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Stress Recovery During Exposure to Natural and Urban Environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 11: 201-230
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Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component; however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention, which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.
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... Ulrich's (1984) research demonstrated that patients with a view of nature had quicker recovery rates compared to those with views of a brick wall. Likewise, patients in hospitals with natural views from their rooms showed lower stress levels and blood pressure (Ulrich et al., 1991). Overall, research consistently indicates that natural environments and views generally offer more potent restorative effects compared to constructed and urban environments (Hartig et al., 1997). ...
... It assesses an individual's response signal when experiencing different environments, usually by inducing stress and then observing signal changes before and after exposure to the environments (Yin et al., 2020;Huang et al., 2020;McSweeney et al. 2021). While this approach yields dependable outcomes, it can be responsive to additional factors, such as alterations in the surroundings or the excitement of the study participants (Ulrich et al., 1991). ...
The shift in lifestyle due to urbanization and the recent pandemic has increased demand for small residential units suitable for remote work and longer stays. Restorative environments have gained importance within these spaces as they impact productivity, reduce fatigue, and alleviate stress. This study aims to identify effective restorative environments for small residential units, deepening our current understanding about contributions of interior design to personal well-being. Six virtual models combining Rectilinear and Curvilinear forms with Minimal, Natural, and Rustic styles were created. A total of 89 participants with lockdown or remote work experience evaluated these environments using VR devices and a PRS questionnaire. Results showed higher ratings for all virtual restorative environments compared to the non-restorative control design. The Rectilinear form with Minimal style and Curvilinear form with Natural style received the highest ratings. Surprisingly, nature analogues using curves and natural materials did not produce expected outcomes, highlighting the importance of integrating natural elements, considering individual preferences, and ensuring environmental coherence for enhanced restorative attributes. Creating an effective restorative environment extends beyond incorporating nature-based elements. These findings offer insights for designing residential spaces that boost well-being and productivity, especially in the context of remote work and extended stays in compact residential units.
... The use of nature-based activities to reduce people's depressive symptoms seems especially promising and is the focus of this paper. The health benefits associated with nature-based activities could be explained by several theoretical frameworks (Fernee et al., 2017;Houge Mackenzie et al., 2021;Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989;Rosa et al., 2024;Ulrich et al., 1991;Wilson, 1984). For example, Attention Restoration Theory posits exposure to nature helps restore the ability to direct attention to specific tasks (Kaplan, 1995). ...
... Given that difficulty in concentrating is a symptom of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD; American Psychiatric Association, 2014), improved concentration might explain why natural exposure diminishes depressive symptomatology. From a different perspective, Stress Recovery Theory posits that contact with non-threatening natural environments promotes stress reduction and improved mood (Ulrich et al., 1991), both of which are closely related to MDD (American Psychiatric Association, 2014). In addition to these two theoretical frameworks, the biophilia hypothesis proposes that people have an innate emotional affiliation with nature (Kellert & Wilson, 1993) that is reinforced through contact with elements of the natural world (Rosa & Collado, 2019Šorytė et al., 2023). ...
Previous systematic reviews have examined the effect of horticultural interventions (e.g., taking care of plants, planting, gardening) on individuals' depressive symptoms through analyses focused exclusively on randomized controlled trials, but that approach overlooks a majority of the potentially informative published research.
To complement previous work, we searched the databases MEDLINE, PsycArticles, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and ClinicalTrials.gov and identified 30 non‐RCTs (n = 1063 participants; all adults) and 32 uncontrolled studies (n = 517 participants; only one study included 6 young people) examining the effects of horticultural interventions on depression.
Using random effects meta‐analysis, we discovered the evidence from these studies largely supports findings from RCTs. Like the RCTs, the non‐RCTs indicate that some horticultural interventions combined with usual care (i.e., continuing normal routine for healthy people or conventional treatment for unhealthy ones) may reduce depressive symptoms more than usual care alone, with most studies finding a moderate (Hedges' g ≥ 0.5) or large effect (g ≥ 0.8). We also found that participants might adhere similarly well or even better to horticultural interventions than to usual care alone, and no adverse events were reported. Twenty‐five of the 32 uncontrolled studies reported pre and post‐intervention mean depression scores. Of these 25 studies, 24 reported an improvement in mean depression scores and, in 16 of them, the improvement was greater than 20%. All studies present some risk of bias due to design limitations, but no evidence of publication bias was detected.
Our findings support assertions that some horticultural interventions are effective and safe as a complementary strategy to reduce adults' depressive symptoms. More research is needed to understand how specific participant and intervention characteristics can influence the success of horticultural interventions on depressive symptoms.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Urban forests are pivotal to urban ecosystems, exerting significant influence over microclimate regulation in contemporary cities. This chapter explores the intricate relationship between urban forests and microclimate regulation, highlighting their roles in sustainable urban development. The urban heat island effect challenges urban residents and ecosystems, although urban forests act as natural air conditioners, mitigating heat buildup through shade and evaporative cooling. Their dense canopy cover intercepts solar radiation, lowering surface temperatures and fostering cooler microclimates. Additionally, evapotranspiration amplifies the cooling effect, enhancing thermal comfort and outdoor livability. Urban forests also play a crucial role in energy conservation by reducing the need for mechanical cooling systems, thus lowering energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, they improve air quality by filtering pollutants and particulate matter, enhancing environmental quality and public health. Furthermore, urban forests serve as vital carbon sinks, sequestering carbon dioxide and mitigating climate change. Strategic measures such as increasing tree canopy cover and implementing green infrastructure can optimize the cooling effects of urban forests while enhancing resilience and well-being. Overall, urban forests represent a cornerstone of microclimate regulation in modern cities, offering environmental, social, and economic benefits. Integrating urban forests into urban landscape planning is essential for creating healthier, more sustainable urban environments for current and future generations.
Objectives: This randomized controlled trial evaluates a single-session Mindfulness Self-Compassion (MSC) intervention for enhancing interoceptive awareness (AI) and alleviating anxiety and reducing pain in Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS) patients. The study also examines the intervention’s feasibility and the mediating role of IA in improving clinical outcomes, incorporating nature visuals to address treatment accessibility and adherence. Methods/analysis: Sixty-four FMS patients were randomized into three groups: MSC with audio-only, MSC with audio and nature visuals, or a waitlist control. Validated scales measured interoceptive awareness, anxiety, and pain pre- and post-intervention. ANOVA examined primary outcomes, and mediation analysis explored interoceptive awareness as a mediator. A 7-minute intervention duration was chosen for its balance of effectiveness and feasibility, with nature visuals selected for their calming effects. Findings: Both MSC groups showed significant improvements in IA, anxiety, and pain compared to the control group, with the audio-visual group showing the strongest effects. Enhanced interoceptive awareness significantly mediated anxiety reduction but not pain relief. Nature visuals further reduced anxiety and pain compared to audio-only. Novelty/improvement: This study validates the efficacy of a single-session MSC intervention for FMS, highlighting IA as a crucial mediator of anxiety improvement. Incorporating sensory-rich visual elements enhances therapeutic effects, offering a promising approach for MSC interventions in clinical settings. Future research should explore long-term benefits and optimal dosage of this innovative intervention, addressing the need for accessible, cost-effective FMS treatments.
The development of empirical research concerning the perception and evaluation of landscape quality has been hampered by the difficulties of presenting adequate samples of landscape views to large samples of respondents. Consequently, there has been extensive use of photographic displays as a substitute for on-site environmental survey. There is, however, relatively little evidence for the validity of such surrogates. The paper reviews the results of previous studies and reports a case study which provides further evidence for the validity and effectiveness of photographs in representing landscapes.