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From Linear Fuel Switching to Multiple Cooking Strategies: A Critique and Alternative to the Energy Ladder Model
Abstract
Promoting sustainable development requires evaluating the technical and policy options that will facilitate the adoption and use of energy efficient and less polluting cooking stoves and practices. The transition from traditional to modern fuels and devices has been explained by the “energy ladder” model that suggests that with increasing affluence, a progression is expected from traditional biomass fuels to more advanced and less polluting fuels. In this paper we evaluate the energy ladder model utilizing data from a four-year (1992–96) case study of a village in Mexico and from a large-scale survey from four states of Mexico. We show that an alternate “multiple fuel” model of stove and fuel management based on the observed pattern of household accumulation of energy options, rather than the simple progression depicted in the traditional energy ladder scenario, more accurately depicts cooking fuel use patterns in rural households. The “multiple fuel” model integrates four factors demonstrated to be essential in household decision making under conditions of resource scarcity or uncertainty: (a) economics of fuel and stove type and access conditions to fuels, (b) technical characteristics of cookstoves and cooking practices; (c) cultural preferences; and (d) health impacts. This model also allows better estimates of the expected fuelwood demand and indoor air pollution in rural households.
... In contrast to the energy ladder model, the energy stack model assumes that family behavior in choosing an energy source and the transition process, especially in developing countries, does not necessarily follow a unidirectional, straight-line movement from one energy source to another. This model assumes that families vary their energy portfolio and use "different fuels" regardless of changes in income levels, rather than switching completely from traditional biomass energy to modern fuels [23]. The fundamental reason households use "multiple fuels" is to save energy and benefit from the complementarities Conversely, as the adoption of modern energy sources increases, these health impacts are significantly reduced, represented by lighter shades appearing progressively in the upper half of the figure. ...
... In contrast to the energy ladder model, the energy stack model assumes that family behavior in choosing an energy source and the transition process, especially in developing countries, does not necessarily follow a unidirectional, straight-line movement from one energy source to another. This model assumes that families vary their energy portfolio and use "different fuels" regardless of changes in income levels, rather than switching completely from traditional biomass energy to modern fuels [23]. The fundamental reason households use "multiple fuels" is to save energy and benefit from the complementarities between traditional and modern fuels [24,25]. ...
... The fundamental reason households use "multiple fuels" is to save energy and benefit from the complementarities between traditional and modern fuels [24,25]. The energy stacking model views household energy transition as a protracted process resulting from the complex interplay of economic, technological, and social elements, rather than a single-income, unilateral fuel switch [23]. ...
Biomass energy is a significant yet often overlooked energy source in many developing nations, particularly in households where it is utilized in highly inefficient ways. This inefficiency stems from the direct combustion of wood, charcoal, leaves, agricultural residues, and animal dung for cooking purposes. A substantial portion of the Ethiopian population relies on traditional biomass energy, a dependence influenced by socioeconomic factors and residential location. In this study, we focus on traditional coffee vendors operating on the streets of Bahir Dar who utilize traditional biomass for coffee preparation. We aim to investigate the accessibility and health implications of traditional biomass utilization among these women coffee vendors. We employed a mixed-methods research approach with a concurrent research design to achieve our objectives. Data were analyzed quantitatively through descriptive statistics and qualitatively through thematic analysis. Both the descriptive and textual data indicate that women traditional coffee vendors (WTCVs) rely on traditional biomass energy because customers expect the ceremonies to be performed using it, as it holds significant traditional and cultural value. While traditional biomass energy is relatively accessible, the vendors’ limited income often restricts their ability to secure it consistently. Consequently, their dependence on traditional biomass, combined with poor working conditions, negatively impacts their respiratory health and heightens the risk of burns and injuries.
... Despite this theoretical framework, the existing empirical literature investigating the behavioural drivers of energy choices remains dominated by evidence from developed countries (Fischbacher et al. 2021;Kim and Nam 2021). Studies focusing on Africa are still influenced by the traditional theories of energy choice, notably the energy ladder model (Hosier and Dowd 1987) and the energy stacking model (Masera et al. 2000), centring energy choice on economic factors. Studies using the behavioural choice framework are relatively rare, with notable exceptions being the works of Adjei-Mantey and Adusah-Poku (2021) and Camara et al. (2017). ...
... Moreover, this model postulates that households switch entirely from dirty to clean energy sources as they progress from low to high economic statuses. Following the energy ladder model, Masera et al. (2000) developed the energy stacking model, which posits that, as households experience economic advancement, they tend to use a variety of energy sources of differing qualities, encompassing both clean and dirty options. ...
... Based on the energy ladder and stacking theory, the vector x includes income, education, size of household, place of residence, and employment status. Besides, we adjust to the household's habit of eating outside the home 4 (Hosier and Dowd 1987;Masera et al. 2000). We further assume that the choice of cooking energy does not directly influence the location of eating. ...
This paper explores the behavioural drivers of households’ cooking energy decision-making. We empirically examine the effect of time and spatial discounting on cooking energy choices using Generalised Structural Equation Modelling. We rely on the nationally representative household dataset from Benin’s Harmonised Survey on Living Conditions of Households in 2019. The findings highlight that households’ tendencies towards temporal discounting have detrimental effects on cleaner cooking energies, while spatial discounting promotes the adoption of cleaner cooking energy sources. Furthermore, we discern that the influence of time and spatial discounting varies across rural and urban areas, yielding heterogeneous effects. These findings have implications for a better understanding of the non-economic constraints that hinder the promotion of cleaner cooking energies in developing countries.
... As a result, they might not switch from biomass to transitional fuels like kerosene and then to more efficient fuels like gas and electricity when their condition improves. Masera et al. (2000) observe that families may prefer old fuels after using modern ones, although according to Heltberg (2004), some households may blend fuels based on price and necessity instead of switching. Similarly, Masera et al. (2000) contend that the energy ladder paradigm underestimates developing nations' energy needs. ...
... Masera et al. (2000) observe that families may prefer old fuels after using modern ones, although according to Heltberg (2004), some households may blend fuels based on price and necessity instead of switching. Similarly, Masera et al. (2000) contend that the energy ladder paradigm underestimates developing nations' energy needs. As a result, the authors proposed an energy-stacking theory, which posits that households combine multiple energy sources than a linear transition from one type to another. ...
... This theory emphasises the potential for enhanced efficiency and sustainability by using varied energy sources to meet rising global energy demands. It suggests mixed energy systems and energy portfolio elements for dwellings, disproving the energy ladder theory that households consume contemporary energy as wages rise (Masera et al. 2000;Muller and Yan 2018). Both the energy ladder hypothesis and the energy stacking theory suggest a universal fuel and energy service hierarchy based on fuel type qualities and how income affects household fuel choice (Kowsari and Zerriffi 2011;Mensah and Adu 2015). ...
Access to clean and efficient energy is acknowledged as a key prerequisite for sustainable development and as the most reliable way to achieve environmental sustainability. However, many people in sub-Saharan Africa continue to cook with solid fuels, which has a severe effect on the environment, health and living standards. The current research investigates the complex relationships between demographic factors (education, household size, and gender) and cooking fuel choice in Ghana by applying a multinomial logit model to the Ghana Living Standard Survey. While the influence of basic, secondary, and tertiary education on modern energy choice remains consistent across household sizes for male-headed households, secondary and tertiary education positively influenced transitional energy choice in male-headed households with larger household sizes compared to smaller ones. However, the results indicate that the effects of secondary and tertiary education on traditional energy choice are weaker for male-headed households with larger family sizes than smaller ones. Moreover, while age, access to radio, and electricity influenced cooking fuel choices, income and urbanisation positively influenced transitional and modern energies, with unemployed, self-employed, house ownership, forest, and savannah zones having negative effects on transitional and modern energies compared to traditional energy. The findings suggest that investigating the nuanced relationships between education, household size, gender, and energy choice may yield valuable insights for policies that increase access to clean cooking fuels.
... By facilitating access to cleaner and more efficient energy, solar adoption can enhance rural economic opportunities, promote entrepreneurship, and create a more stable living environment, thereby reducing the motivation for youth to seek better opportunities in urban areas. However, critics have pointed out that this transition is rarely linear; Masera et al. (2000) argue that cultural habits, affordability concerns, and infrastructural deficits often disrupt this progression, preventing rural households from fully adopting modern energy solutions. In the context of Taraba State, where biomass remains the dominant energy source, the potential for solar adoption to shift this trajectory warrants critical examination. ...
... The study's findings challenge the linearity suggested by the Energy Ladder model, as many rural households in Taraba, despite having access to solar energy, continued to rely on biomass for cooking. This echoes the critique by Masera et al. (2000), who argued that fuel-switching is often non-linear, shaped by cultural habits, affordability, and infrastructural limitations. Consequently, while solar adoption does enhance lighting and small business operations, its impact on comprehensive energy transition remains constrained, necessitating complementary policies that address these broader systemic barriers. ...
Rural-urban migration among youth in Taraba State of Nigeria, has increased due to limited economic opportunities and inadequate infrastructure, particularly energy access, in rural areas. This study was conducted to investigate the adoption of solar energy as a sustainable approach to curb this trend by fostering rural development and youth retention. Using a mixed-methods approach, primary data were collected from 300 rural youth and 20 key informants in three local government areas (LGAs) of Taraba State. The study found out that solar energy initiatives enhance livelihood opportunities, reduce energy poverty, and decrease migration intentions by 28%. However, it also found that barriers such as high initial costs and limited awareness persist. Therefore, the study recommends subsidized solar programs and youth-centered training to bolster rural retention.
... Higherranked fuels typically exhibit more significant efficiency, necessitating reduced labour input and generating diminished pollution per fuel unit [18]. The energy ladder posits that more costly technologies are regarded as indicators of elevated status locally and internationally [19][20][21]. It depicts wood as the fuel impoverished societies utilise and shows a significant link between consumers' income and fuel selection. ...
... Among others, Poland was obliged to provide additional on the relevant climate vulnerabilities and risks regarding achieving national ob targets, and contributions, as well as the policies and measures in the different dim of the Energy Union [92]. However, the European Commission could not verify th realisation of its recommendations six months before the final update of nationa and climate plans was due (as required by Article 9(2) of Regulation (EU) 2018/ 19 The EU initiatives have not reduced energy poverty, as the number of Eu unable to keep their homes adequately warm is growing, from 6.9 per cent in 202 per cent in 2023 [93]. According to the European Commission Energy Poverty A Hub, the inability to keep home adequately warm is not so high in Poland com other EU Member States (Figure 3) [94]. ...
In the forthcoming decades, the energy sector will confront significant transitions related to climate change, supply stability, and energy poverty. The initial two aspects have undergone thorough scientific analysis, whilst the third has received comparatively less analysis despite its significant impact on the lives of millions. Using a systematic literature review, laws and regulations and document analysis, and based on the assumption of an energy ladder, this study provides an overview of energy poverty and its implications. The research focuses on energy poverty in developed countries and answers whether the European Union’s implemented and planned actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions cause energy poverty. Based on the Polish case, the study shows that the EU’s scheduled actions aimed to stabilise climate change, although right in intention, require modification because they do not fully consider the significant economic and energy development diversity of the European Union Member States and may increase energy poverty affecting the European inhabitants. The findings show that due to the implementation of the EU Emission Trading System 2 in 2027, transport costs may increase by almost one-third, which will raise the prices of goods and services and affect energy poverty. This study develops the stream of research on energy poverty, modifies the concept of the energy ladder and shows threats resulting from the ETS2 implementation. The paper proposes the avenues of future research.
... In the urban sector, transitioning to cleaner cooking will require reducing the use of charcoal, the dominant cooking fuel, whose demand is projected to grow in the coming decades in both Malawi (Drigo, 2019) and Sub-Saharan Africa (Rose et al., 2022). Policy responses have often overlooked the stove and fuel stacking phenomenon, where households combine traditional and modern cooking technologies and fuel sources (Dickinson et al., 2019;Masera et al., 2000;Shankar et al., 2020;Van der Kroon et al., 2013). Contrary to assumptions of linear transitions from biomass (mainly firewood and charcoal) to cleaner modern fuels (electricity and LPG) under the energy ladder hypothesis (Hosier & Dowd, 1987;Van der Kroon et al., 2013), studies reveal persistent use of solid biomass fuels even among wealthier households (Choumert-Nkolo et al., 2019;Masera et al., 2000;Zulu, 2010). ...
... Policy responses have often overlooked the stove and fuel stacking phenomenon, where households combine traditional and modern cooking technologies and fuel sources (Dickinson et al., 2019;Masera et al., 2000;Shankar et al., 2020;Van der Kroon et al., 2013). Contrary to assumptions of linear transitions from biomass (mainly firewood and charcoal) to cleaner modern fuels (electricity and LPG) under the energy ladder hypothesis (Hosier & Dowd, 1987;Van der Kroon et al., 2013), studies reveal persistent use of solid biomass fuels even among wealthier households (Choumert-Nkolo et al., 2019;Masera et al., 2000;Zulu, 2010). Clean cooking initiatives have gained traction (Coley et al., 2020;Stoner et al., 2021;Tetra Tech, 2020), particularly biomass improved cookstoves (ICSs) such as the charcoal burning Kenyan Ceramic Jiko (KCJ) (Zulu & Richardson, 2013), a more efficient improvement over the traditional firewood three-stone stove and basic Metal Charcoal Stoves (MCSs) (see Fig. 1) (Quinn et al., 2018). ...
The uptake of emerging biomass gasification technology that offers ultra-efficient cookstoves remains low in Africa despite its potential to reduce exposure to household air pollution, deforestation, carbon emissions (addressing UN Sustainable Development Goal, SDGs 7, 15, 13), and accidents from burns. Using urban households survey data (N = 216) from low-medium income townships of Lilongwe, Malawi, this paper assesses the acceptability and user perceptions of the Mimi Moto (MM), a fan-propelled pellet-fed gasifier cookstove that was distributed through a targeted marketing model. Findings reveal both very high popularity (91 % of users) of the MM despite stove stacking behavior characterized by households owning 2-3 stoves. Over 77 % of the respondents used the MM as primary cookstove. The performance measures and socio-cultural acceptance of the MM were rated as "high" to "very high". Cooking timesaving emerged as the most significant benefit of the MM, alongside reduced fuel consumption and expenses. Challenges identified include high stove prices, inconsistent fuel quality, and limited access to fuel distribution and stove-maintenance services. Findings highlight the popularity of installment payment methods with 77 % of respondents favoring this option, including 39.2 % who prefer payroll deduction. The study is among the rising few that focuses on urban settings. Findings suggest that the MM cookstove can offer a cleaner stack alternative to support a realistic goal of clean cooking and energy transition (SDG 7) in urban Malawi. This will benefit from effective distribution strategies to boost gasifiers uptake. Notably, emphasizing stove-cost reduction through creative financing and subsidies to ease acquisition; ensuring high-quality pellets and sustainable supply; providing stove maintenance and repair support; and underscoring cooking time and fuel savings along with health and environmental benefits in promotional messages are key.
... Household energy decisions, particularly in developing countries, are often framed within the theories of the energy ladder and energy A. Muktarbek kyzy and F. Alfnes Energy Policy 203 (2025) 114629 stacking (Guta et al., 2022). While the energy ladder posits that households transition to cleaner energy sources as incomes rise (Hosier and Dowd, 1987), energy stacking acknowledges that households often combine multiple fuels instead of fully switching to cleaner energy sources (Masera et al., 2000;Alananga and Igangula, 2022). This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in electrified low-income households, where unreliable electricity supply and high costs often necessitate continued reliance on traditional fuels like coal and wood (Wernecke et al., 2024;Yadav et al., 2021). ...
... The switching from one fuel source to another is not done perfectly which results into multiple fuel use. This therefore means it is not possible to entirely substitute the traditional biomass entirely (Masera et al., 2000). ...
This study investigates biomass energy applications and development in Uganda. Traditional biomass dominates Uganda's energy mix with 89% of overall primary energy consumption. It seeks to assess bioenergy applications; it also analyses drivers and barriers of biomass consumption. Qualitative research procedure were handy in gathering information. It used archival and literature review of relevant documents and empirical literature. Empirical literature was triangulated from varying sources of archival information. This information was gathered in various themes. Information from documents were observed from a number of sources to establish their validity and attain a higher level of truths. Information profiled was then summarised and sequenced to derive greater meaning. The contribution of this paper therefore is to forge a safe transition from the traditional biomass to more modern bioenergy alternatives in the energy ladder. The findings indicate an in-built use of traditional biomass because of the drivers that outweigh the constraints of its use. Suggested policy measures to transition to modern biomass energy consumption are made. This study provides critical review of bioenergy application and development in the Ugandan setting. This is a landmark in informing the economic planner on the right policy direction of diversifying energy use.
... Inefficient energy use in energy-poor households has forced more members to participate in the collection of daily energy use, this results in the compression or elimination of children's learning time. This leads to decreased learning opportunities and knowledge acquisition, with school-age children, particularly girls, experiencing reduced educational time (Masera et al., 2000). Even the high opportunity cost of learning can make energy-poor families choose to take their children out of school to contribute to family production (Helmers C & Patnam M, 2011). ...
Energy poverty constrains human development and brings many negative impacts, which makes it one of the urgent global problems at present. Compared to cities, rural areas face a more severe problem of relative energy poverty, where children are the first to suffer from relative energy poverty. Thus, portraying the vulnerability of rural children to energy poverty not only helps to identify the relative state of energy poverty in rural households and provides valuable insights into sustainable rural development policies but also effectively guarantees energy security, enhances children’s well-being, and comprehensively protects children’s development as proposed by the United Nations goals. Therefore, based on summarizing China’s experience, this study innovatively constructs a framework for identifying the vulnerability of Chinese rural households to energy poverty, taking a dynamic perspective on energy poverty. It also explores the impact of vulnerability on children’s cognitive ability and the mechanism of influence. The study finds that the vulnerability of rural households to energy poverty has a significant inhibitory effect on children’s cognitive ability. Heterogeneity analysis shows that such an effect is particularly prominent among low-income households, especially in rural areas of central and western regions, and that the negative impact is greater among female children. By further exploring how the vulnerability of rural households to energy poverty affects children’s cognitive ability, it is found that years of schooling, as a mediating variable, can explain this effect. On this basis, we propose policy recommendations aimed at alleviating relative energy poverty and guaranteeing the developmental rights of rural children through macro-regulatory instruments. Based on the results of the study, appropriate countermeasures are proposed with a view to improving the level of energy use among rural children and increasing their well-being.
... Despite high income levels in many OECD countries, fossil fuels remain dominant due to their affordability, accessibility, and established infrastructure. The energy ladder theory (Hosier and Dowd, 1987) and fuel stacking model (Masera et al., 2000) suggest that rising income typically shifts economies toward cleaner energy sources, though fossil fuels remain part of the energy mix due to renewable energy's instability and high transition costs. ...
Purpose
This study examines the convergence of energy diversification, financial development and per-capita income in OECD countries.
Design/methodology/approach
The research employs the club convergence test to assess convergence among OECD countries and uses Granger causality tests and panel regressions to identify the determinants of convergence, using data from 1997 to 2021.
Findings
The convergence tests showed no overall convergence but revealed convergence clubs for each factor. Granger causality tests indicated short-run bi-directional relationships between the variables. Long-run panel regression analysis confirmed that technological progress significantly improves per capita income and energy diversification. Additionally, it revealed bi-directional relationships between energy diversification and financial development, a uni-directional relationship from financial development to per capita income and a U-shaped effect of per capita income on energy diversification, with a turning point at $67,112.8 per year.
Practical implications
The findings suggest that within each convergence club, implementing microeconomic incentives for technology development and diffusion in energy, production and financial services could help lagging countries catch up.
Originality/value
This study pioneers the testing of convergence in energy diversification, financial development and per capita income in OECD countries and identifies the determinants of this convergence.
... Discover Sustainability (2025) 6:124 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-00833-6 premature deaths, and various health issues including cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and lung cancer [3][4][5][6]. These adverse impacts have inspired global commitments to accelerate the achievement of sustainable development goals 7 and 5, focused on ensuring access to affordable clean energy and empowerment for all women respectively [7]. ...
Cooking with solid fuels has been identified to pose health and environmental risks especially to women and children who bear the primary and heaviest burden of collecting firewood and cooking. While liquefied petroleum gas is recognized as a clean energy source that could alleviate the issues associated with solid fuels, empirical research has not extensively explored how women's involvement in the labour force and their power dynamics could promote the adoption of liquefied petroleum gas. This study addresses this gap by examining female labour force participation, power dynamics, and adoption of liquefied petroleum gas in Ghana using mixed-effect logistic regression model. The findings suggest that increasing women’s participation in the labour market increases the likelihood of adoption of liquefied petroleum gas as a cooking fuel by 2.5 times. However, married women with limited decision-making power in their households are less likely to adopt liquefied petroleum gas as a cooking fuel. Policy should be geared towards empowering women by giving them employable skills through training.
... Proponents of the theory, including Hosier and Dowd (1987) and Heltberg (2004), support its assumption that income plays a pivotal role in energy choices. These scholars highlight how higher incomes and urbanization foster greater reliance on modern fuels, reducing dependence on biomass" However, critics like Masera et al. (2000), who proposed the "Energy Stacking Model, challenge the linearity of the Energy Ladder Theory. They argue that households often use multiple energy sources simultaneously instead of completely abandoning traditional fuels as they move up the energy ladder. ...
This study explored the relationship between energy poverty and economic development in Nigeria from 1990 to 2022. Energy poverty was represented by access to electricity, renewable energy consumption, renewable energy output, and electric power consumption, while economic development was measured using the Human Development Index (HDI). Using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller Unit Root Test and the Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model, the analysis ensured stationarity of variables and provided robust insights into their interactions. Data were sourced from the World Bank's World Development Indicators and the United Nations Development Programme. Empirical results revealed no long-run correlation between energy poverty and economic development, as indicated by the bounds test. Consequently, the analysis focused on short-term dynamics. The findings showed that access to electricity and renewable energy consumption positively and significantly influenced the HDI in the current period and the second-year lag, respectively. However, renewable energy output and electric power consumption, while positive, exhibited no significant impact on the HDI. The study concluded that energy poverty has a substantial impact on economic development in Nigeria, particularly in the short term. It was recommended that the Federal Ministry of Power prioritize expanding the national grid and deploying off-grid renewable energy solutions to underserved and rural areas. These initiatives would not only bridge the energy gap but also foster improvements in health, education, and living standards, thereby driving sustainable economic development in Nigeria.
... By implementing these policy recommendations, Somaliland can effectively address the challenges associated with solid fuel use, paving the way for a healthier and more sustainable future for its people. [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41] ...
This study, utilizing data from the 2020 Somaliland Demographic and Health Survey, investigates the prevalence of household solid fuel use in Somaliland and the factors associated with this practice. Our analysis reveals that a staggering 97.2% of households rely on solid fuels like wood and charcoal for cooking, with only 2.8% utilizing clean energy sources. We employed multilevel logistic regression to examine the influence of individual and community-level variables on fuel choice. Results highlight the significant roles of education level, gender of the household head, wealth status, and location of cooking in shaping fuel selection. The study, aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, emphasizes the urgency of promoting clean energy alternatives, improving cooking practices, and addressing the health and environmental impacts of solid fuel usage to foster a more sustainable energy landscape in Somaliland.
... The correlation of socioeconomic factors with the main fuel used is relatively close, however most households use several fuels in different settings. Four factors that appear to be most relevant in a household's choice of fuel type are: (a) cost of fuel, stove type and accessibility to fuels; (b) technical characteristics of stoves and cooking practices; (c) cultural preferences; and lastly, if at all, (d) the potential health impacts (Masera et al., 2000). Inefficient burning of BMF on an open fire or traditional stove generates large amounts of particulate matter as well as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxygenated organics, free radicals and chlorinated organics (Naeher et al., 2007). ...
Background: It is well known that one third poor population of world use biomass fuel for cooking and heating. It is universally accepted fact that bio-mass fuel plays a significant role as predisposing factor of tuberculosis, acute respiratory tract infections and COPD even in non-immune-suppressed (HIV sero-negative) individuals. As we all know house hold cooking is the primarily performed by women. So close association with bio mass fuel and even longer duration to it make women more vulnerable to this RTI secondary RTI infections. Aim: To study effects of biomass fuel on prevalence of RTI/tuberculosis on HIV-infected patients of Gujarat. Material & Methods:In the present study 961 HIV infected patients with RTI and 300 HIV infected patients without RTI and 300 HIV-uninfected patients with RTI were surveyed for use of bio-mass fuel or clean fuel. Result. Conclusion: It had been surveyed, statistically analysed and had been found even higher risk predisposing factor mainly for tuberculosis and other acute respiratory tract infections in immune-suppressed HIV-sero positive patients. Here biomass fuel had been evaluated as a risk factor in developing TB in HIV patients and incidences of RTI in HIV sero-positive patients had been found in our study that those who were found to have 2.3 times higher risk of contracting respiratory tract infections as compared to those who were not suffering from HIV. Even among all these RTI patients who might acquire secondary RTI infections due to bio mass fuel, 61.87 % were found to be women. When only TB is considered in this study it was found 67.44 % women were observed suffered from TB when compared with same group males. This increased infected woman to TB and COPD in turn results in preterm delivery which leads to birth of low birthweight babies if women are pregnant.
... However, this linear and somewhat rigid perspective ignores the existence of indivisibilities between different energy servicescaloric, lighting or mechanical -and specific fuels in households (Fouquet 2008). Some case studies show that energies, including those for residential use, are not perfect substitutes for each other, so that new and traditional energies often coexist in households during transition periods, depending on the different services (Masera et al 2000;Kroon et al 2013;Toole 2015). ...
This article illustrates a key episode in the energy transition from traditional to fossil energies, a pattern often observed in developing nations. It examines the sharp rise in Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) consumption for domestic use in Spain during the 1960s, with a focus on regional disparities. While the Franco regime actively promoted LPG use through the firm Butano SA, regional differences cannot be fully explained by variations in climate or industrial structures. To explore this, the study analyses LPG consumption alongside other substitute energy sources for calorific uses (firewood, coal, city gas) and complementary energy sources for lighting (electricity). The factors driving the adoption of these energy sources are then assessed. The findings highlight the complexity of Spain’s household energy transition and confirm significant disparities in energy access between rural and urban areas. A novel argument is introduced: LPG became closely associated with large Spanish cities and their metropolitan areas, where precarious housing conditions played a pivotal role in driving its widespread adoption.
... The theory suggests that households start off by using fuels at the bottom of the ladder, but as their income increases and their standards of living improves, they tend to move up the ladder, eventually preferring clean fuels at the top of the energy ladder. The second theory that explains energy choice behaviour is the fuel-stacking theory [20,23]. This theory explains that households do not necessarily move from away completely from one type of fuel and choose a different type of fuel as their living standards improve. ...
The quest towards a low carbon economy and to achieve the SDG 7 of access to a clean, affordable and modern energy for all has led to numerous studies that seek to examine the determinants of clean energy adoption. Despite the numerous studies previously conducted that have sought to explain the clean energy transition, the role that health facilities play in promoting clean energy use at the household level remains to be explored. This study investigates the effect of health care facilities on households’ energy adoption using survey data from Ghana and ordinary least squares (OLS) estimation techniques. The study further examines the different effects of different types of health facilities on clean energy adoption. The results show that the presence of a health facility in a community has positive effects on the likelihood of choosing cleaner energy sources for cooking at the household level. Furthermore, lower-level health facilities tend to have a bigger effect on clean energy adoption compared to higher level facilities such as hospitals and clinics. Robustness analyses confirm these findings. The pathways through which this relationship potentially occurs and the implications for increasing adoption of clean energy fuels are discussed.
... Second, his assumption that only one specific energy is used for a particular purpose ignores the fact that multiple energies are employed for a given purpose. However, the simple nature of the energy ladder model emphasizing income wealth and substitution as a determinant of household fuel choice has been criticized by many studies (Heltberg, 2005;Masera et al., 2000;UNDP/ESMAP, 2003) for its hypothesis that as household income increases, the household shifts from traditional fuel consumption to modern clean fuels that it can afford. In response to these limitations of the energy ladder model, the energy stacking model hypothesizes that households use a portfolio of energy sources even if they have different income levels. ...
The demand of energy in rural Cameroon has been mainly met by traditional energy sources despite the availability of health and environmentally friendly clean energy options internationally. This study empirically analyses the determinants of the rural energy transition in Cameroon. The data used in this study come from the National Institute of Statistics (INS), namely ECAM (Enquête Camerounaise auprès des ménages) 3 and 4, and we therefore first resorted to the Markov Transition Matrix in order to estimate the probabilities of transition between the different states of energy well-being, and secondly to an ordered logistic regression in order to highlight the determinants of these different transitions. The results show us firstly that there is a strong transition between the states of energy well-being (the rate of sedentarization for the period 2007-2014 is 32.97%). The positive transition rate is 55.43%, while the negative transition rate is 11.6%. We can therefore conclude that there were more positive transitions than negative transitions. Secondly, it shows that the energy transition of rural households in Cameroon is linked to the characteristics of the household, the quality of service, the status of housing, the initial situation of the household, and finally the level of household income. Based on these results, we recommended Cameroonian Government to bring electricity production and distribution points closer to rural populations through a decentralized approach, and to ensure the good quality of energy services offered by the national operator.
... In low-to middle-income countries, most households do not use only one type of cooking fuel, but often use multiple fuels, a phenomenon known as fuel stacking (Masera, Saatkamp, and Kammen 2000 ;Price, Barnard-Tallier, and Troncoso 2021). Fuel stacking can be explained by several factors, such as household preferences (e.g. ...
In a climate-constrained world, understanding the energy required to achieve universal access to modern energy is critical. This requires making assumptions on future population trajectories. Although access to modern energy can affect population dynamics, this feedback has not yet been accounted for in demographic models. Access to modern energy leads to fertility declines as it reduces child mortality, improves health, increases women’s access to information, education and employment. In this paper we present a demographic model that endogenizes the effect of increased access to modern energy on population dynamics and estimates the size of this effect on total final energy use by households for the case of Zambia. To do so, we built a microsimulation model to project future population size and composition, accounting for how fertility depends on access to modern energy and education. We used these population projections to then estimate household energy demand of the Zambian population until 2070, under different scenarios. We found that in 2070, while electricity consumption is higher in a universal access scenario compared to a baseline scenario, total energy demand is 29% lower, partly due to a strong decline in the use of inefficient traditional cooking fuels. We also found that reduced population growth due to universal energy access contributes to lowering the energy demand by 56% by 2050, compared to a more limited expansion in energy access, and this contribution increases over time. Although the challenge of achieving universal access to modern energy seems daunting, our results suggest that this could have co-benefits with achieving climate goals. Our study also reveals that accounting for the energy–population dividend in energy models will scale down the currently assumed energy needs to ensure a decent life for all.
... The switching from one electricity source to another is not done perfectly which results into multiple fuel use. This therefore means it is not possible to entirely substitute the traditional energy sources entirely to undertake the geothermal electricity as a key priority energy source (Masera et al. 2000). ...
This paper examines geothermal energy applications and development in East Africa. With a large geothermal power potential of 30,000MW, about 5% of this potential has been developed in the region. This study uses secondary data to review source documents, empirical literature and archival information, which was triangulated to obtain greater truths. The findings are that geothermal energy is mainly used for power generation and other direct uses. The outstanding barriers are mainly political, economic, socio-cultural, technological environmental and legal regulatory that should be overcome to achieve robust industrialisation among member countries. Review Article Mutumba et al.; J. Energy Res. Rev., vol. xx, no. xx, pp. xx-xx, 20YY; Article no.JENRR.127232 2 The prospects include Reliable Power generation, Diversified clean energy source, employment and direct uses. The concluding remarks include suggesting a policy shift to geothermal power as a clean energy option that is a credible source for sustainable industrialisation. There should be a renewable effort to train human resource, set up geothermal policy to fast truck power development options. This study investigates and brings forth the developments in the geothermal power development. It also highlights the drivers and barriers to geothermal development. It also brings possible policy measures to the social and economic planners in expanding the renewable energy sector.
... However, some studies suggest that the "energy ladder" concept is a theoretical myth, and the reality of household energy use is more complex (Szép et al., 2023). Masera et al. (2000) criticize the energy ladder theory because it cannot adequately describe the dynamics of household fuel consumption. Instead, they note that fuel stacking is common in developing countries' urban and rural areas. ...
Purpose: This study explores the relationship between energy use and human development, specifically focusing on Jordan's household sector. The purpose is to understand the implications for achieving the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 7 (Affordable and clean energy).
Need for the study: Given the global challenge of achieving Sustainable Development, it is crucial to investigate the dynamics between energy use and human development. Understanding the factors influencing this relationship is essential for formulating effective strategies and policies.
Methodology: This study focuses on Jordan and analyzes data from 2008 and 2017 using the theory of energy ladder and energy stacking. It examines the effects of household energy use on human well-being through socio-economic and environmental factors such as income, health, and education expenditure.
Findings: The results indicate a strong association between household energy expenditure and the human development index in Jordan. However, this relationship is likely to be indirect, with household energy use influencing welfare through its effects on income, health, and education expenditure. Improving the quality of education, increasing access to universal health services, and promoting income growth are key factors for enhancing human well-being.
Practical Implications: The findings highlight the importance of considering social, economic, and environmental factors in achieving a sustainable and equitable energy transition. Policy recommendations are formulated based on the study's insights, aiming to address the specific challenges and opportunities in Jordan and facilitate the realization of SDG7.
... Compared to men, women, and children are more prone to accidents and physical injuries incurred during firewood collection and transportation [2]. Over the years, research has extensively established that household air pollution (HAP), resulting from the prolonged use of solid fuels contributes to environmental hazards, premature deaths, and various health issues including cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and lung cancer [3,4,5,6]. These adverse impacts have inspired global commitments to accelerate the achievement of sustainable development goals 7 and 5, focused on ensuring access to affordable clean energy and empowerment for all women respectively [7]. ...
Cooking with solid fuels has been identified to pose health and environmental risks especially to women and children who bear the primary and heaviest burden of collecting firewood and cooking. While liquefied petroleum gas is recognized as a clean energy source that could alleviate the issues associated with solid fuels, empirical research has not extensively explored how women's involvement in the labour force and their power dynamics could promote the adoption of liquefied petroleum gas. This study addresses this gap by examining female labour force participation, power dynamics, and adoption of liquefied petroleum gas in Ghana using mixed-effect logistic regression model. The findings suggest that increasing women’s participation in the labour market increases the likelihood of adoption of liquefied petroleum gas as a cooking fuel by 2.5 times. However, married women with limited decision-making power in their households are less likely to adopt liquefied petroleum gas as a cooking fuel. Policy should be geared towards empowering women by giving them employable skills through training.
... Nonetheless, the contribution of biomass collection to environmental degradation cannot be ignored. Small-scale biomass gasification technology reduces the extent of deforestation attributable to biomass sources by enhancing efficiency therefore reducing demand [49]. Therefore, there is a need to design and construct many small-scale biomass gasifiers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, for electricity generation for the benefit of rural communities and can reduce pollution from unutilized biomass waste. ...
Despite being resource-richly endowed with various energy sources, and despite the connection of 89.8% of the households to the grid in South Africa, the Eastern Cape province, as compared to other provinces, has the lowest level of grid connection of about 64.5%. Some of the rural poor households in the Eastern Cape province supplement their free basic electricity with unclean energy alternatives. Using unclean energy alternatives is not only detrimental to the environment and health of the people, but it is a sign of energy poverty and among the contributing factors to depesantization, deagrarianization, and deindustrialization which prolongs the underdevelopment in rural areas. Innovation in energy technologies is a key ingredient in meaningful rural development. The utilization of small-scale biomass gasification technologies can be a solution to the South African energy crisis in rural areas, and it is in line with sustainable development goal number 7, which is about ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Alternative renewable energy sources cannot be ignored when dealing with the energy crises in South Africa. Renewable energy sources in the country include biomass, solar, wind, and hydropower. Despite its low utilization in the Eastern Cape province, small-scale biomass gasification technology remains pivotal in reducing energy crisis by producing electricity. However, the affordability of biomass gasification technology also plays a role in whether people will accept small-scale biomass gasification technology. The purpose of this paper is to determine the possibilities of using small-scale biomass gasification technology. This paper gives a comprehensive review of small-scale biomass gasification technology potential in the Eastern Cape province and the link between acceptance of small-scale gasification technology and affordability by evaluating the availability of biomass sources in the province and achievements with regards to small-scale biomass gasification. This paper also covers the impact of biomass gasification technology integration in the energy grid, what needs to be taken into consideration before its installation, its benefits and the barriers to its development in Eastern Cape province.
... Patterns and drivers of, as well as barriers to, adoption and sustained use of clean fuels with high-efficient stoves have been increasingly being investigated in field studies of developing countries (Takama et al. 2012;Mwaura et al. 2014;Ahmad and Puppim de Oliveira 2015;Ifegbesan et al. 2016;Paudel et al. 2018;Yadav et al. 2021). Those studies have found that households often practice "fuel stacking," wherein they concurrently use solid fuels and clean fuels (Masera et al. 2000;Ouedraogo 2006;Takama et al. 2012). Nonetheless, income (or wealth) is important in determining household fuel choices for residential purposes, whereas other factors, such as fuel characteristics (i.e., fuel (with stove) price (or usage cost), indoor smoke emission level, safety, etc.) and household characteristics (including family size, the characteristics of the household head, household demographic structure, access to energy supplies, and regional location), have drawn considerable attention in these studies. ...
It has been widely recognized that accelerating green residential energy transition from traditional solid fuels (biomass and coal) to clean and high-efficient energy sources is critical for rural sustainable development. However, little attention has been paid to estimate panel data discrete choice models to analyze the dynamic behavior information of individual households in the process of energy transition. Hence, this paper investigates green residential energy transition using a panel dataset from 3308 rural households in eight provinces of China in 2015 and 2018. The results show that although traditional solid biomass still plays a dominating role in rural residential energy choice, fuel switching from solid fuels to modern clean energy alternatives is taking place. Off-farm employment plays an important role in the transition towards more sustainable energy sources, as households with off-farm employed heads and higher off-farm income level are highly likely to choose superior energy alternatives other than traditional biomass. Besides, the educational level of the household head and household location are also important influencing factors of household residential energy choices. Based on these findings, this paper suggests that job creation in non-farm sectors should be given a priority in future policy design to promote rural green energy transition in residential sector. North–south differences should be taken into account, whereas more policy options for optimizing biomass energy use should be explored.
... This result indicates that the main occupation for the majority (69%) of female-headed households is farming. This is in line with the findings of (Legesse, Derese, and Tesfaye 2015;Masera, Saatkamp, and Kammen 2000) that farming remains the main occupation of households that remained as fuelwood-only users. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 3 Figure 2 showed that the majority (88%) of the female-headed households in the study area rely on fuelwood as the main source of energy for their cooking. ...
The prevalent use of inefficient traditional stoves for biomass cooking energy in Nigeria contributes to high rates of biomass consumption, deforestation, and harmful pollutant emissions. This study aimed to assess the constraints hindering the adoption of improved biomass cookstoves (IBCS) in Benue State, Nigeria. Data were randomly collected from 135 households and analyzed using descriptive (frequency, mean and percentage) as well as inferential statistics (binary probit regression). Findings revealed that 88% of households rely on fuelwood for cooking, with approximately 35% still using traditional stoves. However, 46% of households have adopted IBCS and recognized its advantages, including improved cooking speed, fuel economy, time savings in fuelwood collection, cost savings, and reduced smoke emissions. Additionally, various factors such as age, household size, access to credit, location, distance to market, membership of women's associations, fuelwood collection distance, and fuelwood sources were identified as constraints to IBCS adoption. To promote IBCS adoption, we recommend that development planners and extension officers raise awareness among households and provide them credit incentives through government and NGO support. This research significantly contributes to pertinent knowledge by shedding light on the challenges and opportunities associated with IBCS adoption in Nigeria, thereby informing policy and development initiatives in the country.
... For example, wealthier households, in addition to the use of solar panels and firewood, also make use of diesel batteries to compensate for lower energy production from SHS depending on the type of activities they need to perform, for example for cooking or using water pumps for irrigation and personal use. This practice is known as 'fuel stacking' (in which new cooking technologies and fuels are added, without abandoning the traditional systems) (Masera et al., 2000(Masera et al., : 2084Yadav et al., 2021;Mika et al., 2021). In some cases, villagers share the costs of the technology used to pump the water for personal use and irrigation, as well as the costs of the use of alternative energy technology and fuels: ...
Over the past two decades electricity access in Cambodia has increased considerably. The Electricity Authority of Cambodia has announced that the country expanded energy access from 34% in 2010 to 98% by mid-2022, but that 245 villages still lack access to the national distribution network due to their remoteness. For some of these villages, off-grid renewable energy systems have played a significant role in providing electricity access. However, connecting villages to the grid or providing them with off-grid renewable energy is not enough to overcome energy poverty and achieve people’s well-being. In this paper we apply a power-capabilities-energy justice framework to analyse social justice concerning renewable energy and energy poverty in remote communities. Based on primary data collected through interviews and focus group discussions, and using a social network analysis (SNA) we approach capabilities and energy poverty in Cambodia as a relational process and we provide for the first time a through picture of social and power relations in the Cambodian energy sector. Our study finds that communities and vulnerable groups such as female-headed households, located in remote rural areas are suffering distributional energy injustice in that they have access to a limited range of energy services to fulfil basic capabilities, such as being in good health, being educated and socially connected. We also find that distributional energy injustice is closely connected to power relations and relationality aspects of the Cambodian energy sector, as well as a lack of recognition of different vulnerabilities in energy policies.
Achieving universal transition from polluting energy to clean energy faces substantial challenges. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) can promote the energy transition by restricting the exploitation of natural resources and increasing household affordability. However, existing studies have primarily focused on the direct effects of PES on energy use, without taking the household self-selection of PES participation into consideration. In this study, we integrate the Inverse Probability Weighting (IPW) and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) methods to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of China's Grain-to-Green Program (GTGP) and Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP) on the energy transition in the Black River Basin of Shaanxi province. We found that the GTGP promoted energy transition both directly and indirectly by increasing non-farm income. In contrast, the NFCP and the characteristics of household heads had direct positive effects on the energy transition. In addition, household characteristics and geographic features also affected energy transition. These findings offer important insights for integrating environmental and energy strategies to promote the UN sustainable development goals (SDGs).
Energy consumption patterns in rural households have significant implications for socio-economic development, environmental sustainability, and public health of rural communities. Promoting clean energy transitions in line with global sustainability goals underscores the need to investigate the determinants of energy choices for cooking and lighting among rural households in Imo State. The study examined the demographic characteristics of the households in the study area; identified the sources of energy available to the rural households for cooking and lighting; ascertained the share of clean energy in the energy mix consumed by the households; ascertained the households’ knowledge of the benefits of clean energy consumption; examined the determinants of the choice of energy used by the households in Imo State; and identified the constraints to clean energy consumption by the households. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 185 rural households, and data were collected through a structured questionnaire. Data collected was analysed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. The findings reveal that 77% of households used dirty fuels for cooking, while 52% relied on dirty fuels for lighting. Critical determinants of energy consumption include income, education, and membership in social organizations. Barriers to clean energy consumption include the high cost of clean fuels, limited access to clean energy technologies, and socio-cultural factors. The study concludes that many rural households still consume dirty fuels for cooking and lighting. Promoting clean energy use in rural communities in Imo State requires targeted interventions and implementing awareness campaigns on the benefits of clean energy.
Clean cooking fuels promote health and provide more benefits in comparison to solid fuels. But, despite the availability of clean cooking fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), the shift from solid to clean fuel is unsatisfactory. This article examines the viewpoint of beneficiaries—the women of the household—through the qualitative analysis of data from focus-group discussions among those who have transitioned to LPG through the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana scheme. The article suggests that perspectives and fuel accessibility should be mobilised in a manner that would enable women to use fuel sustainably.
This paper evaluates the impact of distributing high-cost LPG stoves to urban households through subsidy and on credit in a randomized controlled trial setup on charcoal consumption, CO2 emission, and cooking time. The paper finds that the treatment group (credit and subsidy combined) reduced charcoal consumption by 28.7 percent 15 months after the intervention, corresponding to an average aversion of 3.78 MT of CO2/household/year. The two treatments are not statistically significantly different. However, a social cost-benefit analysis suggests that the benefit of the stoves is 30-fold larger than their cost under credit and 18-fold larger under subsidy, which indicates that credit is the most socially effective instrument for supporting LPG interventions. The paper also documents that LPG stoves reduced cooking time by 68.5 percent 15 months after the interventions. The findings suggest that access to micro-finance is a promising avenue for promoting energy transition and addressing the adverse effects of biomass fuel use in developing countries.
Upgrading cooking fuels in nature reserves and adjacent regions offers multiple benefits for climate change mitigation and ecosystem preservation. While many studies have analyzed the determinants of cooking energy consumption, rarely is cognition of biodiversity conservation and climate change considered in ecologically sensitive areas. Furthermore, there is limited research on cooking fuel use across households with diverse income levels and geographical locations within these regions. These gaps restrict the formulation of comprehensive, evidence-based policies aimed at balancing energy transitions with environmental sustainability. This study analyzes the adoption of several fuel types and their primary use, based on data collected from nine nature reserves and adjacent regions. A logit model is applied to examine the effect of biodiversity conservation and climate change cognition on fuel choices. The results indicate that biodiversity conservation cognition negatively influences the use of wood/straw, while positively affecting the primary use of LPG/coal gas and electricity. Moreover, households with a well-defined understanding of climate change are more likely to reduce their reliance on wood/straw and adopt electricity. These effects differ across income groups and regions, highlighting the potential of targeted educational initiatives to improve public cognition and facilitate the transition to clean cooking fuels.
While everyone is vulnerable to climate change, the impact is not equal for everyone. Climate change vulnerability is compounded by marginalisation and injustice associated with low income, gender, ethnicity, and other social and economic issues. Therefore, in order to be effective, the climate solution needs to address these issues and challenges. In this regard, women play a crucial role both in energy supply and consumption. Yet, their role in building climate resilience in communities is hardly acknowledged. Thus, to address climate change issues, it is imperative to involve women in the energy transition process. Despite its limitations, clean energy can greatly empower women as their involvement in economic activities becomes much more accessible. In developing countries where gender inequality remains high, clean energy is required to empower women and to respect the country’s commitment towards the global environment through less-carbon-intensive energy systems. Given the above, the primary objective of this article is to mainstream the gender dimension of climate vulnerability and energy transition using various theoretical perspectives.
This chapter gives an overview of how the issues addressed within the gender and energy nexus have evolved since the end of the Second World War in 1945. It describes how the focus of policymakers in the energy sector has expanded from a supply-side issue of improving energy supply to include a demand-side perspective which looks at households. Initial energy for cooking and women in the rural Global South was the key problem. However, research reveals that there are more energy issues related to households and the key role men play in decisions related to energy services. While the Global North’s interest in the gender and energy nexus took longer to emerge, with employment of women in the energy sector being the main focus, this chapter identifies areas of overlap with the Global South opening up the prospect for cross learning.
Household energy consumption significantly contributes to carbon emissions and climate change. In biodiversity
hotspots, where energy transition is crucial for both climate action and biodiversity protection, understanding
the determinants of clean energy adoption is essential. To bridge this gap, this study integrates psychological
factors and proposes a theoretical framework to identify the determinants of clean energy consumption by
employing partial least squares structural equation modelling. Using survey data collected from residential
households in a biodiversity hotspot, this study reveals that both climate change cognition and biodiversity
conservation awareness can facilitate clean energy consumption for cooking, space and water heating through
different pathways. These findings contribute to theoretical advancements by extending the existing models of
environmental cognition. This study offers new insights into how climate change cognition and biodiversity
conservation awareness jointly affect energy use. Combined with household habits and behaviours regarding
energy utilisation across different income levels, this study suggests that a smooth transition to clean cooking
may be accompanied by a long energy-mix phase, thus necessitating tailored policy packages. Concurrently, the
emphasis on clean heating could focus on promoting clean-energy-powered heating appliances to facilitate a
rapid shift. Achieving predominant adoption of clean fuel will undoubtedly benefit human health, biodiversity
conservation, and climate governance.
Household consumption of coal and other dirty heating fuels greatly contributes to outdoor and indoor air pollution. However, the transition from dirty to modern energy sources in countries where a sizable proportion of the population is energy-poor could be challenging. To investigate energy choices of the energy-poor population, we conducted a survey in the Fergana Valley in Central Asia, including eastern Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyz Republic, and northern Tajikistan. Half of the households use coal for heating, and 66 % are energy poor in our sample. We find that energy-poor households are associated with a higher likelihood of dirty fuel use and a lower likelihood of willingness to switch to cleaner fuels, highlighting the difficulties in energy transition for energy-poor households. Additionally, households' awareness of environmental and health harms from dirty fuels does not relate to either fuel choice or their willingness to switch to cleaner fuels. However, those who prioritize environmental and health impacts in their fuel choice are related to a higher likelihood of using and/or planning to switch to cleaner fuels. These results imply that, while the literature emphasizes the importance of education in raising awareness about the negative impacts of dirty fuels, increasing environmental and health awareness alone is insufficient. Policymakers should help households prioritize environmental and health concerns while ensuring energy supply continuity and easing the financial burden of the transition to clean energy. Overall, we provide unique evidence on the roles of environmental and health awareness and prioritization in the fuel choice of energy-poor households.
Energy poverty related to a reliance on traditional biomass for cooking has a strong association with environmental degradation, gender inequity and human health. Reduction of energy poverty is a growing concern in public policy agenda globally. In India, the last decade has seen concerted efforts to provide clean cooking fuel to the population. Despite this, wide regional disparities in energy poverty exist in India, indicating differential regional impacts of policies. A shift to universal access to clean modern cooking fuel requires the redesign of policies, with insights from a decentralized understanding of actual drivers of household cooking energy choices across diverse regions. The paper attempts to explain household cooking fuel choices under multiple fuel use (fuel stacking) scenarios in two states of India, differentiated by their socio-economic status and development trajectories. The paper employs multinomial logistic (MNL) regression on household level data from the Indian Human Development Survey 2015 to identify factors determining fuel choices. Urbanization, per capita income, the educational attainment of the household head and women in the household, having a separate kitchen for cooking and not living in one’s own house were observed to be positively influencing a switch to clean cooking energy in both the states. The results of the study indicate that shifting out of energy poverty and achieving the goal of universal clean cooking energy would require combining ongoing welfare policies with policies on provisioning clean cooking energy in India.
Deforestation is a national and international concern. In Nicaragua the feasibility of attacking this problem was studied at one of its roots, the demand for and consumption of firewood, through a massive fuel switch towards kerosene.A locally-based foundation distributed 700 high-quality Chinese kerosene stoves, using a credit scheme, both in a village and in a suburb of the capital. Surveys of family fuel consumption for meal preparation were carried out before the intervention and again, one year later, after the intervention.The population's acceptance of the stoves was very high. Proof of this is evident in such factors as (1) the high percentage of delivery of the stoves to 93% and 73%, respectively, of the population that uses firewood or charcoal; (2) the highly enthusiastic reactions elicited from the people during visits by the Foundation's workers; (3) the high usage rate of the stoves (80%); and (4) the overall decrease of 50% in the use of firewood for the involved area.This article is centered around the extent of coverage, social acceptance and community behavior, and the local capacity to perform this fuel switch, while themes related to energy efficiency, energy policy, the greenhouse effect and financial implications are incorporated to indicate the national and international impact of this strategy.Offering an alternative source of fuel to the population is a feasible, cheap and highly appreciated solution to deforestation. Projects using these methods could potentially lower firewood consumption at the national level by 50%. Local organizations are capable of implementing this strategy on a wide scale. The economically less favored classes of the population can be reached without any major constraints, leading at the same time to important positive effects on health. The cost per tonne of carbon emission avoided through this strategy is calculated at US$ 1.7, which is far below standards used in joint implementation programs. A worldwide strategy could lower the present surplus balance of CO2 emission by 13%, maintaining at the same time the natural capacity of CO2 absorption. In this scenario, the world consumption of petroleum products will increase by 0.8%.
Abstract The energy problems of the developing world are both serious and widespread. Lack of access to sufficient and sustainable supplies of energy affects as much as 90% of the population of many developing countries. Some 2 billion people are without electricity; a similar number remain dependent on fuels such as animal dung, crop residues, wood, and charcoal to cook their daily meals. Without efficient, clean energy, people are undermined in their efforts to engage effectively in productive activities or to improve their quality of life. Developing countries are facing two crucial-and related-problems in the energy sector. The first is the widespread inefficient production and use of traditional energy sources, such as fuelwood and agricultural residues, which pose economic, environmental, and health threats. The second is the highly uneven distribution and use of modern energy sources, such as electricity, petroleum products, and liquefied or compressed natural gas, which pose important issues of economics, equity, and quality of life. To address these problems, this paper evaluates some successful programs and recommends that governments support market-oriented approaches that make the energy market equally accessible and attractive to local investors, communities, and consumers. Such approaches ideally improve access to energy for rural and poor people by revising energy pricing and by making the first costs of the transition to modern and more sustainable uses of energy more affordable.
Ninety-one per cent of Mexican rural households and 11% of urban households cook with fuel wood. Fuel wood represents 50% of total residential energy use in the country. This paper presents the results of a detailed study of the patterns of household fuel wood use and inter-fuel substitution in three villages of rural Mexico. All residents in the three villages cook with fuel wood, and between 20 and 43% of them also use LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) for this task, depending on the village. Average household fuel wood demand ranges between 53 and 60 GJ/yr for fuel wood only users and from 40 to 57 GJ/yr for mixed fuel wood-LPG users, depending on the village. Cooking practices are described together with their energy use. Kitchen performance tests and controlled cooking tests (CCT) were applied in two villages to measure savings in household fuel wood use from partially switching to LPG. The analysis shows that energy and fuel wood savings are much lower than those that may be expected on a purely technical basis. In fact, fuel wood is very seldom replaced entirely, even in households that have been using LPG for many years. Rather than switching, households follow a multiple fuel strategy which gives them the advantages of both fuels. There is a strong pattern of fuel preferences by type of dish and cooking task. Fuel wood is seen as a fuel with advantages that go beyond price and include cultural considerations. Lorena-type improved woodburning cookstoves might prove particularly useful for multiple fuel users as they show savings of up to 50% for tortilla-making compared with the traditional stoves in CCT.
The majority of people in the world today rely on traditional biofuels - wood, dung, crop residues - for most of their energy. Conversion techniques are being developed to convert simple solid biomass into high-quality solid, liquid and gaseous fuels needed to accomplish the more demanding and varied tasks of a developed economy. Changes in end-use will be needed, both to improve the now fairly low efficiencies and to reduce the surprisingly large air pollution exposures accompanying traditional biofuel usage. These transitions also imply social changes of a type similar to those that accompanied the agricultural revolution. Thus, the energy transition facing most of today's world population is the same it has always faced, the Biofuel Transition. Today, however, to the extent dictated by changing technology and economics, this transition will be to modern forms of biofuels.
The ‘‘energy ladder’ ’ relating improvements in socioeconomic status with transitions to more sophisticated stoves and to higher quality, less polluting fuels is often invoked as a theoretical model for analyzing household energy management practices. We report here on an integrated study of the energy, health and economic implications of fuel switching in the small village of Jarácuaro, Michoacán State, México, that challenges and extends the traditional energy ladder model. We monitored fuel and stove use, economic status, exposure to respirable suspended particulates (RSP) and trace gases (CO, CO2, NOx, SO2), and morbidity during both wet and dry seasons for a sample of 141 persons living in 21 homes. The families surveyed utilized simple ‘‘three stone’ ’ fires, traditional enclosed or improved stoves, and gas ranges or a combination of these technologies. In Jarácuaro, people who cook regularly are twice as likely as non-cooks to exhibit acute respiratory infection (ARI), (relative risk = 2.0, 95 % CI = 1.3- 2.7). The use of improved stoves correlates with reductions in indoor concentrations of RSPs and CO, and decreases in reported cases of ARI, eye infections, and intestinal disorders. These changes are consistent with the technology component of the energy ladder, relating improvements in stove and fuel type to emissions and then to respiratory ailments. This suggests an associated ‘‘health ladder’ ’ for families adopting improved stoves
We first review the literature on rural household energy consumption. China's household energy consumption is studied, based on a large household-energy survey. The consumption of fuels is determined by income, resource availability, household size, and coal prices. The feasibility of substituting biomass for commercial energy is examined.
Suspended particulate matter and carbon emissions from the combustion of biomass, in addition to their environmental consequences, have been causally associated with the incidence of respiratory and eye infections. Improved stoves offer the potential for emissions reduction. We compare the emissions of suspended particulate matter and carbon monoxide from traditional and improved biofuel stoves in Kenya under the actual conditions of household use. Data for analysis is from 137 14-h days of continuous real-time emission concentration monitoring in a total of 38 households. Our analysis shows that improved (ceramic) wood-burning stoves reduce daily average suspended particulate matter concentration by 48% (1822 μg/m3; 95% C.I. 663−2982) during the active burning period and by 77% (1034 μg/m3; 95% C.I. 466−1346) during the smouldering phase. Ceramic stoves also reduce the median and the 75th and 95th percentiles of daily emission concentration during the burning period and the 95th percentile during the smouldering phase, and therefore shift the overall emission profile downward. Improved charcoal-burning stoves also offer reductions in indoor air pollution compared to the traditional metal stove, but these are not statistically significant. The greatest reduction in emission concentration is achieved as a result of transition from wood to charcoal where mean emission concentrations drop by 87% (3035 μg/m3; 95% C.I. 2356−3500) during the burning period and by 92% (1121 μg/m3; 95% C.I. 626−1216) when smouldering as well as large reductions in the median and 75th and 95th percentiles. These results indicate that transition to charcoal, followed by the use of improved wood stoves, are viable options for reduction of human exposure to indoor air pollution in many developing nations.
This paper explores the use of fuelwood in Third World cities. The importance of fuelwood and the factors which condition its use in cities are set out and three fuelwood problems are identified: the cost to urban consumers, fuel supply security and the impact of urban fuelwood markets on rural areas. Urban fuelwood interventions are evaluated, with four categories identified: interventions in marketing, conservation, increased, wood production and fuel-switching. Of these, fuel-switching by improved supply systems and increased production from smallholders and better management of natural woodlands appear to have the greatest potential. The need for flexibility/community participation in planning is stressed.
An empirical study of energy carriers used for cooking in Bangalore reveals that with increases in income, firewood and charcoal give way to kerosene which in turn is displaced by LPG and electricity. This carrier substitution process can be modeled as an income-dependent competition between two technologies for adoption by the households. The carrier shifts for cooking have provided an empirical basis for the energy ladder concept, in which each step of the ladder corresponds to a different energy carrier and its associated appliance and the step up to which a household climbs the ladder depends upon its income. As society becomes more egalitarian, an energy ladder based on incomes should disappear. Thus, the real merit of the empirical and theoretical analysis of energy ladders presented here is that it serves as an excellent guide to policy formulation and intervention.
Household fuel switching from lower to higher quality fuels, i.e. movement up the “energy ladder,” generally leads to substantially lower emissions of health-damaging pollutants. The extent to which human exposures are reduced is difficult to predict, however, because of interactions due to penetration of outdoor pollutants into homes and vice versa. In order to help answer the question of how much exposures might be reduced by movement up the energy ladder, a three-city household air pollution study covering particulates (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) was conducted in and near households spanning the most important current steps in each city's energy ladder. Steps examined were biomass-kerosene-gas in Pune, India; coal-gas in Beijing, China; and charcoal-gas in Bangkok, Thailand. In most instances, 24-hour sampling was conducted and some personal monitoring was undertaken during cooking periods. Preliminary calculations of the exposure and health implications of fuel switching are presented.
Incluye bibliografía El autor analiza la situación mexicana y propone rescatar las herencias culturales, -y los grupos culturales marginados- para construir una nueva conciencia y proyecto nacional.
Ceramic folk art workers are at risk for developing lead intoxication. These workers live in small settlements, which often lack sanitation services, and these individuals work with ceramics in their homes. The study population comprised individuals of all ages from three rural communities in central Michoacan (Tzintzuntzan, Tzintzunzita, and Colonia Lazaro Cardenas). A survey questionnaire, which was provided to each individual, included questions about household characteristics, presence of a clay oven in the home, and use of lead oxide ("greta") and other hazardous products. Venous blood samples were obtained from the workers. We found lead exposure to be reduced if the home floor was covered and if the house had been painted < or =1 y prior to study. Blood lead levels exceeded the maximum level permitted, but the levels were lower than those found in the 1970s, during which time study techniques for analyzing samples differed from those used in the present study. In addition, activity patterns of the populations differed during the two studies.
The paper considers the substitution of traditional biomass fuels by modern energy sources in the household sector of developing countries. It demonstrates that this process is strongly dependent on urban size and, within cities, on household income, since the main constraints on the transition are poor access to modern fuels and the high cost of appliances for using them. Relative fuel prices appear to be of lesser importance. The paper concludes with a review of the reasons why policymakers might wish to influence the pace of the transition and the measures which, from case history experience, have proved to be effective or to be expensive failures.
Collateral impacts of LULUCF projects, especially those concerning social and environmental aspects, have been recognised as important by the Marrakech Accords. The same applies to the necessity of assessing and, if possible, of quantifying the magnitude of these impacts. This article aims to define, clarify and structure the relevant social, economic and environmental issues to be addressed and to give examples of indicators that ought to be included in the planning, design, implementation, monitoring, and ex post evaluation of LULUCF projects. This is being done by providing a conceptual framework for the assessment of the sustainability of such projects that can be used as a checklist when dealing with concrete projects, and that in principle is applicable to both Annex I and non-Annex I countries. Finally, a set of recommendations is provided to further develop and promote the proposed framework.
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