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Water and sanitation in Ghana
Abstract
Ghana faces serious constraints to meeting the challenge of providing adequate water and sanitation for its rural and urban inhabitants. This study examined water and sanitation in Ghana and looked at the performance of water and sanitation sector in the urban and rural areas. Data collated from water and sanitation agencies in the urban and rural sector were collected on the current state of the two sectors in achieving the Millennium Development Goals. The performance of urban water supply by Ghana Water Company Limited is poor with a disputed coverage of about 60%. About 50% of the Company’s water production is still lost through un-accounted-for water. Rural water supply has coverage of 53% comprising of boreholes, hand-dug wells, and small-piped systems. Sanitation problems in Ghana have been tackled structurally, only recently. Financial constraint have been identified as a key factor hindering our chances of achieving the Millennium Development Goals coupled with the lack of proper databases on water and sanitation.
... The assumption is that children 84 whose parents are within the upper wealth quin-85 tile and also resident in urban areas will have bet- tionÕ. Some studies [11,12] The major environmental conditions that heighten 105 the incidence of diarrhoea in the country are lar-106 gely influenced by access to quality and quantity 107 of water and sanitation [13]. The performance 108 of the urban water supply by the Ghana Water ...
... Company Limited is about average (60%) [13]. ...
... About 50% of the CompanyÕs water production is 111 still lost through unaccounted-for water, and the 112 total coverage of rural water is around 53%, which 113 is largely comprised of boreholes, hand-dug wells 114 and small-piped systems [13]. Presently, the pop-115 ulation with improved access to sanitation is 13%. ...
This study examines the impact that the joint effect of household wealth quintile and urban–rural residence has on the incidence of diarrhoea among Ghanaian children. Data for this paper were drawn from the Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) of 2006. Descriptive and logistic regression was applied to analyse data on 3466 children. Rural residents are less likely, albeit insignificant, to report diarrhoea compared with those in urban areas. Significant wealth gradients are manifested in childhood experiences of diarrhoea. However, an interaction of wealth with residence does not show significant disparities. Controlling for other important covariates of childhood, the odds of diarrhoea incidence were significantly higher among: the rural poorer (OR = 4.869; 95% CI = 0.792, 29.94), the rural middle (OR = 7.477; 95% CI = 1.300, 42.99), the rural richer (OR = 6.162; 95% CI = 0.932, 40.74) and the rural richest (OR = 6.152; 95% CI = 0.458, 82.54). Apart from residential status and wealth quintile, female children (OR = 0.441; 95% CI = 0.304, 0.640), older children (OR = 0.968; 95% CI = 0.943, 0.993), having a mother with secondary and higher education (OR = 0.313; 95% CI) had lesser odds of experiencing diarrhoea. The findings show that there is a need to apportion interventions intended to improve child health outcomes even beyond residential status and household wealth position.
... Despite recent policy initiatives, rural Ghanaians are among Africa's most water insecure groups (Sun et al., 2010, Awuah et al., 2009); they are more likely than urban Ghanaians to have their water sources off-premises. Among marginalised rural populations, PWDs are recognised as being one of the most vulnerable groups in terms of drinking water insecurity (Howard et al., 2020) in Ghana. ...
... While water collection has been documented as being one of the reasons that water quality is often compromised (Awuah et al., 2009), water collection's labour-intensive nature also has negative health implications. There has been ample evidence on the health implications of water collection in both developed and developing countries (Geere et al., 2018;Hanrahan and Mercer, 2019). ...
Because it is a life-giving substance and one of the crucial components of good health and human survival, access to potable water has been recognised globally as a human rights issue. The current development paradigm also endorses inclusivity in development interventions, calling on leaders of countries to leave no one behind. In most developing countries, however, there seems to be a dilemma as to whether governments can achieve the 'all-inclusive agenda'. Among the most marginalised people are those with disabilities; in terms of access to potable water, this group is likely to face some of the greatest inequalities. Using a qualitative approach that
employs in-depth interviews with members of three rural communities in Ghana, this study assesses the water security experiences of persons with disabilities (PWDs). The study identifies barriers such as social exclusion, stigma, distance and water costs, all of which make it difficult for PWDs to collect a sufficient quantity of potable water. Considering the need to achieve universal access to clean water globally, understanding access barriers is essential for rural water management policy decisions. We conclude that in order to enhance access to potable water by PWDs, it is imperative that their needs are assessed, that members of this group are included in rural water management decision-making, and that they are involved in the day-to-day management of drinking water facilities.
... A study by Awuah et al. (2009) revealed that only 25% of households connected to GWCL have a 24-hour access to piped water supply, 30% have an average 12-hour water service a day for five days a week, 35% have access to piped water only two days a week, with 10% living mainly in poor areas and at the urban fringes completely without access to piped water. ...
... The inadequate and unreliable water supply have made water rationing a daily experience of urban residents. In Accra, for example, it is estimated that only 25% of households connected to GWCL have a 24-hour access to piped water supply, 30% have an average 12-hour supply a day for five days a week, 35% have access for only two days a week, with 10% completely without access to piped water (Awuah et al., 2009). These inequities in public supply have impelled urban residents to resort to alternative sources vendors, boreholes and neighbor/private sourcesto meet their water needs. ...
... Intermittent supply and water rationing have become a commonplace and regular occurrence in urban Ghana. In Accra, for example, it is estimated that only 25% of urban households have a 24-hour access to piped water supply, 30% have an average 12-hour water service a day for five days a week, 35% have access to piped water only two days a week, with 10% completely without access to piped water (Awuah, Nyarko & Owusu, 2010). Similar findings were reported by Gaisie (2012) in Kumasi where about 72.1% of urban residents with access to piped water receive supply only three days a week. ...
... For Ghanaian cities, concern persists about inequity and unreliable utility-based supplies and uncoordinated and poor quality of alternative water supplies that have become widespread across Ghana's urban landscape (Amankwaa et al, 2014;Braimah & Adom-Asamoah, 2011). The evolving socio-economic and politico urban structure -high income and low income groupings, peri-urban and inner city residents -and the current urban population growth further complicate the aforementioned challenges because they directly affect urban management system, in relation to the capacity of water service providers to meet urban demand and ensure equity in distribution (Awuah et al., 2010). ...
With recent and expected record-breaking urban population growth in developing countries, African cities ought to undertake or revisit sustainable planning efforts necessary for managing population growth and dealing with rapid urbanization. This chapter examines how African cities are responding and adapting to rapid population growth in the area of water supply using Ghana as a case study. From a macro perspective, the chapter looks at the nature and extent of population growth and water supply in Africa, with a focus on Ghana. At the micro level, an analysis of the water supply chain in Ghanaian cities, focusing on distribution, equity and accessibility is presented. The chapter further presents a discussion on the way forward regarding urban water supply in Ghana in particular and Africa in general. The chapter concludes with key findings and directions for further research, in relation to population growth and urban water supply.
... Over the years, FS collection and transport in Ghana was done by the waste management departments of the districts, alongside the private operators and state-related institutions [47]. However, the allocation of resources for sanitation management by the government has been very meagre [48]. The lack of funds to manage and maintain the state-owned FSM logistics and infrastructure is a major reason why the sector has been dominated by private operators in Accra [17]. ...
... Within the Accra Metropolis, the Okai-Koi North sub-metropolitan district contributed the highest (10.92%) of the discharge events. Although the Tema township is completely connected through sewers [48,59], only 40% of the excreta generated in the Tema Metropolis enters the sewer lines which terminate at aerated lagoons [13]. The FS from OSS in the municipality accounted for 0.11% (2 m 3 /day) of is discharged daily at the Lavender Hill FTP. ...
This study employed GIS tools to help optimise faecal sludge (FS) management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) and its environs in Ghana. First, the rates of excreta generation, FS generation and FS collection were quantified based on literature, census and FS discharge data obtained from treatment plants in the study area. Next, we mapped the FS collection to the administrative areas in GAMA based on discharge records obtained from Lavender Hill, the main faecal treatment (FTP) and estimated the travel distance and travel time from the various FS desludging neighbourhoods to the plant. The results of the study show that the excreta and FS generation rates in GAMA are 604 L/cap/yr and 4,137 L/cap/yr, respectively. About 1 million m 3 of FS was collected and treated in the study area in 2018, with a collection rate of 244 L/cap/yr. The private sector dominates this collection, haulage and treatment of FS in GAMA. The GIS analysis has provided fundamental data that will be useful in rationalising the FS emptying and transport cost in the study area. Moreover, it revealed that about 20-40% of the localities were outside the 15-25 km sustainable maximum transport distance recommended by some scholars. Finally, the findings highlight the importance of looking beyond administrative boundaries when planning for FS management logistics and infrastructure and also show that the most impoverished communities in the Accra metropolis may not necessarily be the least served when it comes to FS collection and haulage.
... In rural Ghana, over 95% of improved water supplies intended for domestic purposes are groundwater supplies, primarily communal BHs (Awuah et al., 2009;Marks et al., 2014). Unfortunately, high levels of minerals and metals in groundwater may preclude extensive exploitation of some of these water sources (Awuah et al., 2009;Rached et al., 1996;Siabi, 2003). ...
... In rural Ghana, over 95% of improved water supplies intended for domestic purposes are groundwater supplies, primarily communal BHs (Awuah et al., 2009;Marks et al., 2014). Unfortunately, high levels of minerals and metals in groundwater may preclude extensive exploitation of some of these water sources (Awuah et al., 2009;Rached et al., 1996;Siabi, 2003). In the Eastern Region, drilling records indicate that 20-30% of rural BHs have iron and manganese concentrations well in excess of the WHO water quality (WQ) guidelines (0.3 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L, respectively) (Siabi, 2003;WHO, 2011), causing them to be abandoned or marginally used Siabi, 2004). ...
Rural Ghanaian communities continue using microbiologically contaminated surface water sources due in part to undesirable organoleptic characteristics of groundwater from boreholes. Our objective was to identify thresholds of physical and chemical parameters associated with consumer complaints related to groundwater. Water samples from 94 boreholes in the dry season and 68 boreholes in the rainy season were analyzed for 18 parameters. Interviews of consumers were conducted at each borehole regarding five commonly expressed water quality problems (salty taste, presence of particles, unfavorable scent, oily sheen formation on the water surface, and staining of starchy foods during cooking). Threshold levels of water quality parameters predictive of complaints were determined using the Youden index maximizing the sum of sensitivity and specificity. The probability of complaints at various parameter concentrations was estimated using logistic regression. Exceedances of WHO guidelines were detected for pH, turbidity, chloride, iron, and manganese. Concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) above 172 mg/L were associated with salty taste complaints. Although the WHO guideline is 1000 mg/L, even at half the guideline, the likelihood of salty taste complaint was 75%. Iron concentrations above 0.11, 0.14 and 0.43 mg/L (WHO guideline value 0.3 mg/L) were associated with complaints of unfavorable scent, oily sheen, and food staining, respectively. Iron and TDS concentrations exhibited strong spatial clustering associated with specific geological formations. Improved groundwater sources in rural African communities that technically meet WHO water quality guidelines may be underutilized in preference of unimproved sources for drinking and domestic uses, compromising human health and sustainability of improved water infrastructure.
... In rural Ghana, reliance on groundwater is high, with over 95% of improved water supplies intended for domestic purposes being extracted from this source (Awuah et al., 2010). However, high levels of minerals and metals preclude extensive exploitation of groundwater resources in some areas, including the Eastern Region (Rached et al., 1996;Awuah et al., 2010;CWSA, 2016). ...
... In rural Ghana, reliance on groundwater is high, with over 95% of improved water supplies intended for domestic purposes being extracted from this source (Awuah et al., 2010). However, high levels of minerals and metals preclude extensive exploitation of groundwater resources in some areas, including the Eastern Region (Rached et al., 1996;Awuah et al., 2010;CWSA, 2016). There is some evidence that boreholes affected by water quality problems such as high concentrations of iron and manganese are either abandoned entirely or used in a limited capacity for purposes other than cooking, drinking, and laundry, which results in wasted investment in the infrastructure (CWSA, 2016;Siabi, 2004). ...
... Intermittent supply and water rationing have become a commonplace and regular occurrence in urban Ghana. In Accra, for example, it is estimated that only 25% of urban households have a 24-hour access to piped water supply, 30% have an average 12-hour water service a day for five days a week, 35% have access to piped water only two days a week, with 10% completely without access to piped water (Awuah, Nyarko & Owusu, 2010). Similar findings were reported by Gaisie (2012) in Kumasi where about 72.1% of urban residents with access to piped water receive supply only three days a week. ...
... For Ghanaian cities, concern persists about inequity and unreliable utility-based supplies and uncoordinated and poor quality of alternative water supplies that have become widespread across Ghana's urban landscape (Amankwaa et al, 2014;Braimah & Adom-Asamoah, 2011). The evolving socio-economic and politico urban structure -high income and low income groupings, peri-urban and inner city residents -and the current urban population growth further complicate the aforementioned challenges because they directly affect urban management system, in relation to the capacity of water service providers to meet urban demand and ensure equity in distribution (Awuah et al., 2010). ...
With recent and expected record-breaking urban population growth in developing countries, African cities ought to undertake or revisit sustainable planning efforts necessary for managing population growth and dealing with rapid urbanization. This chapter examines how African cities are responding and adapting to rapid population growth in the area of water supply using Ghana as a case study. From a macro perspective, the chapter looks at the nature and extent of population growth and water supply in Africa, with a focus on Ghana. At the micro level, an analysis of the water supply chain in Ghanaian cities, focusing on distribution, equity and accessibility is presented. The chapter further presents a discussion on the way forward regarding urban water supply in Ghana in particular and Africa in general. The chapter concludes with key findings and directions for further research, in relation to population growth and urban water supply.
... The performance of urban water supply in Ghana is poor with an estimated coverage of about 60%. Rural water supply in Ghana has coverage of 53% comprising boreholes, hand-dug wells, and small-piped systems (Nyarko et al., 2008). ...
... The Accra-Tema systems of Kpong and the Weija system make up 60% of total production (Adombire, 2007). The urban water coverage is about 60% with 50% of its total production lost through un-accounted-for water (Nyarko et al., 2008). In Ghana, the main water supply technologies adopted for the urban water supply systems include 1 conventional water supply system 2 packaged systems The four biggest urban water systems situated within both the Greater Accra and Ashanti regions are considered for this research because quarterly reports submitted by the operator show that 70% of the company's revenue is generated from these systems. ...
Water is conveyed to consumers through systems that generally rely heavily on energy. The dependence on energy is a major challenge to utility providers because of frequent variation in energy prices. This paper assesses the effect of energy price changes on the financial sustainability of water facilities. It further investigates the proportion of energy cost to total costs of water supply. The study is based on a field survey that targeted five small town water systems and fifteen water systems existing under the urban water sector in the Greater Accra and Ashanti regions of Ghana. The results show that energy (diesel and electricity) expenditure forms a substantial component of water supply cost. The proportions of energy to total supply costs for small town and urban water systems are 31% and 29%, respectively. The total operational costs per water supply stands at 1.19 US/m3 for small town and urban water systems, respectively. The energy costs per water supply for small town and urban water systems are 0.40 US/m3, respectively. Results further show that diesel-driven water systems are more sensitive to energy price changes than those of electricity-driven systems; therefore, making financial profit from diesel-driven systems is highly elastic to diesel price changes. The results thus indicate that urban water systems are more efficient than small town water systems in terms of both energy and operational costs.
... Water and energy have been the concerns of many and this study trumpeted the claim. Awuah et. al (2009) revealed that 60% of the population does not have potable water (the women's population is larger, and about 70% do not have access to household latrines, which require that water to be present always (Crawford, 2008). Providing water to the people in an electoral area typically falls under the authority of local government administrati ...
Women's participation in local politics and community engagement is crucial in ensuring a fair representation in local government administration. Studies have acknowledged the low representation of women, but there is limited research on the roles of the elected few in local government. The study recognises the efforts of assemblywomen’s mentorship to empower other women in the local governance system in Ghana. It investigates assemblywomen’s administrative responsibilities that involve other women in community engagement. This strategy politically empowered them and enhanced inclusive governance in five regions of Ghana: Eastern, Central, Bono, Greater Accra, and Western Regions. The study employed a qualitative research approach, used the exploratory design, and sampled 30 assemblywomen for face-to-face interviews on their lived experiences. Four key informants were also interviewed. Other key informants were 6 assemblymen who engaged in focused group discussions. This study is underpinned by substantive representation theory, where elected assemblywomen engaged other women and responded to the needs of the communities. The findings revealed that assemblywomen’s responsibilities and community engagement empowered other women to address their needs. The study recommends the encouragement of assemblywomen to mentor other women to participate in local politics to improve inclusive governance.
... Ghana's water resources are categorized into groundwater and surface water, with significant systems including the Volta, Southwestern, and Coastal River systems, highlighting the country's diverse water sources [26,27]. The Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) oversees water and sanitation development in Ghana's rural areas, where, as of 2018, 43.94% of the population resides with a 72% rural water coverage, despite a decrease in surface water use from 15% to 11% [28,29]. Challenges such as poor maintenance, faulty hardware, and inadequate service compromise water service quality, often leading to reliance on distant communities for water, adversely affecting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) implementation efforts [5,18,30,31]. ...
Access to reliable water supply is critical for sustainable development and public health, yet many peri-urban and rural communities in the developing world face challenges such as poor maintenance, faulty infrastructure, and inadequate governance of water services, hindering the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In Emina-Boadi, a small town in Kumasi, Ghana, residents increasingly rely on boreholes due to substandard service from the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). This shift highlights concerns about water reliability, quality, and affordability, impacting public health and hindering progress toward SDG 6. This case study assesses water service levels using key performance indicators (KPIs) such as quantity, quality, affordability, accessibility, and reliability, focusing on sources like boreholes, hand pumps, piped water, hand-dug wells, rainwater, and surface waters. The study aims to delineate the roles of different water providers, understand community dynamics, and evaluate contributions to rural development and SDG 6 through stakeholder interviews and questionnaires. By leveraging the WASHCost framework, which aims to improve planning methods and the provision of water and sanitation services by addressing the lack of cost information in rural and peri-urban areas, and the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) framework, which monitors progress toward global targets related to water, sanitation, and hygiene, the study categorizes indicators and draws connections among them. The findings reveal a significant preference for borehole services, with 87% usage and an 83% reliability rate compared to 13% for GWCL. Daily water consumption averages 60.75 L per person, with on-premises access improving water collection efficiency to 7 min. Dissatisfaction with GWCL services highlights the need for improved delivery aligned with community needs and SDG targets. Adopting sustainable management practices, enhancing infrastructure, and improving governance are crucial for ensuring safe and affordable water access for all residents of Emina-Boadi and similar communities.
... "we look for motorbikes to transport … by the time we get there the customers have left … you will not be able to sell your produce at any substantial price" (4,CI,F) Moreover, despite national decentralization aiming to reduce rural/urban inequalities, rural locations do not always access similar benefits (Owusu, 2005;Awuah et al., 2009). For example, lower public investment into healthcare within remote areas can feedback to lower household productivity and increase domestic care burdens (Hallegatte et al., 2018); potentially contributing towards expenditure poverty (Model 1). ...
Introduction
Despite a growing interest in the measurement and conceptualization of wellbeing, the integration within sustainability research, and the understanding of how different wellbeing outcomes relate, is limited. Many studies focus on singular, often objectively measured, outcomes, without acknowledging the breadth of available measures. This approach can result in crucial subjective information, which can be explored to understand actors’ behaviors and responses, being omitted from research and policy. This study explores objective and subjective wellbeing outcomes, and how they relate, within an environmentally vulnerable context. Wellbeing and environmental services are intrinsically interlinked, therefore, appropriate policy solutions are required to address human needs and pressures on supporting ecosystems.
Methods
This paper uses binary logistic regression modelling, and qualitative participatory rural appraisal methods, to understand the environmental conditions, including climatic hazards and landscape characteristics, associated with households experiencing different objective/subjective wellbeing outcomes within Volta Delta, Ghana.
Results
The mixed method approach highlights a differing relationship between inland agricultural areas impacted by drought and erosion, and coastal/riverine, peri-urban landscapes exposed to flooding and salinization. Agricultural areas associate with “poor but happy” outcomes, whereas peri-urban landscapes associate with being “non-poor but unhappy.” Drawing on existing literature, and both quantitative and qualitative results, these varying outcomes are hypothesized to be driven by differences in livelihood vulnerability, relative comparisons to others, responses to climatic hazards, and individualistic/collective wellbeing conceptualizations.
Discussion
Our study concludes that environmental conditions influence objective and subjective wellbeing through different mechanisms. Sustainable development research should incorporate both objective and subjective measures when implementing and monitoring policy to more comprehensibly capture, and improve, wellbeing in environmentally vulnerable locations.
... Ranganathan et al. (2009) submit that decentralised water and sanitation services are adopted in Indian cities to fill the gap in these essential services. Decentralisation leads to improved water and sanitation services in Ghana (Laryea-Adjei and van Dijk, 2012; Awuah et al., 2009). Faguet and Sánchez (2014) note that decentralisation in Colombia improves access of the poor to water and sanitation services under public health facilities. ...
Decentralisation promises efficiency gains and improved access to public goods and services, especially at the local level. Under a decentralised governance arrangement, regional and environmental peculiarities are considered prominently in delivering public goods and services. Given the impact of the environment in influencing sanitation and water services, particularly water provision, this study examines the effect of decentralisation, as measured by revenue share and expenditure share, on access to improved sanitation facilities and drinkable water. Exploiting the variation in the access to sanitation facilities and drinking water using the Hausman-Taylor estimator, this study suggests a positive impact of decentralisation on the access to sanitation and drinkable water.
... The History of Weija Weija water works started water production and distribution in 1928 with a total production of 400,000 gallons per day [18]. It has two branches, the plant treatment and the distribution /customer relation center.The treatment center is situated 100m above sea level. ...
... This raises serious questions about why people should spend more time and long distances to access unimproved water sources. Though this study focuses on a single metric on water security (accessibility), the findings point to the broader milieu of water security evidenced in the country such as poor water quality and inadequacy (Addo, Amankwaa, and Gyasi 2019;Amankwaa and Ampratwum 2020;Awuah, Nyarko, and Owusu 2009;Peloso and Morinville 2014). For instance, relatively recent data shows that close to 80% of households have E. coli in their drinking water (GSS 2019). ...
Time poverty remains a critical issue for water access across the globe. However, research on the time spent for water collection and the factors associated with collection time inequalities and access heterogeneities is limited, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Drawing on the 2014 Ghana’s Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data, and statistical and spatial analysis, we apply the concept of “everydayness” of water collection time poverty to examine the factors associated with water collection time inequalities and access heterogeneities of drinking water sources in Ghana. Our analysis shows that 8.6% of households face drinking water collection time poverty and this is prevalent and significant across different socio-economic groups and geographies. The observed geographical heterogeneity and collection time inequality in drinking water sources in this paper adds to the literature in terms of variation in household water insecurity across time and space. The water policy implications of these findings are discussed, and we highlight strategies to rethink drinking water security in the Global South.
... There have been various reports on how the artisanal mining sector (popularly known as 'galamsey') activities have led to the destruction of livelihoods and the ecological profile of the country. Recent efforts by the Ghana Water Company Limited to increase their water tariffs were based on the high cost of water treatment because of the pollution of the water bodies (Awuah et al., 2009;Eduful et al., 2020). It is not only the water bodies that are polluted, the country is also robbed of other natural resources, including those that risk being extinct like rosewood (Kansanga et al., 2021). ...
The study examines the drivers of the green economy generally and with a focus on sectors regarded as environmental-sensitive hotspots like waste, agriculture, forestry, energy, and transport sectors. The study was grounded on both the natural resource-based view and institutional theories. Creswell's (2014) thematic analysis and the graphic framework of Miles and Huberman (1984, 1994) were used to address the respective objectives of the study. A total of 10 interviewees were selected purposively based on their expertise and the institutions in question who provided responses that were analysed. The results show that the three generic drivers of the green economy include pollution prevention revealed by the impact of climate change, and environmental degradation cost, environmental stewardship portrayed by inefficient resource utilization and global demand for change, as well as, sustainable development manifesting from a futuristic drive, a focus on people-planet-profit, and rejection of environmentally unfriendly development models. The findings further reveal the differences and interrelatedness of the drivers of the green economy within the 5 hotspot sectors under investigation. The results of the study reveal that there are different and sector-specific strategies that policymakers and practitioners have to apply in their quest to drive a green economy at the central government, local government and grassroots levels. The study proposes the development of a comprehensive national green economy policy and also the promotion of peer-to-peer knowledge transfer networks structured as Communities of Practice. This study is one of the few that explores the concept of the green economy within the macroeconomic level and is novel in attaching theoretical lenses.
... The finding that multi-morbidity and underweight led to a significant relationship between housing and long-term care needs increase our understanding of how the relationship may be health-related. This finding further implies that older adults living in poor sanitary conditions have a high need for long-term care as it harbours rapid transmission of diseases [34]. Evidence in Ghana shows that an appreciable number of older adults go to the toilet in the bush or fields, and some using open defecation around river bodies or bagged it in polythene during the day and throw it around the vicinity during the night [14,35]. ...
The present study examined the association between housing conditions and long-term care needs of older adults in Ghana. We used data from 4,920 adults aged ≥50 years that participated in the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) Study on adult health and AGEing Ghana Wave 1. Housing conditions were assessed with drinking water, sanitation, cooking conditions and building materials, and long-term care needs were based on WHO Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0. Multivariable logistic regressions modelled the effect of housing conditions on long-term care needs. After full adjustment for all available potential confounders, older adults living in households with unimproved cooking conditions had higher odds of reporting long-term care needs (OR = 6.87, 95%CI: 5.04–9.37) compared to those in improved cooking condition households. Moreover, those in households with unimproved housing materials (OR = 1.27, 95%CI: 1.01–1.72) and those in unimproved sanitation households (OR = 1.26, 95%CI: 1.05–1.54) were more likely to experience long-term care needs after respectively controlling for demographic and health-related covariates. Poor housing conditions are risk factors of long-term care needs in Ghana. Efforts to improve housing conditions may benefit older age functional abilities and unmet long-term care needs.
... Human wastes, specifically feces, can produce about 0.35-0.5 m 3 /kg of biogas. In Ghana and Africa, most human feces management systems are done through on-site sanitation methods [6]. Fecal matter in septic tanks requires severe treatment before it is released into the environment [7]. ...
The choice of feedstock for biogas production should not only be limited to organic waste like agricultural products, food, and animal waste. Human feces could also be considered a source of biogas production. The ever-increasing cost of fossil fuels and environmental pollution threats are forcing the search for alternative energy sources. Several types of research have to unlock the mysteries behind the difficulties of producing biogas from human feces, especially the production of more HN3, which is a greenhouse gas because of its low C:N ratio. This research experimentally investigated how to reduce their amount using rice straw with a high C:N ratio. Several combinations were made between the human waste and the rice straw at different ratios during the experiment. The result shows that the optimal outcome for methane production fell on the 50% HF and 50% RS combination due to the actions of both aerobic and anaerobic processes.
... Groundwater constitutes about 95% of potable water sources for Ghana's rural communities (Awuah et al., 2009). The district assemblies and rural communities have bylaws that govern rural water management, including protecting water sources. ...
This paper examines the capacity gaps in decentralized rural water management in Ghana across five dimensions: institutional, financial, human resource, technical and social. Using household and informant interviews and focus group discussions, qualitative data from the selected rural communities and water management agencies show that while institutional capacity forms the backbone of effective rural water supply and management, financial capacity is required to implement and sustain the other forms of local capacity. To achieve sustainable rural water services, the study recommends a shift in management approaches that ensures a progressive transfer of water management responsibilities to beneficiary rural communities.
... The government of Ghana has provided about 6645 boreholes, 7474 waterpoints and 367 pipe systems in our rural areas from 2001 to 2006. Even though the programme led to a supply of water that was less than the demand expected, they continued to prevent the present water crises to some extent (Awuah et al. 2009). The Relief International, Winrock International and ADRA International are implementing the Ghana WASH Project and in collaboration with other USAID strategic partners (Rotary International and the Coca Cola Company) that have existing Global Development Alliances (GDA) with USAID, WaterHealth International (WHI), Safe Water Network (SWN) and other Ghanaian partners. ...
Understanding vulnerability to climate change (CC) is necessary to inform policy makers about appropriate strategies for mitigating and adapting to CC impact. However, research suggests that Ghana is more prone to the impact of CC, affecting vulnerable sectors and might not be able to achieve sustainable development goal (SDG) 11: sustainable cities and communities by 2030. This study synthesises scholarly literature and aims to examine the vulnerability to climate change, mitigation and adaptation practices focusing on agriculture, water and sanitation, forestry, and cities and infrastructure to proffer solutions to enhancing the sustainability of social–ecological systems in Ghana. The study has found that climate-sensitive sectors in Ghana remain vulnerable to climate change with limited adaptive capacity, for example, limited access to technologies and poor knowledge about CC in the agricultural sector; poor quality of water and sanitation services and infrastructural development; illegal logging and a lack of forest conservation practices; and poor maintenance of green and socio-economic infrastructure in the urban and rural areas. Further, the study highlights considerable variation by sectors, particularly with regard to agricultural sector. The study indicates that communicating mitigation and adaptation raises public awareness of the opportunity and threats brought about climate change. The study concludes by calling for the formulation and implementation of National Climate Change Communication Strategy (NCCCS) to govern the communication of climate adaptation plans in Ghana. Specific recommendations for the climate-sensitive sectors are presented in this study.
... 12 Clay minerals have anion exchange capacity, and therefore large amounts of anions such as fluorides can be retained on the clay surfaces under neutral pH conditions. 17 In addition, ceramic filters can remove up to 99.97% of E. coli bacteria in drinking water. 18 However, the filters quickly lose their contaminant removal capacity as they get clogged by foulants which reduce their life span. ...
While effective defluoridation methods have been developed, most of them are expensive and difficult to apply at a household level. One safe, low‐cost, decentralized water treatment method which is attracting research attention is the use of ceramic filters (CFs). Few studies have explored the use of biochar composites in CFs for defluoridation of water, with the bulk of them being based on batch and column experiments. The aim of this work was to develop, and evaluate a laboratory‐scale, low‐cost CF using clay, sawdust, and iron oxide‐biochar (FBC) for fluoride removal in synthetic and real water samples. Three CFs were fabricated with varying FBC content (0%, 5%, and 10%). Water absorption, apparent porosity, and flow rate decreased with decreasing FBC content, while the impact strength increased with decreasing FBC content. The CFs reduced the fluoride concentration of both the ground water, and synthetic water to below the WHO recommended limit (1.5 mg/L). While further studies are required to optimize the CF, the results demonstrate that a CF decorated with FBC composites is effective for defluoridation of drinking water.
... Fry et al. (2010), for instance, identified fatigue, musculoskeletal damage, soft tissue damage and early bone degeneration are some of the negative health implications associated with water collection. Other studies report on water contaminations that occur due to water movement even when the water is collected from improved sources (Awuah et al., 2009;Bain et al., 2012). Wright et al. (2004), for instance, show that the bacteriological quality of drinking water significantly declines after collection at the source, especially in the case of potable water sources. ...
This study explores the experiences of poor households who have been ‘left behind’ in their access to safe drinking water in Ghana. Using a cross-sectional survey of seven communities in the Offinso-North District, we identify physical and economic barriers that make it difficult for households to collect sufficient water for use. Efforts to leave no one behind in water access and use should target these barriers.
... This category includes bare soil, rock and all land areas that do not fall into any of the other five categories. Water [27] Natural rivers and lakes as unmanaged sub-divisions of wetland. ...
Forest are essential to promote the environmental and economic wellbeing of many rural communities. However, in many African countries, rapid deforestation is leading to environmental degradation and loss of income from forestry products. Between 1990 and 2000, Ghana lost an average of 135,000 hectares of forest per year and it is estimated that the annual deforestation rate for the country is 2%. On the other hand, women who are the key actors in Ghana's agriculture, constituting over half the agricultural labour force and producing 70% of the country's food stock. However, the contributions that women make is constrained by a range of interrelated cultural, social, economic and institutional aspects which limits their access to and control over forest resources. In this study, an assessment of the policies and strategies that have been implemented in Ghana to simultaneously achieve SDG 5 (promote gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels) and SDG 15 (promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, decrease deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation) were undertaken. The methodology for the study included site visits, consultations with OXFAM-Ghana, review of academic literature, project reports and policy briefs. The results indicated that even though many women have highly specialized knowledge of trees and forests (biological diversity, sustainable management and use for various purposes, and conservation practices) the majority of forestry legislation in Ghana (National Land Policy of 1999, the Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II), the National Action Plan on drought and desertification) do not enforce gender as an integral component. It was therefore concluded that Ghana can improve the livelihoods of women and improve the governance of its forests by enacting policies that mainstream the provision of extension services to women and mainstreaming gender dimensions in agriculture development and climate change management strategies.
... As reported in 2017, there were more than 2 billion people worldwide lacking accesses to safe and clean drinking water [2]. In the Philippines, there are about more than 8 million Filipinos with no access to safe drinking water [3]. Recognizing these challenges, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals shall ensure, among others, the availability of the clean water and sanitation to all by 2030 [4]. ...
Open dumpsites such as Payatas dumpsite situated in Quezon City, Philippines could pose environmental and health risk. This is in addition to the fact that Payatas dumpsite is located at the edge of the hydrologic divide between the Novaliches Reservoir and Marikina River System. A series of groundwater samplings were conducted in eighteen water well sites peripheral to both the old and new dumpsites of Payatas. Physico-chemical analyses were performed and results were compared to Philippines’ National Standards for Drinking Water and to Environmental Water Quality Guidelines. The levels of heavy metals with the exception of lead (Pb) from residential wells were found to be generally below the Philippines’ Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Department Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2016-08 threshold guideline levels and below tolerable values for drinking water standard set by the Philippines’ Department of Health (DOH). The low heavy metal contents on adjacent residential wells maybe attributed to probable nondispersionl in a halo-like pattern of the leachate from its source. Characterization of leachate samples indicated unusually high metals content and transport of the leachate through groundwater flow have been detected on nearby springs and well. Further, an unusually high Pb background (> 0.01 mg/L) relative to groundwater quality standard was inferred from the series of samples collected from residential wells around Payatas dumpsite. The very linear correlation between Zn and Pb contents in these water samples imply its inherent presence in groundwater. Experimentally calculated groundwater quality indices showed the groundwater samples collected from residential wells around Payatas dumpsite were unsuitable for human consumption. Based on the assessment findings, implications for policy and decision-making suggestions for sustainable management of Philippines’ groundwater resources are put forward.
... Study area and data. Directly or indirectly, Ghana continues to undertake development projects to increase access to good water and sanitation; some improvements have been achieved over the last few years 19 . However, diarrhea remains amongst the top 5 out-patient morbidities. ...
In 2012, nearly 644,000 people died from diarrhea in sub-Saharan Africa. This is a significant obstacle towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal 3 of ensuring a healthy life and promoting the wellbeing at all ages. To enhance evidence-based site-specific intervention and mitigation strategies, especially in resource-poor countries, we focused on developing differential time trend models for diarrhea. We modeled the logarithm of the unknown risk for each district as a linear function of time with spatially varying effects. We induced correlation between the random intercepts and slopes either by linear functions or bivariate conditional autoregressive (BiCAR) priors. In comparison, models which included correlation between the varying intercepts and slopes outperformed those without. The convolution model with the BiCAR correlation prior was more competitive than the others. The inclusion of correlation between the intercepts and slopes provided an epidemiological value regarding the response of diarrhea infection dynamics to environmental factors in the past and present. We found diarrhea risk to increase by 23% yearly, a rate far exceeding Ghana’s population growth rate of 2.3%. The varying time trends widely varied and clustered, with the majority of districts with at least 80% chance of their rates exceeding the previous years. These findings can be useful for active site-specific evidence-based planning and interventions for diarrhea.
... Financial constraints and inadequate data on water and sanitation are key challenges to achieving the MDG on water and sanitation in Ghana (Awuah et al., 2009). According to the 2011 Country Status report, financial assistance from Ghana's developing partners has been consistently high for investment in water over the years. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to assess the impact of infrastructure development on Ghana’s economic growth.
Design/methodology/approach
Using data obtained from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators, the United States’ (US) International Energy Statistics and the Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA) Factbooks from 1980 to 2016, an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) framework is used to determine the long- and short-run impact of the selected infrastructure stock and quality indices on Ghana’s economic growth.
Findings
Findings indicate a statistically significant relationship between infrastructure development and economic growth. Additionally, electricity-generating capacity is identified as the infrastructure stock index that has the greatest positive impact on Ghana’s economic growth. The study reveals that electricity-distribution loss has a significant negative effect over both long- and short-run periods.
Research limitations/implications
Commercial petroleum export from Ghana since 2010 has been a key contributor to economic growth. Although its aggregate effect is included in the annual GDP figures adopted for the study, the authors would have wished to assess its impact on GDP as an independent standard growth determinant. However, because of a lack of available data over this study period, petroleum exports could not be adopted as an independent standard growth determinant. Additionally, an aggregated index of infrastructure stock and quality could not be derived because of the small size of data available. Hence, this study did not assess its impact on Ghana’s economic growth.
Practical implications
The research provides pragmatic guidance to policymakers to focus their efforts on expanding electricity-generating capacity while simultaneously taking steps to curb electricity transmission and distribution losses. These two related actions offer the greatest positive impact on infrastructure development and, as a consequence, Ghana’s economic growth.
Originality/value
This paper represents the first attempt to empirically study the relationship between infrastructure development and Ghana’s economic growth. A key contribution to the existing body of knowledge includes strong evidence of a positive effect of infrastructure development upon Ghana’s economic growth. Results also reveal that the greatest positive impact on economic growth is derived from electricity-generation capacity. However, the study also uncovers a negative, but statistically significant, relationship between road and economic growth.
... This is associated with increased rural-urban migration, lack of or inadequate safe water supply, and sanitation, all of which plausibly combine to increase the risk of intestinal parasites. Although some improvements of water and sanitation have been made [30], the coverage is still only 60% [31]. Therefore, it is conceivable to expect that the risk of intestinal parasites infection increases with increasing proportions of inhabitants with unsafe water, unsafe toilets, and unsafe liquid waste disposal. ...
Understanding the spatially varying effects of demographic factors on the spatio-temporal variation of intestinal parasites infections is important for public health intervention and monitoring. This paper presents a hierarchical Bayesian spatially varying coefficient model to evaluate the effects demographic factors on intestinal parasites morbidities in Ghana. The modeling relied on morbidity data collected by the District Health Information Management Systems. We developed Poisson and Poisson-gamma spatially varying coefficient models. We used the demographic factors, unsafe drinking water, unsafe toilet, and unsafe liquid waste disposal as model covariates. The models were fitted using the integrated nested Laplace approximations (INLA). The overall risk of intestinal parasites infection was estimated to be 10.9 per 100 people with a wide spatial variation in the district-specific posterior risk estimates. Substantial spatial variation of increasing multiplicative effects of unsafe drinking water, unsafe toilet, and unsafe liquid waste disposal occurs on the variation of intestinal parasites risk. The structured residual spatial variation widely dominates the unstructured component, suggesting that the unaccounted-for risk factors are spatially continuous in nature. The study concludes that both the spatial distribution of the posterior risk and the associated exceedance probability maps are essential for monitoring and control of intestinal parasites.
... This is associated with increased rural-urban migration, lack of or inadequate safe water supply and sanitation, all of which plausibly combine to increase the risk of intestinal parasites. Although some improvements of water and sanitation have been made [30], the coverage is still just about 60% [31]. Therefore, it is conceivable to expect that the risk of intestinal parasites infection increases with increasing proportions of inhabitants with unsafe water, unsafe toilets, and unsafe liquid waste disposal. ...
Understanding the spatially varying effects of demographic factors on the spatio-temporal variation of intestinal parasites infections is important for public health intervention and monitoring. This paper presents a hierarchical Bayesian spatially varying coefficient model to evaluate the effects demographic factors on intestinal parasites morbidities in Ghana. The modeling relied on morbidity data collected by the District Health Information Management Systems. We developed Poisson and Poisson-gamma spatially varying coefficient Models. We used the demographic factors, unsafe drinking water, unsafe toilet and unsafe liquid waste disposal as model covariates. The models were fitted using the Integrated Nested Laplace Approximations (INLA). The overall risk of intestinal parasites infection was estimated to be 10.9 per 100 people with a wide spatial variation in the district-specific posterior risk estimates. Substantial spatial variation of increasing multiplicative effects of unsafe drinking water, unsafe toilet and unsafe liquid waste disposal occurs on the variation of intestinal parasites risk. The structured residual spatial variation widely dominates the unstructured component, suggesting that the unaccounted-for risk factors are spatially continuous in nature. The study concludes that both the spatial distribution of the posterior risk and the associated exceedance probability maps are essential for monitoring and control of intestinal parasites.
... However, performance indicators show that the urban water utility; Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) is in dire straits. The company loses about half of water produced through non-revenue water; collects at best three-quarters of its revenue; and recovers about two-thirds of its total costs (Public Utilities Regulatory Commission, 2008;Boakye & Nyieku, 2010;Awuah et al., 2010;The World Bank, 2010). This is in spite of the significant water tariff hikes over the years, in a bid to rake in more revenue towards achieving full cost recovery (Water and Sanitation Program, 2011). ...
Ghana achieved its Millennium Development Goal (MDG) water target about a decade before the 2015 deadline. However, as the world shifts focus to achieving sustainable universal water coverage, there is the need for redoubled efforts to keep up this feat. This paper examines the success drivers and the major transformative shifts required to sustain efforts in Ghana’s water sector. The findings indicate that the successes chalked in Ghana’s water sector have been largely fuelled by strong donor support and a well organised institutional and policy framework. About 90% of funding for the sector has been contributed by donors and creditors while actual government expenditure remains below 0.5% of GDP. The country has a strong policy and institutional framework guiding developments in the water sector. Nevertheless, the dwindling donor support, poor cost recovery mechanisms in the sector, ineffective strategies for ensuring human right to water, unbridled pollution of freshwater resources, poor borehole construction, and poor environmental sanitation across the country threaten to unwind the progress made in the sector. Without a paradigm shift, these could potentially derail efforts at achieving and sustaining universal water coverage. The paper discusses how these issues can be addressed to ensure universal access to potable water in the country.
... While access has rapidly improved for urban areas, rural and informal settlements continue to struggle. Dependence on unsafe water sources is thus higher in rural areas where most people use groundwater sources such as small ponds and unprotected wells (Atipoka 2009;Awuah et al. 2009). Inter-regional disparities in water access are also prevalent in Ghana. ...
Lack of access to potable water and good sanitation is still one of the most challenging public health concerns of the twenty-first century despite steady progress over recent decades. Almost a billion people globally lack access to safe water; over two billion live without adequate sanitation facilities. The challenge is even more daunting for Sub-Saharan Africa where coverage levels for both potable water and sanitation remain critically low. The urgent need to address the issue calls for adequate understanding of the socio-economic dimensions. Using the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, we investigated the socio-economic and demographic factors associated with access to potable water and improved sanitation facilities. Our generalized linear models reveal that income, education, household size, and region are significant predictors of improved water and sanitation access. Our discussion and conclusion sections highlight the implications of the study results for water policy formulation and implementation in Ghana, and broadly for other developing countries.
This qualitative study explores how cultural meanings of water involving customs, myths, and taboos contribute to source water protection in rural Ghana-an area that needs to be explored more in sustainability literature in Ghana. Using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions in three communities, we identify myths, customs, taboos, and other cultural practices for protecting water sources. We found that cultural practices in rural communities in Ghana are paramount in protecting water sources and should be recognized as part of efforts toward Sustainable Development Goal 6-clean water and sanitation.
High impact learning practices (HIPs) are practices that promote deep learning through student engagement. They focus on the knowledge, attitudes, and skills college students need to succeed academically and professionally and afford students the opportunity to participate in activities beyond the classroom, resulting in learning and personal development. HIPs take various forms and include study abroad, signature experience, first-year seminars, and learning communities. As part of its HIPs, the Georgia State University (GSU) School of Public Health (SPH) offers students the opportunity to study abroad every summer under the auspices of faculty. However, in the summer of 2021, all GSU SPH study abroad programs, including my program, Field Study of Contemporary and Emerging Public Health Issues in Ghana: A Focus on Water and Sanitation, HIV, and Women's Health Program, were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Owing to student continued interest, it was imperative to devise a creative method to ensure that students received a comparable experience despite the pandemic. This paper documents the transitioning of a three-week program to a virtual synchronous format to give students the opportunity to work with and learn from in-country partners in Accra, Ghana. The activities, challenges, and lessons learned from transitioning the program are also shared. Overall, students and in-country partners completed three comparative field studies that explored issues related to water and sanitation, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and women's reproductive health in Ghana. Students and partners identified and reflected on areas of similarities and differences between Ghana and the United States on the public health issues they focused on in the field.
Over the years, groundwater has been used as a means of adaptation to the seasonal and perennial scarcity of surface water. Groundwater provides water for households, livestock, and irrigation in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. It is acknowledged that groundwater is susceptible to chemical and other mineral contamination which not only poses a threat to the health of human beings and livestock but also agriculture. However, the potential of groundwater in terms of its viability and quality has not received adequate scrutiny from scholars. This paper provides a review of water quality and highlights the geogenic contamination of groundwater resources in Tanzania. The literature reviewed focused on the water resource sector in the major drainage basins in Tanzania, the information about drinking water quality with respect to geogenic contamination were sought. This paper has established that fluoride is the main and well-known groundwater contaminant. This is attributed to the existence of fluoride-rich minerals such as fluorite (CaF2), fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F), cryolite (Na3AlF6), sellaite (MgF2), villiaumite (NaF), and topaz ((Al2(SiO4)F2), bastnaesite ((Ca, La, Nd)CO3F), and their ash deposits peeling from the granite and alkaline volcanic rocks, dominant in the region. The presence of fluoride in water sources in the north-east of the Tanzannia, a part of the EAGRV contributes to serious health effects on humans such as dental, skeletal, and crippling fluorosis. Arsenic is also noted as a serious drinking water geogenic pollutant in the north-west parts of Tanzania. Oxidation of arsenopyrite minerals is hypothesized to be responsible for the dissolution and release of arsenic into groundwater. This paper concludes that information on geochemistry/hydro-geochemistry of fluoride and arsenic in the aquifers is far inadequate and recommends that more Research and Development (R&D) efforts from scholars, researchers, and government institutions should be invested in further investigations and solutions. The focus should be community sensitization on the danger of using contaminated water, water purification technologies should also be developed and availed to the public at affordable terms.
This research explains what and how contextual wealth factors condition the influence of individual wealth factors on environmental attitudes in developing countries compared to developed ones. This work considers aspects of two types of attitudes, ecocentrism and anthropocentrism. The first type deems environmental protection important because nature is intrinsically valuable, while the second considers nature valuable for its utilitarian function to humans. Given that the physical proximity of human residence to environmental issues is one aspect that determines the type of attitude, and that certain national contexts are more likely to be plagued with immediate environmental problems (e.g., poor sewage and sanitation quality), individual attitudes of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism will prevail differently according to the individual’s national context. Explicitly, I argue that individual wealth positively predicts ecocentrist attitudes, and that this effect is stronger among developed-country residents, relative to residents in developing countries. On the other hand, individual wealth has a negative effect on anthropocentrist attitudes; thus, this effect is expected to be stronger among developing-country residents, relative to developed-country residents. To examine these theoretical expectations, this study uses survey data, in over thirty countries, from the World Value survey 2005-2009. The empirical analyses use standard and multilevel logistic regression modelling to assess the theoretical arguments just mentioned.<br/
This paper presents an overview of Ghana's sanitation situation post-Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It specifically examines why the MDG target on sanitation was missed, Ghana's preparedness towards achieving the SDGs sanitation target, potential barriers and opportunities for the sanitation sector. The review was guided by the policy analysis framework developed by Collins (2005). The findings indicate that the low sanitation has largely been driven by rather complex economics, institutional and sociocultural factors including inadequate financial commitment, poor implementation of policies, bad attitude and perception towards sanitation and extensive use of shared and public toilets. Nevertheless, it was found that recent reforms and programmes in the sanitation sector such as the creation of new Sanitation and Water Resource Ministry, National Sanitation Authority (NSA), introduction of sanitation surcharges included in property tax, and programmes such as the Greater Accra Municipal Assembly sanitation and water project put Ghana in a better position to rapidly increase its coverage. However, efforts would have to be accelerated by forging partnerships with the private sector to provide efficient and low-cost technologies, financial schemes, human and technical resources for improved service delivery.
Improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) service provision are hampered by limited open data availability. This paper presents a data integration framework, collects the data and develops a material flow model, which aids data-based policy and infrastructure development for the WASH sector. This model provides a robust quantitative mapping of the complete anthropogenic WASH flow-cycle: from raw water intake to water use, wastewater and excreta generation, discharge and treatment. This approach integrates various available sources using a process-chain bottom-up engineering approach to improve the quality of WASH planning. The data integration framework and the modelling methodology are applied to the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana. The highest level of understanding of the GAMA WASH sector is achieved, promoting scenario testing for future WASH developments. The results show 96% of the population had access to improved safe water in 2010 if sachet and bottled water was included, but only 67% if excluded. Additionally, 66% of 338,000 m3 per day of generated wastewater is unsafely disposed locally, with 23% entering open drains, and 11% sewage pipes, indicating poor sanitation coverage. Total treated wastewater is <0.5% in 2014, with only 18% of 43,000 m3 per day treatment capacity operational. The combined data sets are made available to support research and sustainable development activities.
In view of the prevalence of dysentery in developing countries such as South Africa and the erosion of indigenous knowledge of phytomedicine due to lack of interest by the young generation, a survey of five local municipalities of Amathole district, Eastern Cape Province was carried out in 2012. A questionnaire-guided interview of the indigenous people by random sampling was done with the help of an interpreter during a survey of the district. Fifty-five (55) respondents participated in the study. The respondents comprised of 25% traditional medical practitioners, 15% herb-sellers and 15% rural elders. Fifty-one (51) plants species of 32 families were documented. Fabaceae had the highest representation of seven (14%) plant species used for the treatment of dysentery; some other families were Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae, Geraniaceae, Anacardiaceae, Bignoniaceae, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Asclepiadiaceae, Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Balanophaceae, Celstraceae, Convolvulaceae, Cornaceae, Iridaceae, and Hydronaceae. The medicinal plants with the highest frequency of prescription were Hydnora africana and Alepidea amatymbica. The plants were used singly or in combination in recipes. Leaves (28%) had the highest use-value of plant parts, followed by the roots (24%), bark (22%) and the whole plant (9%). Methods of preparation of recipes were decoction, infusion and tincture. The use of recipe as an enema was also documented. The study of the pharmacology and mode of action of the plants will contribute immensely to their therapeutic value.
The widely held belief that decentralization of public services would reduce the fiscal burden of deeply indebted states led a large number of developing countries throughout the 1980s and 1990s to embark on devolution and public sector reform. Among the responsibilities that have generally been devolved are the provision and support of drinking water facilities. There is, however, a substantial cross-national difference in implementation records of public service devolution. This paper argues that state-building legacies, which shaped the capacity of local governments and the opportunity structure of local governments to cooperate with indigenous communities, explain this variation. This argument is analyzed in the context of devolution of water supply in Ghana and Senegal. The analysis shows that the weak capacity of local governments is compensated in Ghana, but not in Senegal, through co-optation of historically strong traditional authorities into local governance structures.
Access to clean water plays a critical role in advancing health in low-and middle-income countries. Over the past decade, Ghana has met United Nations targets for expanding access to clean water. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have taken part in this achievement; however, they have done so with varying success. In 2013, researchers from the University of Chicago, accompanied by local partners, visited seven villages in the Ashanti Region in which a Ghanaian NGO had installed boreholes for drinking water access. Household and leader questionnaires were administered to examine the impact of the project on each community. Four additional villages, which utilize surface water, were visited to establish baseline health and sanitation characteristics. Water samples were collected from primary drinking water sources and tested for coliforms. Two out of seven NGO wells were non-functional and over 35% of respondents cited broken pipes as common problems. Nonetheless, over 60% of respondents reported that a borehole had reduced their water collection time by a median of 30 minutes daily. Coliform counts were lower in samples taken from boreholes relative to samples taken from communities using surface water. Finally, we found redundant water services in many communities and no formalized approach to borehole maintenance.
Lack of access to potable water and good sanitation is still one of the most challenging public health concerns of the twenty-first century despite steady progress over recent decades. Almost a billion people globally lack access to safe water; over two billion live without adequate sanitation facilities. The challenge is even more daunting for Sub-Saharan Africa where coverage levels for both potable water and sanitation remain critically low. The urgent need to address the issue calls for adequate understanding of the socio-economic dimensions. Using the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, we investigated the socio-economic and demographic factors associated with access to potable water and improved sanitation facilities. Our generalized linear models reveal that income, education, household size, and region are significant predictors of improved water and sanitation access. Our discussion and conclusion sections highlight the implications of the study results for water policy formulation and implementation in Ghana, and broadly for other developing countries.
Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-015-0912-y
Site-specific information about local water sources is an important part of a community-driven effort to improve environmental conditions. The purpose of this assessment was to gather this information for residents of rural villages in Ghana. Sanitary surveys and bacteriological testing for total coliforms and Escherichia coli (EC) using Colilert(®) were conducted at nearly 80 water sources serving eight villages. A focus group was carried out to assess the desirability and perceived quality of water sources. Standpipes accounted for almost half of the available water sources; however, a third of them were not functioning at the time of the survey. EC bacteria were found in the majority of shallow wells (80%), rivers (67%), and standpipes (61%), as well as 28% of dug wells. Boreholes were free of EC. Residents felt that the standpipes and boreholes produced safe drinking water. Intermittent service and poor water quality from the piped supply has led to limited access to drinking water. The perception of residents, that the water from standpipes is clean and does not need to be treated at home, is particularly troubling in light of the poor bacteriological quality of water from the standpipes.
In developing countries, the microbial contamination of household drinking water is implicated in the prevalence of various diseases. This systematic review is concerned with two health outcomes, general diarrhoea and cholera, and their relationship with water quality at point-of-use. Observational studies investigating this relationship are reviewed, as well as studies of home water treatment and storage interventions. For cholera, a clear relationship was found with contaminated water. Home water treatment and storage interventions were also found to reduce cholera. For general diarrhoea, no clear relationship was found with point-of-use water quality, although interventions did significantly reduce diarrhoeal incidence. Reasons for these apparently contradictory results concerning general diarrhoea are discussed and suggestions for further research offered. The policy implications of the findings are also discussed.
Paired water samples were collected and analysed for thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) from 20 sources (17 developed or rehabilitated by Oxfam and 3 others) and from the stored household water supplies of 100 households (5 from each source) in 13 towns and villages in the Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. In addition, the female head of the 85 households drawing water from Oxfam improved sources was interviewed and information recorded on demographics, hygiene instruction and practices, sanitation facilities and water collection and storage practices. At the non-improved sources, the arithmetic mean TTC load was 407/100 ml at the point of distribution, rising to a mean count of 882/100 ml at the household level. Water from the improved sources met WHO guidelines, with no faecal contamination. At the household level, however, even this safe water was subject to frequent and extensive faecal contamination; 92.9% of stored household samples contained some level of TTC, 76.5% contained more than the 10 TTC per 100 ml threshold set by the Sphere Project for emergency conditions. The arithmetic mean TTC count for all samples from the sampled households was 244 TTC per 100 ml (geometric mean was 77). These results are consistent with other studies that demonstrate substantial levels of faecal contamination of even safe water during collection, storage and access in the home. They point to the need to extend drinking water quality beyond the point of distribution to the point of consumption. The options for such extended protection, including improved collection and storage methods and household-based water treatment, are discussed.
To assess the extent and causes of microbiological contamination of household drinking water between source and point-of-use in developing countries.
A systematic meta-analysis of 57 studies measuring bacteria counts for source water and stored water in the home to assess how contamination varied between settings.
The bacteriological quality of drinking water significantly declines after collection in many settings. The extent of contamination after water collection varies considerably between settings, but is proportionately greater where faecal and total coliform counts in source water are low.
Policies that aim to improve water quality through source improvements may be compromised by post-collection contamination. Safer household water storage and treatment is recommended to prevent this, together with point-of-use water quality monitoring.
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Environmental Sanitation Policy, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development
- Ghana Government Of
National Development Planning Commission, Simplified Version
- Ghana Government Of
CommunityWater and Sanitation Act, Ministry of Works and Housing, Government printer
- Ghana Government Of