (Alizadeh et al., 2009;Molina et al., 2005). Its specific life cycle allows it to overcome the hostile season (summer), which coincides with its dormancy phase (Lopez-Corcoles et al., 2015;Alvarez-Orti et al., 2004). ...
... The traditional nature of most activities, such as flower collecting, trimming, processing and packaging explains the high labor requirements, based on endogenous knowledge. This makes the crop labor-intensive, and thus a naturally expensive spice (Aytekin and Acikgoz, 2008;Molina et al., 2005;Koocheki, 2004). Indeed, it takes 150,000 to 200,000 flowers harvested by hand to obtain 1 kilogram of saffron, and each flower has three stigmas that must be separated manually and then dried (Pandita, 2021), calling for about 400 hours of labor (Mzabri et al., 2019). ...
The saffron growing has emerged over the last decade in Algeria and has diffused in different agroclimatic regions, especially in the M'Zab valley and its periphery in the Saharan region of the country. This study sets out to analyze the emerging saffron value chain in the M’Zab valley and suggests strategic options for strengthening its development. The analysis was based on a case study. The methodology applied the tools of value chain analysis in its positive and normative dimensions: a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches based on the triangulation of data collection methods (interviews, secondary data collection, direct observations). A participatory approach was used to make a SWOT analysis and to propose strategies for developing the value chain. The results showed that the local saffron value chain has strengths (proftabilty and quality) and opportunities (growing demand of healthy and natural products), but its performance is limited by weaknesses (producers skills, marketing) and threats (Fraud or counterfeiting related to imported saffron) mainly related to the deficiencies in the institutional environment. Recommendations are made for elaborating a national saffron export strategy and building a competitive value chain able to take advantage of the expected growth in world demand.
... In saffron, flower emergence occurs in the range of 10-14°C [2]. e leaves senesce and wither at the beginning of the dry season and then corms go into the dormancy [3]. Corm dormancy period includes two stages: real dormancy, in which activity of the plant is at the lowest level (early May to the middle of January). ...
... Corm storage temperature is one of the factors influencing saffron production [3]. Some previous studies have reported that saffron production is affected by the characteristics of the growing area and the storage temperature of the corms [10]. ...
Saffron is an important flowering plant, generally known as a golden condiment. The present study was performed to find the influence of different levels of SA and pre-cold treatment in the dormancy period of saffron and their effects on content enzyme activity. The results indicated that the SA2%, SA1%, and, pre-cold treatments took the shortest day to flowering. PAL enzyme activity was highest in pre-cold treatment. The higher total amount of protein was measured in the control, SA1% and SA2%. The highest amount of starch content and total soluble sugar was detected in pre-cold, SA2%, and control, respectively. No significant differences between treatments were present for CAT, PPO, GPX, and APX enzymes activity. There was a negative significant correlation between flowering time and some studied traits, i.e., starch and PAL activity. Applying SA and pre-cold treatment can induce saffron flowering and effect on pal enzyme activity and corm total protein, sugar, and starch content accordingly.
... At the beginning of the dry season (April-May), the leaves senesce and wither, and the corms go into dormancy. The transition from the vegetative stage to the reproductive stage can occur shortly afterwards in the apex of the buds of underground corms [4]. Saffron is a valuable spice obtained from the stigmas of C. sativus, and the value of saffron is enhanced by its potential use in biomedicine [5]. ...
... Thus, corms can be cultivated directly in the field to force flowering, or they can be stored for up to 60 days at 2 • C to extend and facilitate harvesting [26,27]. Temperature, among several environmental parameters, plays a pivotal role in saffron flower induction [4,28,29]. Therefore, saffron corms are incubated at a moderately high temperature (23 • C-27 • C) to induce flowering before they are exposed to a moderately low temperature (17 • C) for floral emergence. In the present study, floral emergence occurred in vitro 30 days after the incubation of the saffron corms at 15 • C ± 1 • C. ...
In vitro cormogenesis is a potential tool for improving saffron production under controlled con-ditions. In this study, the effects of explant type, culture type, and medium supplements on saf-fron daughter corm formation in vitro were assessed. Saffron flowers emerged 30 days after culture, and the sizes of in-vitro- and ex-vitro-produced flowers and stigmas were similar. In vitro daughter corm formation and the saffron life cycle was completed after 10 and 14 weeks of cul-ture, respectively. Using in vitro intact corms was more effective for corm production than using apical buds. Compared with apical bud explants, mother corm explants produced more corms with a higher fresh weight and diameter. Compared with solid culture, liquid cultures using bi-oreactors provided corms with a higher fresh weight and diameter, regardless of explant type. An ebb and flow system provided the highest cormlet fresh weight and diameter but the fewest cormlets, whereas an immersion system provided more cormlets with a smaller size. Saffron ap-ical buds cultured with salicylic acid at 75 mg L−1 or glutamine at 600 mg L−1 exhibited the highest cormlet diameter and fresh weight. These findings will improve the process of in vitro cormo-genesis and the production of saffron under controlled conditions.
... Saffron grows well in temperate climate with sunny days and flourishes best at an altitude of 2140 m amsl. It requires a mean temperature of 6 to 8 C at night and 15 to 20 C during day times in the months of October and November provide a pleasant climate for better blooming (Molina et. al., 2005) [10] . Saffron prefers cold winters, autumn and spring rainfall and warm dry summers with annual rainfall ranging from 800-900 mm (Srivastava, 1968 andMalcom Doughlas, 2003) [22 . Spring rains are favourable for corm multiplication and early autumn rains boost flower production. ...
... It requires a mean temperature of 6 to 8 C at night and 15 to 20 C during day times in the months of October and November provide a pleasant climate for better blooming (Molina et. al., 2005) [10] . Saffron prefers cold winters, autumn and spring rainfall and warm dry summers with annual rainfall ranging from 800-900 mm (Srivastava, 1968 andMalcom Doughlas, 2003) [22 . ...
Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. Saffron is a perennial herbaceous plant attaining a height of 25 to 40 cm. The saffron known the world over as the 'Golden Condiment' because of its extreme high cash value and low volume. Saffron is widely used in food preparations especially Kashmiri 'Kehwa', fabric dying, medicinal drug, perfume and cosmetic industries. Saffron have medium feed value for ruminants and its value is less than alfalfa and more than cereal straw (Valizadeh, 1988). Saffron essentially contains three active ingredients such as crocin, picrocrocin and safranal which determines the intensity of colour, power of the flavour and strength of the aroma respectively. J&K is only state in the country which has the capability of producing this golden spice of the world. The total area recorded under saffron production was 5.707 thousand hectares with an annual production of 15.95 tonne and productivity of 2.8 kg/ha in 1997 which has reduced to 3.674 thousand hectares with an annual production of 9.6 tonne and having 2.61 kg/ha of productivity. The major constraints that limit its production and productivity is poor management of saffron cultivation, as it involves inadequate plant population, incidence of corm rot disease, nutrient depletion, lack of irrigation facilities, inadequate post-harvest handling, processing and marketing as well as adulteration in quality saffron. Turhan et. al. (2007) stated that the effect of different growing medias namely field soil+ sand, field soil+ sand+ cow manure, field soil+ sand+ manure applied as double layer above and bottom of corm bed and field soil+ sand+ manure+ nitfojips-K on most of the characters were significant but cow manure mixtures especially with double layers had a positive effect on the flower and stigma weight. Cavusoglu et. al. (2009) reported that the big size corm dimension (10-24 mm) has a great impact than small size corm dimension (25-40 mm) on fresh or dry saffron yield and to extend harvest period under greenhouse condition. Yau and Nimah (2004) found that the spacing had a large effect on flower production on the basis of per unit area and the ratio of actual flower production for low to medium to high density was 1:2:4. Unal and Cavusoglu (2005) found that the highest values of fresh and dry saffron weight were obtained from the application of urea fertilizer while the lowest values of fresh and dry saffron weight were obtained from ammonium sulphate fertilizer. Nehvi et al. (2010) revealed that the application of FYM at 350 kg/ha in combination with N: P: K at 30:20:15 kg/ ha recorded maximum saffron yield averaged over 3 years (4.350 kg ha-1) showing an increase of above 91% over the control plots. Wani (2004) suggested that the inoculation with nematodes and pathogenic fungus either separately or simultaneously significantly affected the disease development and the saffron yield. It is shown that the growing medium was one of the important factors for saffron flower production. In conclusion, the good management practices are recommended to enhance the productivity of saffron.
... It was reported that saffron plants with high quality and yield could be produced in greenhouse conditions. They introduced a method to increase the flowering period and to extend the saffron harvest period by controlling corms' storage time and duration [11][12][13]. ...
... They were then dipped into a fungicide solution (0.1% Prochloraz) and dried for 1-2 h. Flower formation was initiated by incubating the corms in the dark at 25 °C at a relative humidity of 85 ± 2% for 90 days, according to [12,13]. Corms were then planted in pots filled with perlite as the culture medium. ...
Saffron is a valuable plant and one of the most expensive spices worldwide. Nowadays, there is a tendency to produce this crop in indoor plant production systems. However, the production of saffron is restricted by the need for the reproduction of high-quality corms. In this study, we investigated the effect of different ratios of red (R) and blue (B) light spectra (including 100% B (monochromatic B), 75%, 50%, 40%, 25% B, and 0% B (monochromatic R) on the photosynthetic performance and biomass partitioning as well as morphological and biochemical characteristics of saffron. The growth of flower, root, and corm was improved by increasing the proportion of B to R light. B-grown plants were characterized by the highest photosynthetic functionality with efficient electron transport and lower energy dissipation when compared to R-grown plants. B light di-rected biomass toward the corms and floral organs, while R light directed it toward the leaves. In saffron, the weight of a daughter corm is of great importance since it determines the yield of the next year. As the ratio of B to R light increased, the daughter corms also became heavier, at the cost of reducing their number, though increasing the proportion of B-enhanced antioxidant capacity as well as the activity of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase while superoxide dismutase activity was enhanced in R-grown plants. In conclusion, B light increased the production of high-quality daughter corms and altered biomass partitioning towards harvestable organs (corms and flowers) in saffron plants.
... The absence of this mentioned superiority in soilless cultivation, within substrates cultivation technique ( peat moss -perlite mixture) compared with soil, as the previously mentioned researches, may be due to that our experiment was performed under uncontrolled ecological factors, where the area of soilless cultivation was covered only with plastic cover to protect it from rainfall water, whereas previous studies were performed using controlled glasshouses. So, the only difference in our experiment is cultivation technique, not environment and conditions surrounding the plant .Molina et al., (17) studies assured that controlled temperature degrees within glasshouses, may be responsible for the differences in production in terms of stimulating the appearance of flowers and the duration of flowering also, not cultivation technique in which plant is cultivated. Benschop et al., (1993) studies confirmed that temperature is the most important environmental factor in controlling growth and flowering through its effect on enzymes activity which control metabolism in plant. ...
This study was conducted at Abi – Jarash farm, Damascus, Syria, during 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 growing seasons. The aim of this study was comparing the effect of three different cultivation techniques of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), which were soilless cultivation, within the nutrient film technique (NFT), and the technique of cultivation in substrates (mixture of peat moss- perlite), in addition to cultivation in soil. An increasing in the vegetative growth measurements was recorded with cultivation saffron in the soil, compared to the cultivation without soil, within the nutrient film technology (hydroponics) ,and the technology of cultivation in the substrates (peat moss and perlite mixture)، Flowering was poor in the hydroponics technique, while non significant differences were observed among the cultivation technique in the peat moss–perlite mixture, and the cultivation in the soil in first and second seasons . Cultivation in the soil achieved a significant increase in the rate of corms multiplication (corm plant-1), and the weight of daughter corms produced from one plant, whereas, a qualitative superiority appeared within the nutrient film technique, in which the percentage of commercial corms (˃ 8 g) reached 100%, and the average weight of the produced corms was 13.65,16.07 g in first and second seasons, respectively .
... They were subsequently soaked into an acaricide (0.1% Propargite) and fungicide (0.15% Thiophanate-methyl) solution and dried for 1-2 h. The corms were incubated at 25 • C under dark conditions at a relative humidity of 85 ± 2% for 3 months, since previous studies showed that flower formation starts in this condition [47,48]. ...
Saffron is the world’s most coveted spicy plant that has medicinal value. Currently, due to diverse types of difficulties in growing this plant outdoor, the tendency to produce it indoor has been increased. Optimized indoor conditions for growing saffron plants is not fully determined so far. This study was conducted to investigate the interactive effects of two plant growth regulators (PGRs), including gibberellic acid (GA3) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and four light recipes, including white, monochromatic blue, monochromatic red, and a combination of 50% red and 50% blue on the flower yield and phytochemical components (such as crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) in stigmas of indoor-grown saffron. The results showed that exogenous GABA application and combined red and blue LED lights enhanced the performance of saffron flowers in terms of the number of flowers (up to 1.97 per corm) as well as the fresh and dry weight of flowers and stigmas. In saffron, the concentration of three major secondary metabolites is of great importance since it determines its commercial, pharmaceutical quality. GABA induced saffron's chemical ingredients toward the phytochemicals safranal (up to 5.03%) and picrocrocin (up to 15.8%), while GA3 induced them toward the carotenoid pigment crocin (up to 25.1%). In conclusion, the application of GABA with a combination of red and blue lights enhanced the production of high-quality stigmas and positively affected the yield of flowers in saffron plants.
... It is highly valued for its gastronomic use (Chourak et al. 2021;García-Rodríguez et al. 2017), in cosmetics, perfumes and in the textile dye industry (Gohari et al. 2013). In recent years, its medicinal effects have spread worldwide and chemical analysis of saffron extract has revealed about 150 diverse compounds including crocin, crocetin, safranal and picrocrocin which are the most important bioactive constituents of saffron (Amin et al. 2016;Bolhassani 2018;Ghadrdoost et al. 2011;Molina et al. 2005). The quality of saffron spice is based on the type of metabolite, its concentration and the commercial parameters standardized by its commercial regulations (Chourak et al. 2021;Gohari et al. 2013;Sarwat and Sumaiya 2020). ...
Saffron is one of the most appreciated, traditional and expensive spices in the world. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of electric conductivities (ECs) of nutrient solution on the production and commercial qualities of saffron grown in soilless culture. Corms of saffron were placed in a controlled cultivation chamber in pot of 0.5 L refilled with standard coir as substrate. The treatments with standard macro- and micronutrient content were the EC supplied at 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5 dS m−1. The parameter measured were vegetative growth, number of flowers per corms, the weight and length of stigmas, the absorption of water, nitrate and potassium from fertigation, metabolite content and commercial categories. The amounts of safranal, crocin and picrocrocin were analysed spectrophotometrically according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO/TS 3632–1 (2003) Normative). The best results in fertigation uptake, vegetative growth and commercial production were obtained at ECs of 2.0 to 2.5 dS m−1, while the best metabolite concentrations and commercial category were recorded between ECs of 2.5 to 3.0 dS m−1. Saffron quality in soilless culture improved slightly in relation to traditional method of crop.
... Deep planting provides more or less uniform soil temperature which is necessary for good production. The yield is also higher than the surface planting (Molina et al., 2005). More number of corms can be obtained when planted at the shallow depth (10cm) while flower yield is maximum when planted at a depth of 15 cm (Galavi et al., 2008). ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a perennial, herbaceous geophyte successfully grown in the temperate region. Its stigmas are the most economical part and the most expensive spice on earth. Secondary metabolites: crocin, picrocrocin and safranal are responsible for its colour, flavour and aroma respectively. It is used as spice, fragrance, dye, cosmetics and for medicinal purposes. It can also be grown under rainfed conditions and low nutrient input in the hilly areas of Nepal at an altitude of 1500-2800 meters above sea level. Annually, Nepal produces around 7-10 kilograms of saffron which is far beyond the national demand. It is a low volume high value commodity and the availability of its suitable agroclimatic conditions in Nepal has created an immense possibility towards its production leading to import substitution and export promotion. Along with the proper nutrient management, proper plant density with adequate irrigation facilities and weed management, availability of disease free and quality corms, technical knowledge on modern room cultivation and proper postharvest processing are the key factors that should be looked after for the higher production of saffron.
... This is due to ease of change in environmental cues due to high-tech instrumental devices in CEA. Reduction of labor work, increased flowering and yield, facilitating dormancy removal, accelerating forcing, and flowering in synchronous flowering (which is of great importance in mechanization), and high quality of saffron stigma are among the advantages of saffron production in controlled-environment systems (Molina et al., 2004(Molina et al., , 2005b(Molina et al., , 2010Renau-Morata et al., 2012;Poggi et al., 2017;García-Rodríguez et al., 2021;Moradi et al., 2021). Among all environmental factors, light plays a regulatory role in many processes such as photosynthesis, photo-morphogenesis, and the production of secondary metabolites (Kozai et al., 2016). ...
Saffron quality is determined by the content of three apocarotenoids, including crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, giving saffron culinary, industrial, and medical importance. The level of these secondary metabolites is also affected by environmental factors such as light, which play a pivotal role in regulating plants' signaling pathways. In this study, we investigated the effects of different ratios of blue (B) to red (R) and white (W) light on physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of saffron in the flowering stage. Flowers' morphological properties were improved in plants grown under monochromatic B light. The highest content of total carotenoids, anthocyanins, and flavonoids was detected in plants grown under a high proportion of B light. The highest crocin content, especially the trans-crocetin ester isomer, was recorded in monochromatic B light-grown plants. However, the highest picrocrocin content was in both monochromatic R- and B light-grown plants. The highest safranal content was detected in plants grown under a high proportion of R light. Transcriptome analysis of secondary metabolism pathways showed that the transcript level of the genes was highly correlated with the content of the target metabolites. Monochromatic B light upregulated the expression of genes involved in crocin production (CsCCD2, CsALDH31l, and CsUGT2). However, the expression of CsUGT709G1, which is involved in picrocrocin and safranal pathways, was upregulated in plants grown under a high ratio of R light and W lights. In conclusion, monochromatic B light enhances the flowering rate, crocin (trans-crocetin ester), and picrocrocin content, which increases the quantity and quality of saffron products under controlled conditions.
... Therefore, soilless cultures and cultivation systems under controlled conditions are considered suitable replacements for conventional saffron cropping and for the production of pathogen-free corms [8,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Moreover, such systems can increase saffron yield [19]. ...
Indoor saffron farming systems under controlled conditions are required to meet the high demand for this valuable crop. The aim of the present study was to determine the flowering, growth, and yield responses of saffron grown using nutrient solutions with different electrical conductivity (EC) levels (0.7, 1.4, and 2.1 dS m−1). Sprouted saffron corms were cultured for 24 weeks under a volcanic rock-based aerated continuous immersion system. Vegetative growth and leaf gas exchange, but not flowering, were affected significantly by EC levels. The optimal EC in a balanced nutrient solution was 0.7 dS m−1, at which level the highest plant height, leaf area, biomass, photosynthetic rate, number of daughter corms, and percentage of corms ≥ 25 mm were recorded. An EC level of 2.1 dS m−1 decreased the photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate of saffron but increased biochemical stress marker levels and elevated various antioxidant defense enzyme levels significantly in saffron leaves, possibly reflecting a defense response to the cellular damage provoked by the higher EC level. In terms of nutrient solution EC, 0.7 dS m−1 was optimal in saffron, whereas 2.1 dS m−1 caused oxidative stress that led to reduced growth and daughter corm production.
... Sprouting in saffron occurs after summer dormancy, while flower initiation occurs during summers in the field and in storage. To identify developmental changes leading to the initiation and formation of flowers, we followed the flower developmental stages and sprouting occurring in saffron corms under controlled conditions as mentioned in the methods section and recommended in previous studies (Molina et al. 2005a). In April, freshly harvested/lifted corms of saffron were sorted. ...
Flowering determines the yield of saffron, whereas synchronized sprouting determines plant fitness; thus, their regulation is of utmost importance. In saffron, corm sprouting is marked with the emergence of flowers and leaves simultaneously. PEBP genes have a conserved role in regulating flowering and vegetative growth in plants, but their role in saffron is confined due to the non-availability of genomic resources. In the present study, we isolated their homologues in saffron and examined their alleged role in promoting flowering. Here we report that at least 6 FTs (FLOWERING LOCUS T), 2 TFL1s (TERMINAL FLOWER 1), and 2 MFTs (MOTHER OF FT AND TFL1) genes are present in saffron. The sequence analysis suggests they possess a conserved structural genetic organization with other plant species gene members. Interestingly, two FT genes (CsatFT4 and CsatFT6) showed the presence of characteristic amino acids of TFL-like genes but were aligned in FT genes clade. Phylogenetic analysis divided them into FT-like, TFL1-like, and MFT-like clades. The expression of identified genes varied among different tissues. The spatial and temporal expressions during sprouting suggest that they might have different functions. Tissue and organ-specific expression profiling suggest that CsatFT3 might act locally in apical buds to promote flowering, while CsatFT1 and 2 are involved in promoting vegetative growth. Antagonistically, CsatTFL1-1 and CsatTFL1-2 might regulate vegetative growth and flowering, respectively. Additionally, comparative expression profiling between flowering competent (big) vs non-competent (small) corms affirm the specific role of CsatFT3 as a plausible flowering regulator.
... soil electrical conductivity range between 0.09 to 0.30 dms −1 for saffron [19][20][21] . For flower development optimum temperature range is 23-27 °C in summer and winter temperatures should not be less than − 15 to − 20 °C 22 . Therefore, it was observed that environmental conditions (temperature and precipitation) 23,24 play a prime role in saffron growth and development. ...
Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is a globally used expensive spice. There are a few countries like Iran, Greece, Morocco, Spain, Italy, Turkey, France, Switzerland, Pakistan, China, Japan and Australia where this spice is cultivated and exported to other countries. India contributes 5% of the world's total production of which 90% is supplied only from its Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) regions. In India, the production of saffron from J&K is 3.83 tonnes whereas its annual demand is approximately 100 tonnes. In this country, there are geographical regions that have similar environmental and ecological conditions to J&K and possess the possibility of introducing this crop. Identification of such regions can be made using Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM). Therefore, 'MaxEnt' ENM was carried out using 103 environmental variables, 20 presence data and topographic parameters (elevation, slope and aspect) to find suitable regions for saffron production in unconventional areas of India. The achieved area under the curve for the model was 0.99. The precipitation and temperature were the main environmental variable influencing its cultivation. The saffron was sowed in these new modelled locations in India representing its various states such as Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur and Tamil Nadu. The quality, as well as yield of saffron produced in some of these regions, were evaluated and found at par with the saffron grown traditionally in India. Based on the promising results obtained in this work, we are expanding saffron cultivation to more modelled areas in India to meet our national demand.
... In the cultivation of saffron, the corms quality such as size and emergence capacity as importance, as well as the number of corms yield. The earlier studies displayed the mature and bigger corms gave more flowers and daughter corms [43,48,49]. ...
To check the efficacy of different fungicides to control soil and corm borne disease of saffron (Crocus sativus) by conducting experiment at Balochistan Agriculture Research and Development Center (BARDC) Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan during the year 2019-2020. The corms were treated with one of the following fungicides; Copper Oxychloride, Cabriotop, Rovral, Vitavax Thiram, Acrobat MZ and Tanda. These corms were sown in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) along with control treatment (fungal-infected corms with no fungicide treatment). The results indicated that the positive effect of fungicides on the flower production (dry weight) of saffron was in the order of Acrobat MZ and Copper Oxychloride > Rovral and Vitavax Thiram > Cabriotop, Tanda and control (P < 0.05). The dry flower biomass of saffron under treatment of Acrobat MZ and Copper Oxychloride was ~ 3 and 4 times greater than the flower production of control treatment. The dry weight of stigma under treatments of Acrobat MZ and Copper Oxychloride was ~2-3 times greater than the control treatment (P < 0.05). All fungicides except Tanda significantly increased the length of stigma (2.98-2.82 cm) than control (2.65) (P < 0.05). Acrobat MZ also significantly increased the survival of croms than control treatment. These results demonstrate that corms treated with fungicides specifically with Acrobat MZ and Copper Oxychloride not only reduce the disease incidence and pathogen population in the soil, but also improved the certain growth parameters related to vegetative and reproductive parts of saffron.
... The stigmas contain apocarotenoids such crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which give saffron its distinctive color, taste, and perfume [1]. It is one of the world's most expensive spices due to its unique organoleptic properties and difficulty in cultivation, processing, and harvesting [2,3]. Moreover, there is compelling evidence that supports the therapeutic potential of saffron [4], and due to the growing demand, it becomes important to devise a strategy to improve the quality and quantity of saffron [5]. ...
Objective
Isolating high-quality RNA is a basic requirement while performing high throughput sequencing, microarray, and various other molecular investigations. However, it has been quite challenging to isolate RNA with absolute purity from plants like Crocus sativus that are rich in secondary metabolites, polysaccharides, and other interfering compounds which often irreversibly co-precipitate with the RNA. While many methods have been proposed for RNA extraction including CTAB, TriZol, and SDS-based methods, which invariably yield less and poor quality RNA and hence it necessitated the isolation of high-quality RNA suitable for high throughput applications.
Results
In the present study we made certain adjustments to the available protocols including modifications in the extraction buffer itself and the procedure employed. Our method led to the isolation of clear and non-dispersive total RNA with an RNA Integrity Number (RIN) value greater than 7.5. The quality of the RNA was further assessed by qPCR-based amplification of mRNA and mature miRNAs such as Cs-MIR166c and Cs-MIR396a.
... All tanks were in a greenhouse exposed to natural photoperiod, and during the light periods (12 h day −1 ), the luminous intensity of 1900 lx was provided adjacent to the plant leaves using white and yellow LED lamps (1:1 ratio). Throughout the experiment, the air temperature for the plants was 17-19 °C that was the optimum temperature for flowering (Molina et al. 2005), while the water temperature for fish farming was set at 26 °C (Azaza et al. 2008). To prevent heat transfer between air and water and reduce energy waste, the fish tanks were covered all around with thermal insulation foils. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of improving the growth and physiological indices of plant and fish by adding different levels of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to water in the aquaponic system using Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and saffron plant (Crocus sativus). 240# fish (12.5 ± 0.21 gr) and 120# saffron corms (2.8 ± 0.12 gr) were randomly assigned to 15 experimental units and underwent treatments of adding 0 (control), 2, 4, 6, and 8 mg L⁻¹ ascorbic acid to water, every 6 days, for 8 weeks. The fish final weight and subsequently other growth performance indices increased in the treatment of 4 mg L⁻¹ vitamin C compared to other treatments (P ≤ 0.05). Some growth performances of saffron plants such as saffron production, in treatment of 6 mg L⁻¹, were significantly higher than the control group and reached from 17.34 ± 0.27 mg flower⁻¹ in the control group to 25.4 ± 1.61 mg flower⁻¹ in treatment of 6 mg L⁻¹. Measuring the serum biochemical parameters of the fish showed that, in the treatment of 8 mg/L ascorbic acid, the cortisol content in the blood reached its maximum (21.49 ± 2.42 µg dL⁻¹). The trypsin activity in proximal intestine and mid-intestine significantly increased in treatments of 2, 4, and 6 mg L⁻¹, respectively. The current experiment showed that, by adding 4–6 mg/L ascorbic acid to the aquaponic system water (every 6 days), the optimal levels of Nile tilapia and saffron plant growth performances would occur.
... Climate significantly improves the vegetative growth and improves the reproductive characteristics of corm plants (Aghhavani et al., 2015;Shajari et al., 2020). As a result, cultivation in controlled environments using hydroponic systems has been proposed as a way to increase saffron yield while reducing production costs (Molina et al., 2005). In addition, many studies on different plants showed that the effects of different growing environments were different. ...
Aims: This study aimed to determine the effects of different cultivation practices on yield and characteristics of saffron corm grown in field and greenhouse conditions.
Methods and Results: Two different saffron corm sizes, with an average weight of 12 g and 6 g, were used as production material. The cultivation of saffron corms was carried out in areas where 4 different treatments were applied such as silt (fine stream sand), cocopeat, peat + perlite and cocopeat + perlite. Field studies were set up ccording to the randomized blocks split-plot design experimental design, and greenhouse studies were set up according to the randomized plots design with 3 replications. The highest corm yield, corm increase rate per unit and the harvested corm weight were obtained in field conditions where silt applications were made.
Conclusions: In field and greenhouse conditions, silt application has been determined as the most suitable cultivation treatment for the production of corm as seed material in a short time, as well as the corm properties of saffron.
Significance and Impact of the Study: It has been demonstrated that the field conditions are more effective than the greenhouse conditions and the silt treatment is more effective than other applications used for saffron corm production.
... Leaves and flowers appear from the end of October to the end of November. Then corms replacement occurs on the surface of the mother corm (Molina et al. 2005). ...
Improving flower yield through lengthening flowering duration is a primary breeding objective in saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Asexual reproduction in saffron limits biodiversity and conventional breeding. Hence, eliciting flowering-related gene expression by plant growth regulators is one way to achieve this aim. The phytohormones methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and 6-benzyl amino purine (BAP) signals are received by the MADs-box gene family. In this study, to elucidate the role of phytohormones on flower development, plant were treated with BAP (0 and 5 mg L⁻¹), and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) (0, 20, and 100 mM) at three developmental stages of the saffron life cycle. Then, the expression of the SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (CsSVP) gene as a MADS-box gene family was assessed in the saffron corm. The activities of antioxidant enzymes, soluble sugar, starch content, and soluble protein content were also measured in corm, leaf, and root tissues. The application of MeJA and BAP treatments resulted in down-regulation of CsSVP expression in the corm during dormancy. At the dormancy stage, catalase, peroxidase activity decreased, and ascorbate peroxidase activity increased following MeJA treatment. In contrast, an increment in catalase and peroxidase activity and reduction of ascorbate peroxidase activity were observed after treatment with MeJA during the flowering stage. This change in enzyme activity is most likely due to flowering, which demands the re-allocation of resources. As flowering is a process heavily influenced by the environment, plants treated with MeJA, which may mimic environmental stress, showed changes in antioxidant enzyme activity. Overall, these results suggested that MeJA and BAP treatments play a significant role in the vegetative-to-reproductive phase change in saffron.
... Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a member of the Iridaceae family (Acar et al., 2011). It is the most expensive spice globally, named red gold (Molina et al., 2005;Shahi et al., 2016). In Iran, saffron cultivates in about 113000 ha, with an annual production of 405-ton dried stigma, including about 90% of world production (Behdani and Fallahi, 2015;Ahmadi et al., 2019). ...
Saffron quality is strongly affected by post-harvest practices. In this regard, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of flowers storage temperature (2, 8, and 21 °C) and storage duration (1, 2, 3, and 4 days) on color traits (L, a, b, oh, and C), apocarotenoids content (crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, determined by HPLC and spectrophotometry methods), antioxidant compounds (anthocyanin and total phenol) and microbial load of dried stigmas and petals. The color quality of the stigma (L, a, C, and oh) improved by one day storing at two °C. HPLC analysis revealed that the highest contents of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal in stigma were gained by one day storing at 2 °C, although the stigma quality was even acceptable in longer storing when storage temperature was low. A positive correlation between crocin and picrocrocin contents with color parameters (L, a, and C) suggests that colorimetry can be possibly used as a fast, easy, and cheap method for stigma quality assessment. The highest amounts of anthocyanin in stigma and petal (4167 and 9663 g 100 g⁻¹ dry weight, respectively) were obtained at two °C and three days storing. Petal had more anthocyanin content than stigma in all storage duration and temperature combinations. The total count of microorganisms in stigma and petals decreased by reducing storage duration and temperature. Overall, lower storage temperature and shorter storage duration were more favorable for improving stigma and petals quality, but low storage temperature can compensate for the negative effect of longer storage duration.
... Deep planting provides more or less uniform soil temperature which is necessary for good production. The yield is also higher than the surface planting (Molina et al., 2005). More number of corms can be obtained when planted at the shallow depth (10cm) while flower yield is maximum when planted at a depth of 15 cm (Galavi et al., 2008). ...
... During the cultivation, especially in autumn, spring and at the end of the crop cycle, weeds control was carried out mainly by hoeing operations. In June 2016 corms were collected from the soil and stored in a dark room having a temperature of about 23°C to ensure flower formation (Molina et al., 2005). ...
... However, the strength of such internal controls in the face of the continuing and ever-more-frequent temperature extremes under a changing climate are unclear (Sanger, 2021). Excessively high temperatures can delay flowering and cause damage to developing flowers (Erickson & Markhart, 2002;Molina et al., 2005). Many high-latitude shrub species, including V. vitis-idaea, are crucial elements of the trophic web of local ecosystems, providing not only pollen to insects but edible fruit to birds and mammals, as well as to local human populations. ...
Phenological studies often focus on relationships between flowering date and temperature or other environmental variables. Yet in species that preform flowers, anthesis is one stage of a lengthy developmental process, and effects of temperature on flower development in the year(s) before flowering are largely unknown. ●We investigated the effects of temperature during preformation on flower development in Vaccinium vitis‐idaea. Using scanning electron microscopy, we established scores for developing primordia and examined effects of air temperature, depth of soil thaw, time of year, and previous stage on development. ●Onset of flower initiation depends on soil thaw, and developmental change is greatest at early stages and during the warmest months. Regardless of temperature and time during the season all basal floral primordia pause development at the same stage prior to whole‐plant dormancy. ●Once primordia are initiated, development does not appear to be influenced by air temperature differences within the range of variation among our sites. There may be strong endogenous flower level controls over development, particularly the stage at which morphogenesis ceases prior to dormancy. However, the strength of such internal controls in the face of continuing temperature extremes under a changing climate is unclear.
... However, the foliage senesced 10 d earlier in the protected subplots than in the unprotected subplots (Fig. 6). Gresta et al. (2008) and Molina et al. (2005) reported that temperature is one of the environmental factors that controls growth and flowering in crocus (Crocus sp.). Also, Rahimi et al. (2017) suggested that corm development depends directly on the condition of shoots and leaves. ...
Saffron is well known as the most expensive spice in the world by weight. It is the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus). Besides being well known as a culinary spice, saffron is also important in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and dye industries. Saffron crocus is cultivated in a wide range of environments, from the Mediterranean to the Middle East, and even to northern India's subtropical climate. Saffron crocus is an environmentally friendly and low-input crop, making it a perfect match for low-input and organic farming, and sustainable agricultural systems. The objective of this study was to evaluate the possibility of producing saffron in New England. The study was conducted from Sept. 2017 to Dec. 2019 at the University of Rhode Island. Two different corm planting densities and two winter protection methods were evaluated. In 2018, corm planting density did not affect the number of flowers per unit area or total stigma yields, but flowers from the low-density plots produced significantly (P < 0.05) heavier pistils than flowers from the high-density plots. In 2019, planting density had no effect on flower number, stigma yield, or pistil dry weight. In 2018, flower number, stigma yield, and pistil dry weight were similar to subplots that had been covered with low tunnels the previous winter and subplots that had not been covered. However, in 2019, the plants in the subplots that remained exposed during the winter produced significantly more (P < 0.05) flowers than the plants in the subplots that were in low tunnels for the winter. Saffron yields followed the same pattern, with the unprotected subplots yielding 57% more than the protected subplots (P < 0.05). These data indicate that winter protection is not beneficial for saffron crocus production in Rhode Island. The use of winter protection increases production costs and can decrease yields.
... The earliest and widest flowering occurred in corms of D3 class planted in a biennial crop cycle in both the experimental years (data not shown). Probably the earliness of flowering observed in biennial crop cycle can be attributed to factors such as soil temperature and humidity which have stimulated the growth of saffron plants (Molina et al., 2005). ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a geophyte plant belonging to the Iridaceae family and it is appreciated for its red dried stigmas used as cooking spice and flavouring agent. Effects of crop cycle length and mother corm dimension, as well as their interaction, have been evaluated on the flowering (morphological traits of flowers, days to flowering, flowering interval and flower production), quantitative traits (stigma and daughter corm yield), vegetative development (leaf and daughter corm traits) and qualitative characteristics (coloring, bittering and aromatic powers) of spice. A two-year field study (2017–2019) was conducted to compare annual and biennial crop cycle of saffron using three corm dimensional classes (D1: 2.0–2.5 cm, D2: 2.6–3.5 cm and D3: 3.6–4.5 cm) according a split-plot design with 3 replications. The results showed that the corms of D3 class, planted in annual crop cycle, produced flowers with the highest stigma length (42.2 mm), and dry weight of stigmas (7.4 mg), stamens (11.4 mg) and tepals (40.7 mg). The highest number of flowers per m² (311.8) and stigma yield (20.7 kg ha⁻¹) were found when corms belonging to D2 class were planted in biennial crop cycle, meanwhile the highest daughter corms production (35.9 t ha⁻¹) was obtained when corms belonged to D3 class were planted in annual crop cycle. Number of daughter corms per m² with a horizontal diameter from 3.1 to 4.5 cm and weight from 10.1 to > 25 g decreased as increasing the crop cycle length. In biennial crop cycle, corms of D1 class produced more daughter corms belonged to 3.1–3.5 cm diameter class and to 15.1–20 g weight class compared to D2 and D3 classes. Regarding to the spice quality, coloring and bittering powers were positively influenced by biennial crop cycle. According to International Standardization Organization (ISO 3632) references, the maximum values of color (306.3 A1cm1% 440 nm) and taste (116.2 A1cm1% 257 nm) were reached in spice obtained from “biennial crop cycle x D2 class” interaction. No significant effect of all experimental factors on aromatic power was found. It was concluded that the evaluation of combination between crop cycle length and corm dimension is necessary in the saffron management in order to achieve the optimum yield of stigmas and corms, to improve the qualitative traits of spice and to enhance the by-products as corms of D1 class.
... There are a lot of studies about the effect of environmental factors on morphological (Molina et al., 2005;Gresta et al., 2008bGresta et al., , 2009) and phytochemical characters (Lage and Cantrell, 2009) but no definite information explaining the heritability estimates for these traits in saffron is available. Plant breeders frequently use heritability estimates to distinguish the proportion of total phenotypic variation as a result of genotype and environmental influences. ...
Saffron is highly valued for its unique aroma, taste, colour and medicinal properties. Iran is known, as one of the most important saffron producing countries but the genetic variability present in crocus in Iran is currently unknown. The main objectives of our research were: (1) evaluate phenotypic diversity among Iranian saffron populations; (2) compare phytochemical content between populations originating from different ecological areas; (3) determine possible correlations between phytochemical content and morphological traits; (4) identify yield-related traits for use in clonal selection programs and (5) estimate the broad sense heritability () for the traits evaluated. In this study a combined analysis of variance was used to evaluate eight Iranian populations of Crocus sativus over a two-year period. The investigated characters were leaf number per plant, leaf length, flower number per plot, dry stigma weight per plot, spathe number and the content of crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. Statistical analysis showed that population had significant effect on most morphological parameters except leaf length and spathe number. Also it had significant effect on all phytochemical contents. Duncan's multiple range tests showed that populations were significantly different for most evaluated traits. Simple correlation analysis showed that dry stigma weight had significant and positive correlation with leaf number, flower number, picrocrocin and safranal (r = 0.954, 0.998, 0.830 and 0.881, respectively). The estimates of broad sense heritability were higher for flower related traits (). Cluster analysis did not reveal a clear relationship between diversity pattern and geographical origin.
... Filaments of saffron are made from the dried and dark red stigmas of Crocus sativus L. owers (an autumn-owering geophyte) belonging to the Iridaceae family. Picking saffron owers are done daily by hand, lasting only 2 to 3 weeks Molina et al. (2005); Tayebeh Shahi et al. (2016). After separating stigmas from owers, large quantities of saffron oral bio-residues consisting of petals and remaining stigmas are completely discarded (by-products account for about 86% of each crop in Morocco) Jadouali et al. (2018). ...
Saffron leaves and petals are the main by-products of saffron processing which is producing in large amounts annually. The aim of this work is to identified polyphenols in leaves and petals from Saffron . Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection (UPLC-DAD) and ion trap mass spectrometry with either electrospray ionization (ESI-MS). Crude extracts from leaf and petal of Crocus sativus were screened for their in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. A significant content of polyphenols, essentially glycosides of kaempferol, quercetin, Isorhamnetin, Malvidin have identified in petals and leaves of Crocus sativus . The leaf extract revealed higher activity (IC50= 190,43 μg ml ⁻¹ ) for DPPH inhibition in comparison with the petals ethanolic extract (IC50= 504.26 μg ml ⁻¹ ). The leaf extracts gave higher antioxidant capacity (1,090 nm) measured with the FRAP assay. Our tested extracts petals displayed a strong antimicrobial activity with MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) and MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) values as equal as 6,25 µg/µl against Aspergillus niger and Escherichia coli . The quantitative analysis data obtained thus far have shown that Crocus sativus leaves and petals are a rich source of flavonoids. The results were showed that the by-products of C. sativus can be exploited to create a different conception of C. sativus L . The identified compounds arouse growing interest in their antioxidant and biological activity as a food supplement, in functional foods, beverages, pharmaceutical preparations, and cosmetic formulations. Farmers and local scientists may no longer view C. sativus flowers as waste but as an important resource for health-enhancing products.
Flowering in saffron is a highly complex process regulated by the synchronized action of environmental cues and endogenous signals. Hormonal regulation of flowering is a very important process controlling flowering in several plants, but it has not been studied in saffron. Flowering in saffron is a continual process completed in months with distinct developmental phases, mainly divided into flowering induction and flower organogenesis/formation. In the present study, we investigated how phytohormones affect the flowering process at different developmental stages. The results suggest that different hormones differentially affect flower induction and formation in saffron. The exogenous treatment of flowering competent corms with abscisic acid (ABA) suppressed both floral induction and flower formation, whereas some other hormones, like auxins (indole acetic acid, IAA) and gibberellic acid (GA), behaved contrarily at different developmental stages. IAA promoted flower induction, while GA suppressed it; however, GA promoted flower formation, whereas IAA suppressed it. Cytokinin (kinetin) treatment suggested its positive involvement in flower induction and flower formation. The expression analysis of floral integrator and homeotic genes suggests that ABA might suppress floral induction by suppressing the expression of the floral promoter (LFY, FT3) and promoting the expression of the floral repressor (SVP) gene. Additionally, ABA treatment also suppressed the expression of the floral homeotic genes responsible for flower formation. GA reduces the expression of flowering induction gene LFY, while IAA treatment upregulated its expression. In addition to these genes, a flowering repressor gene, TFL1-2, was also found to be downregulated in IAA treatment. Cytokinin promotes flowering induction by increasing the expression levels of the LFY gene and decreasing the TFL1-2 gene expression. Moreover, it improved flower organogenesis by increasing the expression of floral homeotic genes. Overall, the results suggest that hormones differently regulate flowering in saffron via regulating floral integrator and homeotic gene expression.
Since saffron is a triploid crop, it does not generate seed when selfed or crossed and is passed down through the generations by daughter corms produced from the mother corms. As a result, agro-technology development is the only viable alternative for bringing this crop to its full potential. Saffron does not have any specific habitat preferences, as evidenced by discovering numerous previously unknown saffron farmed areas during the current study. The plant grows as a mixed crop under apple (Malus domestica Borkh), almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.), populus (Populus alba L.), and walnut (Juglans regia L.) trees, as well as in plains, undulated soils, hills, and rice fields. It can be found growing between 1585 and 2050 m above sea level. Different agro-techniques were standardized, among which compost soil (compost 250 gms per pot with 2 kgs of soil; 500 gms per tray with 4 kgs of soil; 10 kgs per bed) was found to be best for early flower production. Soil and farmyard manure (1:3), UDP 0.25 gms/pot (N-115.511+ K130.952+P-58.496 mg), soil DAP 650 mg/2 kg of soil (@P = 152.0899 mg), soil MOP 350 mg/2 kg (@ K = 183.37 mg) of soil was preeminent of procured in vitro raised cormlets in terms of their sprouting and survival of shoots. Corm density was also checked in the offseason of the crop, with growth activity of only saffron corms. Significant negative correlation was recorded with r = 0.82; n = 100; P ≤ 0.001. But the reverse trend was observed in the crop's growing season when most de-weeding and field preparations are accomplished. The study will benefit people in near future as it emphasized the imperative proofs and picture of saffron cultivation in Kashmir valley, reflects the realities of saffron cultivation and trounces the earlier myths.
Saffron field from the onset of dormancy to flowering phase is free of vegetation and increased soil temperature and reduced land use efficiency are the clearest problems of sole saffron cultivation. In order to study the effect of intercropping patterns of mallow (Malva sylvetris L.) as a perennial medicinal plant with saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on replacement corm growth and flower yield affected as possible cooling of corms for climate change and global warming mitigation, an experiment was conducted at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during three growing seasons of 2015-2016, 2016-2017 and 2017-2018. Treatments were 15, 30, 45 and 60-cm row spacings for saffron from mallow planting rows and sole saffron and mallow cultivations. Based on results in the third year, the effect of intercropping patterns with mallow was significant on yield indicators of flower and corm of saffron. In comparison between sole cultivation and intercropped saffron revealed that the highest values for flower number, dried stigma yield and yield of replacement corms were recorded for sole saffron cultivation with 81 flowers.m-2, 0.2115 g.m-2 and 26.51 g.m-2, respectively. In comparisons amongst intercropping patterns, the highest values for these criteria were related to 30-cm row spacings from mallow with 46 flowers.m-2, 0.155 g.m-2 and 13.39 g.m-2, respectively. However, corcin, picrocrocin and safranal contents were not significantly affected by intercropping patterns with mallow. Effect of intercropped saffron was significant on fresh weight of flower, dried weight of flower and branches number per plant of mallow. The maximum value for dried flower weight was observed for 60-cm row spacing with 28.89 g.m-2. The range for LER calculated with 1.01-1.77 and the maximum value was for 15-cm row spacing.
In order to study the effect of different amounts of corms and planting depths of corms on flower and corm yield of saffron, an experiment was conducted in a factorial layout based on complete randomized block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during 2015- 2016 growing seasons. The experimental treatments were all combination of four quantity of corms (7, 8, 9 and 10 t/ha) and three planting depth (10, 15 and 20 cm). The results showed that different quantity and planting depth of saffron corms had significant effects on the most of the studied criteria. The results revealed that flower yield, stigma dry weight, number of flowers and replacement corms per square meter increased by increasing the amount of corm by 9 t/ha and reduced planting depth by 10 cm. The maximum replacement corms yield was obtained in 8 t/ha corm treatment which was 33.25 percent higher than 7 t/ha and 15.99 percent was higher than 10 t/ha corm treatments. The maximum and minimum replacement corms yield were shown in 10 and 20 cm planting depth, respectively. The higher number of replacement corms (173 corm in m2) were obtained in 10 t/ha corms, Therefore, increasing the amount of corms from 7 to 10 t/ha will increase the number of replacement corms by 101 percent while there were no significant differences between the rests of treatments. According to the low yield of saffron in the first year, it seems increasing the amount of corm till the optimum range and reducing the planting depths of corms will increase saffron flowers yield in the first year and lead to produce bigger replacement corms for next years. Hence, optimum amount of corm and planting depths will increase farmers’ income in the first year.
The saffron dormancy period begins after drying above-ground parts, including actual and apparent phases. The differentiating reproductive organs during apparent dormancy need to be induced under optimal temperature conditions, while saffron farms are free of vegetation after the drying phase. Covering the soil surface during the summer season may be advantageous to counter such a major constraint. The current study was conducted at the experimental station of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, from 2018-to 2019 and repeated from 2019-to 2020. A split-split plot arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates was used. Limited moisture of white bean (10 d irrigation as lower interval and 20 d irrigation as higher interval), glycine betaine foliar application (0 and 10 mM), and planting patterns (sole saffron, sole white bean, and saffron + white bean intercrop) were considered as the main plot, subplot, and sub-sub plot, respectively. Higher irrigation intervals resulted in increased soil temperatures, while glycine betaine had an inhibitory effect against heat stress. The Saffron flower number significantly improved after applying 10 mM glycine betaine. Furthermore, the maximum middle- (5–10 g) and large-sized (> 10 g) daughter corms and land equivalent ratio were recorded when 10 mM glycine betaine was applied in saffron + white bean intercrop. A similar response was also recorded in N and P concentration in the middle- and large-sized daughter corms. Considering the water restriction in arid and semi-arid areas, saffron-white bean intercropping, concurrent with 10 mM glycine betaine application, can play a pivotal role in regulating soil temperature and increasing land equivalent ratio.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a flowering plant whose dried stigma is an expensive and well-known spice. The major goal in saffron cultivation is to improve flower quality and yield. The present research aimed to understand the influence of LED light quality on the growth and flowering of saffron and provide valuable guidance to explore modern techniques to promote flower and stigma yield. The growth characteristics, flowering characteristics, hormone and nutrient content, and stigma quality and value were determined at three different corm weights (20–25 g, 25–30 g, 30–35 g per corm) under six LED light qualities [white (control, CK); monochromatic blue light (B); monochromatic red light (R); red and blue light at 1:2 ratio (R1B2); red and blue light at 1:1 ratio (R1B1); red and blue light at 2:1 ratio (R2B1)]. Monochromatic red light reduced corm biomass loss, accelerated apical bud growth, enhanced flower size and number, and advanced flowering. Monochromatic red light significantly increased the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), soluble protein (SP), and zeatin riboside (ZR) levels in the mature corms compared with CK. Besides, red light demonstrated the highest hormone and nutrient content for the 30–35 g corm weight. Furthermore, monochromatic red light improved stigma yield (total dry weight), total crocin production, and the practical value ratio of saffron. The present study's observations indicate that monochromatic red light promoted saffron growth, advanced flowering, and increased stigma yield by regulating the corm phytohormones and enzyme activity. The study provides valuable guidance to explore modern techniques to promote saffron flower and stigma yield.
Herbal and plant extracts show diverse activities and have been used for centuries as
natural medicines for many health problems and diseases. Through the isolation and
analysis of the compounds in the extracts, it is possible to understand why the extracts
exhibit those activities, as well as the chemical metabolism of compounds that occur in
plants and herbs. Recently, there have been increasing attempts to develop herbal and
plant extracts into functional foods and drugs, but the legal requirements are becoming
stricter. We need sophisticatedly defined extracts through the isolation and analysis of
compounds comprising them in order to meet the legal requirements and to pursue
quality control strategies in the production of functional foods and drugs. This Special
Issue Book compiled the 15 recent research and review articles that highlight the
isolation, profiling, and analysis of compounds in herbal and plant extracts, as well as
quality control and standardized processing strategies for extracts with characteristic
compounds.
For evaluation of response of flower and corm yield of saffron to nanobiologic fertilizer application methods in comparison to cow manure and chemical fertilizer an experiment was conducted in Shadmehr region as randomized complete block design with 10 treatments with four replication during two years (2014-2015 and 1015-2016). The treatments were 1. Corm inoculation with nanobiofertilizer (Bioumik product of Biozar company), 2. Corm inoculation+use in irrigation water, 3. Corm inoculation+ foliar application 4. Corm inoculation+ foliar application+use in irrigation water, 5. In irrigation water, 6. Foliar application 7. Use of chemical fertilizer (Urea, Ammonium phosphate and Potassium sulphate) 8. Use of cow manure 9. Use of chemical fertilizer +Use of cow manure and 10. Control. Studied traits were corm dry yield, flower dry yield, stigma dry and fresh yield and flower number. Based on result from third year the highest stigma dry yield (about 14 kg/ha) and flower number were achieved in Corm inoculation+ foliar application+use in irrigation water treatment (by 176 % increase in comparison to control) and the highest corm yield was seen in corm inoculation treatment (by 41 more than control). Results showed that the best method for corm improvement was corm inoculation with nanobiofertilizer and for flower improvement it is recommend to use of Corm inoculation+ foliar application+use in irrigation water.
In order to investigate the effect of compensatory behavior of planting density, corm weight and planting depth on vegetative characteristics and yield of saffron stigma (Crocus sativus L.), a factorial split plot experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in the Khorasan Razavi Agriculture and natural resources Research and education Center (Gonabad Research Station) during the three cropping years 2018-2020. In this study, planting density treatment (four levels of 60, 90, 120 and 150 corms per square meter) was considered as the main plots and factorial of planting depth (two levels of 15±2 and 25±2 cm from the soil surface) and corm weight (two Levels 4± 1 and 8 ± 1 gr) were considered as the subplots. The results showed that density increasing caused a significant increase in yield (p <0.05) and the
other studied traits. On the based of these, increasing density from 60 to 150 corms per square meter increased the number of flowers and stigma dry weight by 174 and 192 percent in the first year, 100 and 109 percent in the second year, 128 and 129 percent in the third year, respectively. The results also showed that increasing corm weight from 4 to 8 g increased flower number and stigma dry weight by 133 and 138% in the first year, 14 and 15% in the second year respectively, but decreased by 10 and 10% in the third year. Based on the results of this study, increasing the planting depth from 15 to 25 cm reduced the stigma yield and other traits of saffron. The effect of dual and triple interactions on the studied traits was mainly significant. Overall, the results showed that the use of larger mother corms has a higher priority only in the early years and its importance decreases with increasing farm age. It seems that in a different strategy, more profit can be achieved by planting less corm weight (i.e.lower costs) and its effect compensation via a combination of less depth and especially more density (i.e. higher yield and income).
Keyword: Compensatory behavior, Leaf length, leaf number, flower number, Stigma yield
In order to investigate the effect of planting density and maternal corm weight on some
characteristics of daughter corms and agronomic characteristics of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) a field experiment was conducted at the Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Mashhad. This experiment was carried out as a factorial split plot in time based on complete block design with three replications and 12 treatments during the years 2010-2014. The experimental factors were 3 levels of density (40, 80 and160 corm in m2) and 4 levels of mother corm weight (≤3, 3-6, 6-9 and 9- 12 g per corm) as a main plot and time as a sub plot. The results showed that density, maternal corm weight and year had significant effects on daughter corm’s weight, but the effect of interaction density × corm weight and density × weight × year were not significant for the most characteristics. The mean comparison of interaction effect of density × weight for number of daughter corm showed that maternal corm weight (9-12 g) × planting density (160 m2) had the highest number for daughter corms (771 m2). Maternal corms with higher initial weight produced the highest number of corms in different corm classes. In addition, the results showed that maternal corm with lower initial weight produced heavy daughter corms compared to other maternal corm weight classes. Flower weight and stigma dry
weight of saffron (m2) were increased by increasing planting density and maternal corm weight flower number. The highest dry stigma (0.65 g.m-2) yield was produced by maternal corm (9-12 g per corm) weight class.
Keywords: Corm weight, Corm number, Daughter corm, Dry stigma weight, Flower weight.
In order to investigate the effects of vegetation covering and shading on the economic yield of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a split–plot experiment based on Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted at the Gonabad station for two cropping years (2018-2019, 2019- 2020). Experiments included main factor, density at four levels (90, 60, 120, and 150 corms per square meter) and
sub-factors of crop residue management and shading at four levels (removal of saffron residues at the end of the growing season as (control), presence of saffron residues at the end of the growing season, (control) + use of 2 (t.ha-1) barley straw and finally (control) + use of shading). Due to the nature of sub-factors, the data for the second year of growth were measured and analyzed. The results of the analysis of variance showed that density and cover management had a significant effect (p≤0.01) on the vegetative characteristics of saffron (number, length, and leaf area). However, the effect of density and the interaction effect of density × covering on vegetative traits had not significant effect. Also, the results of measured traits related to yield showed that the effect of corm density, covering management, and the interaction of corm density × type of covering on the number, flower weight, and economic stigma yield were significant (p≤0.01). The highest amount of dry stigma yield and fresh weight of flowers with values of 5.16 and 411 (kg.ha-1), respectively, achieved from the treatment of 150 corms per square meter density and use of cereal straw covering and the lowest of these traits with values of 2.2 and 200 (kg.ha-1) was obtained from the density of 60 corms per square meter and control. Stepwise regression analysis for variables related to saffron economic yield showed that the number of flowers per unit area alone could explain 90.59% of the variation in saffron economic performance. Considering the positive effect of covering application on adjusting soil temperature compared to the maximum daily air temperature (at least 7%) and the simultaneous positive effect of this method of cropping management with induction of flowering stage in saffron, it seems that the use of different types of covering, especially cereal straw, is recommended to stabilize and improve saffron yield due to its low cost and easier access to covering saffron fields.
Keywords: Flowers, Green area, Mulch, Temperature, Yield.
Isolating high quality RNA is a basic requirement while performing high throughput sequencing, microarray and various other molecular investigations. However, it has been quite challenging to isolate RNA with absolute purity from plants like Crocus sativus that are rich in secondary metabolites, polysaccharides and other interfering compounds which often irreversibly co-precipitate with the RNA. While many methods have been proposed for RNA extraction that include CTAB, TriZol, SDS based methods, they invariably yield less and poor quality RNA. In the present study we made certain changes in the available protocols including modifications in the extraction buffer and procedure viz-a-viz solutions used for precipitation of RNA. Our method led to the isolation of clear and non-dispersive total RNA with an RNA Integrity Number (RIN) greater than 7.5. The quality of the RNA was further assessed by qPCR based amplification of mature miRNAs such as Cs-MIR166c and Cs- MIR396a. In conclusion, the study describes an efficient method of RNA extraction that is highly ideal for high throughput sequencing of small RNAs.
Saffron (Crocus Sativus L.) is a cormose triploid geophyte, unknown in the wild state. It has been cultivated since ancient times for the numerous properties attributed to its stigmatic lobes. Reproduction is only possible through corm propagation, seeds being unknown.
The aim of this study is to evaluate the potential saffron flowering in relation to the corm size. The research was carried out in metallic tanks filled with expanded clay and clay soil. Corms coming from Abruzzo and Sardinia were splitted in weight and size classes and tested.
At flowering time, plants were harvested and the corm weight and size, flower number per corm, stigma weight were determined.
Results confirm a positive correlation between the numbers of flowers per corm and the corm size. The choice of corme size at planting time and the corm enlargement technique are recommended accordingly.
Total rooting and flowering capacities were not affected by planting depth. In the case of shallow planting, contractile roots, whose function is to lower the daughter corms into the ground, formed singly at the base of daughter corms. The sprouting rate was enhanced or reduced by shallow planting in the field, depending on the prevailing climatic conditions. Leaf elongation increased markedly with the planting depth. Number of sprouting buds and hence that of daughter corms decreased with the planting depth. -from Authors
Crocus sativus is a subhysteranthous species, ie it blooms in autumn shortly after planting, before, concomitantly with, or after leaf appearance. The remainder of its growing season consists of initiation, filling up, and maturation of the daughter corms at the beginning of summer. A controlled temperature regime during corm storage affects flowering and production of daughter corms. -from Authors
Research into the chemical composition of saffron, the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus, has seen a renaissance in recent years. Different HPLC protocols for the analysis of saffron constituents have been established, enabling rapid authenticity control of the spice. Saffron flavor has attracted the interest of several research groups. Among the estimated 150 volatile compounds of saffron, approximately 40–50 constituents have so far been identified. Sensory studies allowed the detection of novel key flavor compounds. For some volatiles, generation from acid-labile progenitors was shown. Most recently, a considerable number of non-volatile aroma precursors could be isolated and structurally characterized. This paper reviews the present knowledge about the chemical composition of the world's most expensive spice and gives special emphasis to recent findings on saffron aroma formation.
After the formation of the replacement corms of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) the leaves withered and the apical buds entered dormancy. This dormancy was released by high summer temperature. Optimal flower formation was obtained under controlled conditions when corms were held at 25°C longer than 55 days followed by forcing at 17°C. Since the shoot apical meristem of the replacement corms was formed long before leaf withering, it was feasible to accelerate flowering by an early harvest. Corms lifted 1 month before leaf withering, incubated for 55 days at 25°C, and then forced at 17°C, flowered by early September, 6 weeks earlier than in the open. Flowering could be further accelerated (up to 7 days) by curing the corms for 20 days at 30°C prior to 25°C storage. This high temperature incubation shortened the rest period of the buds. However, a longer exposure to 30°C was deleterious for bud growth and flower formation. A 24h incubation with ethylene (1–10ppm) had no effect on dormancy or flower formation. The flowering of corms lifted after leaf withering could be delayed until early December by extending the incubation at 25°C for 150 days. A longer incubation at 25°C resulted in flower abortion. Combining the date of corm lifting and the duration of 25°C incubation, corms could be flowered from early September to mid-December. Since a batch of corms needed an average of 13 days in a lighted greenhouse at 17°C to complete flowering, 7–8 batches of corms may be forced each growing season. At the corm density used in our experiments (457cormsm−2), 67.2g of the spice saffron per square meter was obtained. This yield was 30 times higher than the maximum yield reported under field conditions, and about 300-fold higher than the average yield in many saffron-producing regions. Furthermore, the harvest of the container-grown saffron may be easily mechanised.
IntroductionGeneral AspectsBulb ProductionTulip Bulb ForcingPhysiological and Biochemical AspectsConcluding RemarksLiterature Cited
This review examines the literature data concerning the biological activities of saffron extract. Numerous studies have revealed that this substance possesses cytotoxic, anticarcinogenic and antitumor properties. A brief description of the other biological effects as well as chemical composition of the saffron extract is also included. Finally, these findings are interpreted and the possible mechanism of the antitumor effects of saffron extract are discussed.
Stigma Croci, stigma of Crocus sativus L., is a precious traditional Chinese medicine, which is commonly used to activate blood circulation and to dissipate blood stasis. Three plant species, Carthamus tinctorius L., Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. and Hemerocallis citrina Baroni, could carry the name Stigma Croci in the commercial markets of South East Asia. However, C. sativus is the only one that has proven its effectiveness, while the others could act as adulterants. The authentic identification of C. sativus on the market is difficult. By using molecular genetic method, the spacer domains of 5S-rRNA were cloned from the genomic DNAs that were isolated from C. sativus, C. tinctorius, H. fulva and H. citrina. The cDNAs encoding the spacer domains, about 300 to 500 bp, were sequenced. The nucleotide sequences of these four species showed great diversity, which could serve as markers for authentic identification of Stigma Croci to distinguish from its substitution and counterfeit.
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