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Gift-Wrapping Effects on Product Attitudes: A Mood-Biasing Explanation
Abstract
In four experiments, I examined the effects of gift wrapping on product attitudes. Two questions were addressed. First, does gift wrapping an item have a favorable influence on attitudes toward owning what is received? Results of all four experiments consistently support an affirmative answer to that question. Second, what explains the attitudinal results? I argued that gift wrapping, through repeated pairing with joyous events in people's lives, has utility in cuing a happy mood which, in turn, positively biases attitudes. Results of the last three experiments support this mood biasing position by demonstrating that a happy mood consistently mediates gift-wrapping effects on attitudes. The results are consistent with an encoding specificity view of mood retrieval and a mood maintenance explanation of attitude formation. The encoding specificity view was supported by finding stronger effects of gift wrapping on mood retrieval in conditions arguably present when the relation between gift wrapping and happy mood was established in the lives of subjects, such as the receipt of a personal gift (Experiment 2), the receipt of a gift wrapped in traditional gift-wrapping paper (Experiment 3), and the receipt of a gift-wrapped present on subjects' birthdays (Experiment 4). The mood maintenance process was supported by finding parallel effects of gift wrapping on mood and attitude and by finding the mediational effects of happy mood on attitude strengthened as subjects felt happier. These results are consistent with the premise that the happier the mood, the more subjects sought to maintain that state through the development of favorable attitudes toward owning the gift they received.
... As we focus on differences regarding how a gift card is given, as opposed to what is ultimately consumed, our research falls under the small but growing literature on the how-to-give aspect of gift-giving (Givi & Das, 2022;Herziger & Donnelly, 2022;Howard, 1992;Polman & Maglio, 2017;Rixom et al., 2019), as opposed to the what-to-give aspect of gift-giving (i.e., what product to give as a gift; e.g., Cavanaugh et al., 2015;Choi et al., 2018;Givi & Galak, 2017;Yang et al., 2021). ...
... The how-to-give component of gift-giving is comprised of multiple subaspects. A giver must decide how to wrap their gift (Howard, 1992;Rixom et al., 2019), how to message their gift (Givi & Das, 2022;Polman & Maglio, 2017), how to order multiple gifts, how to time their gifts (Herziger & Donnelly, 2022), and so on. These decisions are unique from the what-to-give aspect of gift-giving, yet the psychology involved with them may be similar, as we discuss below. ...
... whatto-give) aspect of gift-giving. Consequently, our work connects to a few other experimental programs on how to give (Givi & Das, 2022;Herziger & Donnelly, 2022;Howard, 1992;Polman & Maglio, 2017;Rixom et al., 2019). However, our research also connects to the research on what to give, as we used findings from this domain (Givi, 2020;Kupor et al., 2017;Teigen et al., 2005) to derive our framework for what could be driving givers to shun digital (vs. ...
We explore the psychology involved with giving and receiving gift cards by studying givers' and recipients' preferences for digital versus physical gift cards. Across five studies, we demonstrate that givers are less likely to choose digital (vs. physical) gift cards than recipients are to prefer to receive them. The data suggest that this asymmetry occurs, in part, because givers overestimate the extent to which recipients see digital (vs. physical) gift cards as violating the social norms of gift‐giving. Indeed, givers' aversion to digital gift cards attenuates when they are less likely to perceive digital (vs. physical) gift cards as violating gift‐giving norms and when they are less attentive to such norms. This research adds to the gift‐giving literature by offering an initial foray into the tradeoff between digital and physical gifts, demonstrating a new instance in which givers' and recipients' preferences diverge, and documenting an underlying cause and boundary conditions of this asymmetry.
... The gift-giving literature continues to grow, yet the role of wrapping paper remains largely underexplored. Howard (1992) is the notable exception. He sets the foundation for the importance of wrapping paper by addressing the question of whether wrapped (vs. ...
... We anticipate that recipients of sloppily (neatly)-wrapped gifts will experience positive (negative) expectation disconfirmation, leading to more (less) favorable gift-related attitudes. We include a control condition where participants imagine receiving an unwrapped gift to examine whether the act of unwrapping gifts still leads to more favorable attitudes (see Howard, 1992). To increase generalizability, we use a neutrally desirable gift to examine whether wrapping gifts sloppily vs. neatly remains an effective giftgiving strategy. ...
... We also explore Howard's (1992) findings that gift-wrapping, as opposed to no wrapping, leads to more favorable gift-related attitudes. Our results show that both neatly-(M = 5.80, SD = 1.82) and sloppily wrapped gifts (M = 6.86, ...
While gift‐givers typically wrap gifts prior to presenting them, little is known about the effect of how the gift is wrapped on recipients’ expectations and attitudes toward the gift inside. We propose that when recipients open a gift from a friend, they like it less when the giver has wrapped it neatly as opposed to sloppily and we draw on expectation disconfirmation theory to explain the effect. Specifically, recipients set higher (lower) expectations for neatly (sloppily)‐wrapped gifts, making it harder (easier) for the gifts to meet these expectations, resulting in contrast effects that lead to less (more) positive attitudes toward the gifts once unwrapped. However, when the gift‐giver is an acquaintance, there is ambiguity in the relationship status and wrapping neatness serves as a cue about the relationship rather than the gift itself. This leads to assimilation effects where the recipient likes the gift more when neatly wrapped. We assess these effects across three studies and find that they hold for desirable, neutral, and undesirable gifts, as well as with both hypothetical and real gifts.
... A contagion effect subsequently occurs (Hatfield and Cacioppo 1994), in which the properties and valence of the source of emotion transfer to the targeted object. Consumers then form attitudes in line with the nature of the emotion linked to the brand (Howard and Gengler 2001). ...
... For example, when an advertisement features a well-liked celebrity spokesperson, the emotions elicited by the source of affect are subsequently used to evaluate the featured product or brand. Contagion effects can be positive, such as the influence of a well-liked source on consumer attitudes (Howard and Gengler 2001), the infusion of art in the marketing of luxury items (Hagtvedt and Patrick 2008), and the impact of gift wrapping on product evaluations (Howard 1992). Negative emotions can also lead to contagion, such as when sad facial expressions in advertising affect donations (Small and Verrochi 2009) and consumers more negatively evaluate products that touch disgusting items (Lerner, Small, and Loewenstein 2004;Morales and Fitzsimons 2007). ...
... For example, when an advertisement features a well-liked celebrity spokesperson, the emotions elicited by the source of affect are subsequently used to evaluate the featured product or brand. Contagion effects can be positive, such as the influence of a well-liked source on consumer attitudes (Howard and Gengler 2001), the infusion of art in the marketing of luxury items (Hagtvedt and Patrick 2008), and the impact of gift wrapping on product evaluations (Howard 1992). Negative emotions can also lead to contagion, such as when sad facial expressions in advertising affect donations (Small and Verrochi 2009) and consumers more negatively evaluate products that touch disgusting items (Lerner, Small, and Loewenstein 2004;Morales and Fitzsimons 2007). ...
The authors develop an affect-as-information model to explain how targeted emotions used in persuasion can influence unrelated products and brands that are presented nearby. In study 1, the presence of an emotion-eliciting image impacted consumer spending on unrelated products in a simulated retail environment. In study 2, emotional processing ability and whether consumers monitored their feelings moderated emotional transfers between unrelated advertisements, providing support for an affect-as-information model. In studies 3 and 4, the context of evaluative conditioning was used to generalize the incidence of emotional contagion in persuasive communication. Salience of affect and whether brand attitudes were measured or primed were manipulated to provide additional evidence for and extend affect-as-information theory.
... Likewise, Ashworth, Darke, and Schaller (2005) examine the immediate social consequences of discount incentives, even though the effects of "feeling cheap" may diminish over time as the effect of purchase habits increases. In a different context, Howard (1992) examines, as an immediate reaction, the mood-lifting effects of complimentary services without examining how these services may help build long-term relationships. Thus, future loyalty program research should be broadened to account for temporal effects because the effectiveness of many programs is time dependent. ...
... Morales (2005) finds that the extra effort store employees expend enhances consumer willingness to pay and store loyalty. Howard (1992) similarly demonstrates that product wrapping services elicit positive mood, which enhances consumer attitudes and likely carries over to post-consumption evaluation (Miniard, Bhatla, & Sirdeshmukh, 1992). These findings mirror the type of investments loyalty programs provide (e.g., special gifts, increased attention from store associates, enhanced services) and suggest that the manner in which these investments are delivered is important to effective relationship formation. ...
... Likelihood of strong relationship formation increases with self-disclosure, time, and personality congruence in encounters. Howard, 1992 Retail setting Attitude strength, mood maintenance ...
A review of the extant literature reveals that the theoretical underpinnings of the majority of loyalty program research rest on psychological mechanisms from three specific domains—status, habit, and relational. We propose that to understand how loyalty programs actually work, a broader, more holistic research perspective is needed to account for the simultaneous effects across these three theoretical domains as well as both cross-customer and temporal effects. The contribution of this approach is a fresh research agenda advanced in 15 research propositions.
... In existing literature, the link between gift wrapping and the gift is often a presumed part of the gift exchange but there has been limited research into the actual relevance of gift wrapping (Belk 1979; Banks 1979; Sherry 1983; Caplow 1984; Belk, Wallendorf and Sherry 1989; McGrath 1989; Carrier 1991; Sherry, McGrath and Levy 1993;; Belk 1996; Howard 1992; and Larson and Watson 2001, Wooton and Wood 2004). The giver has the choice to wrap the gift or give it to the receiver unwrapped. ...
... If the giver decides to wrap the gift, decisions are made in regard to how much wrapping, what type and what style to use. These decisions are often dependent on the context of the gift being given and a number of aspects need to be taken into account including; the giver's preferences, the receiver's preferences and expected response, their relationship, previously communicated messages, emotions, the occasion or event, the appropriateness, the timing, if there is an audience and if the gift will be on display prior to opening (Caplow, 1984; Cheal, 1987; Howard 1992). Caplow (1984) highlights an example of how context can play a role in gift wrapping decisions, he found an unwrapped gift at Christmas was not perceived to be a Christmas gift. ...
... According to the literature, there is an expectation that the receiver prefers to receive a gift that is wrapped (Hendry, 1993; Caplow 1984; Howard, 1992). In a study on gift wrapping and mood, when participants were asked why they prefer to have their gifts wrapped, many replied that " gifts are supposed to be wrapped " (Howard 1992, p.198) thus supporting the expectation that gifts are wrapped for most giving occasions in western societies. ...
This paper aims to explore and discuss the expectations surrounding the decision to wrap a gift. Gift wrapping can enable an object to be turned into a gift through the development of meaning that symbolises it as a gift. There are two key expectations surrounding the use of gift wrapping. The first expectation is that receivers prefer gifts to be wrapped and the second expectation is that the gift meets individual and social expectations of what a gift should look like. Data was gathered using three qualitative techniques; observation, interviews and projective workshops. These initial findings form part of a larger research study into gift wrapping.
... The majority of US consumers spend at least $1000 per year, or as much as 4% of their household budget, on buying products as gifts, generating an industry of more than $200 billion in the US alone (Givi & Galak, 2019;Statista, 2021). Presenting products as gifts can positively affect product attitudes (Howard, 1992;Rixom et al., 2020), and products given as gifts are often evaluated positively by both givers and recipients (Gino & Flynn, 2011;Paolacci et al., 2015;Park & Yi, 2022). Gifts can positively affect giver-recipient relationships (Aknin & Human, 2015;Ruth et al., 1999), and can provide recipients with long-lasting positive emotions such as love and happiness. ...
While products are regularly presented as gifts to apologize, little is known about the effect of an apology context on product evaluations and relationships. Past research suggests that recipients positively evaluate gifts. Instead, our five studies reveal that, when recipients receive an apology gift, they evaluate the gift and the giver-recipient relationship more negatively compared to regular products, to receiving regular gifts, or towards verbal apologies. This occurs because apology gifts remind the recipient of transgressions, and signal misunderstandings of recipients' emotions. These findings highlight the importance of the gift-giving context when promoting products as gifts.
... In gift giving, both giver and receiver enjoy the unwrapping process as part of the gift giving ritual (Joy, 2001). Gift wrapping also triggers happiness and attitudinal effects in consumers through links to multiple joyful memories (Howard, 1992). Opening a box containing a familiar product brings enjoyment and increases evaluations of the product, and seeing even an empty box being opened can increase evaluations of the box itself (Sun, Hou, & Wyer, 2015). ...
Unboxing videos allow consumers a vicarious experience of a product, with more emotional connection than a review. Unboxing is conceptualised as a practice made up of three elements: the object, the doing, and the meaning. Unboxing is distinct from opening a box, imbued with meaning for the viewer and consumer giving it potential as a marketing tool in attracting consumers’ attention.
... Meanings are given to products based on the circumstances of the way they are supplied. For example, Howard (1992) found that gift-wrapping would cue a happy mood and thus, in turn, lead to a positive attitude toward a gift. Others have suggested that a consumer's choice of products is influenced by human values (Burgess, 1992) and symbolism (Elliott, 1994). ...
Wine producers have built their businesses on the concept of sharing, typically explored in the context of the communal consumption of wine among consumers. In this paper, we offer an often-overlooked area of the supply chain that can play an important role in the communal consumption of wine, that of direct selling companies utilizing the party plan sales strategy. By breaking down the production-consumption network through the Systems of Provision (SoP) and Actor-Network Theory (ANT), this research explores the supply chain in influencing consumption. The direct selling party plan allows for active engagement in the production-consumption network and is explored in this research as a material artifact of the communal wine consumption experience. An analysis of the 10Cs categorization of the SoP is conducted within two direct selling wine companies, Traveling Vineyard and WineShop at Home. The analysis expands an often fragmented view of communal sharing (usually viewed through the lens of end users) to include more actors and how these direct selling actor’s roles can impact the future of the production-consumption social network in the wine marketplace.
... Keywords: visual preferences, liking, empirical aesthetics, image statistics, processing fluency "Measure what is measurable, and make measurable what is not" -Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642) We fall in love at first sight (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2010). We prefer nicely wrapped gifts (Howard, 1992). We even depend primarily on visual information when making judgments about music performances (Tsay, 2013). ...
Humans are inherently evaluative beings whose affective system is predisposed to continuously and efficiently produce spontaneous preferences regarding surrounding stimuli. These preferences guide us through the physical world by indicating which stimuli to approach and which to avoid. Vision is the key sense to provide the necessary input for this superficial evaluative process that focuses on the exterior appeal of stimuli. To allow a better understanding of the link between visual input and evaluative response, the present article aims to identify visual antecedents of immediate aesthetic preferences. In particular, we propose a set of 4 algorithmic measures that automatically extract the low-level visual stimulus properties that are predictive of aesthetic preferences according to processing fluency theory: visual simplicity, visual symmetry, visual contrast, and visual self-similarity. In 3 studies, we demonstrate the impact, the relative importance, and the validity of these 4 visual characteristics for understanding aesthetic preferences. We examine the link between the 4 measures and aesthetic liking using a large pool of digital abstract artworks in Study 1. In Study 2, we experimentally replicate the findings of the first study to confirm their robustness. To generalize the results, Study 3 examines preferences for landscape photographs using secondary data of an online photo community. Furthermore, we built a database of 620 abstract digital artworks that can be used to benchmark future developments in measuring antecedents of visual aesthetics and that can serve as a pool of stimuli for experimental research on aesthetics.
... This suggests that individuals experiencing negative affect are likely to help only when the potential for selfreward is made explicit. The most prominent explanation for this effect is the negative state relief -or the mood repair model, which posits that individuals who experience negative affect are prone to engage in behaviors that allow them to escape this unpleasant psychological state (Carver and Scheier 1998;Cialdini, Kenrick and Baumann 1982;Clore, Schwarz and Conway 1994;Clore et al. 2001;Howard 1992). ...
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... A number of studies have shown that incidental affect elicited by the media context of an ad (TV program or magazine) generally has a congruent influence on consumers' evaluations of the ad but less influence on their evaluations of the advertised brand (e.g., Gardner & Wilhelm, 1987;Goldberg & Gorn, 1987;Mathur & Chattopadhyay, 1991;Murry & Dacin, 1996;Yi, 1990); but see Kamins, Marks, & Skinner, 1991 for different findings). Gift wrapping can also enhance the recipient's evaluation of the gift by elevating the recipient's mood (Howard, 1992). Even the mere action of browsing a series of attractive options may elevate a consumer's mood and result in assimilative effects on subsequent evaluations (Raghunathan & Irwin, 2001). ...
... social perception | cognition | decision making | evaluation | communication W e do judge books by their covers. We prefer the nicely wrapped holiday gifts (1), fall in love at first sight (2), and vote for the politician who looks most competent (3). Daily life is littered with examples of how visual information can have a powerful effect on social cognition, ranging from interpersonal perception to consumer judgment (4)(5)(6)(7). ...
Social judgments are made on the basis of both visual and auditory information, with consequential implications for our decisions. To examine the impact of visual information on expert judgment and its predictive validity for performance outcomes, this set of seven experiments in the domain of music offers a conservative test of the relative influence of vision versus audition. People consistently report that sound is the most important source of information in evaluating performance in music. However, the findings demonstrate that people actually depend primarily on visual information when making judgments about music performance. People reliably select the actual winners of live music competitions based on silent video recordings, but neither musical novices nor professional musicians were able to identify the winners based on sound recordings or recordings with both video and sound. The results highlight our natural, automatic, and nonconscious dependence on visual cues. The dominance of visual information emerges to the degree that it is overweighted relative to auditory information, even when sound is consciously valued as the core domain content.
... A number of studies have shown that incidental affect elicited by the media context of an ad (TV program or magazine) generally has a congruent influence on consumers' evaluations of the ad but less influence on their evaluations of the advertised brand (e.g., Gardner & Wilhelm, 1987; Goldberg & Gorn, 1987; Mathur & Chattopadhyay, 1991; Murry & Dacin, 1996; Yi, 1990); but see Kamins, Marks, & Skinner, 1991 for different findings). Gift wrapping can also enhance the recipient's evaluation of the gift by elevating the recipient's mood (Howard, 1992). Even the mere action of browsing a series of attractive options may elevate a consumer's mood and result in assimilative effects on subsequent evaluations (Raghunathan & Irwin, 2001). ...
In the intervening years since publication of the chapter Affect and Consumer Behavior (Cohen & Areni, 1991) in the Handbook of Consumer Behavior (Kassarjian & Robertson, 1991), research in consumer behavior dealing with affect has exploded, making it one of the field's central research topics. Within psychology more generally, Schimmack and Crites (2005) located 923 references to affect between 1960 and 1980 and 4,170 between 1980 and 2000. Since research on affect has become more specialized, this chapter will concentrate on the various ways affect influences judgment and choice rather than on broader and historical perspectives. These will include the role of affect in information retrieval, differential processing of affectively colored information (including the role of affect in strengthening mental associations and memory consolidation), how and when affect provides information that influences judgments and decisions, and the motivational role of affect in guiding behavior and signaling the need for changes in vigilance, intensity, and direction. We begin, however, with some essential definitions.
... The observers' subsequent memory estimates of the person's height were an increasing function of the status variable, with the student recalled to be shortest and the professor tallest. Another variant of the halo effect was demonstrated by Howard (1992), who showed that evaluation of a product was positively influenced by first encountering it in an attractively gift-wrapped package rather than in a plain package. Still a different halo effect was reported by Frank and Gilovich (1988), in showing that black color of sports uniforms is associated with both selfperceptions and observers' perceptions of aggressiveness. ...
Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.
It is at the moment of handling over the gift that it becomes clear whether the goal of triggering joy is achieved. Even the mental anticipation of this moment in the preparation phase guides the giver’s decisions and activities. This also includes the packaging, because the type of packaging later provides the recipient with a first impression that influences the perception of the gift and also provides clues to the thoughts and efforts of the giver. The delivery of the gift requires a high level of attention from those involved. The recipient also has to follow clearly defined emotional rules and show surprise, joy or gratitude, even if the requested emotions contradict his or her actual ones. This emotional work requires high skills in verbal and non-verbal communication.
Much research has shed light on the what to give facet of gift-giving; that is, which types of products should consumers give as gifts? However, little research has investigated the how to give component of gift-giving; that is, holding the gift itself constant, how should it be given? In the present work, we explore the messaging aspect of how to give, thereby expanding the gift-giving literature. Specifically, we investigate gift-givers' and gift-recipients' preferences regarding the practice of earmarking cash gifts (i.e., suggesting that a cash gift be used on a particular product). Across multiple studies, we demonstrate that givers are less likely to earmark cash gifts than recipients prefer, because givers view earmarking as less thoughtful compared to recipients. Moreover, consistent with a thoughtfulness account, we show that givers are more likely to earmark in situations where they view earmarking as thoughtful. We conclude by discussing how our work offers a unique contribution to the gift-giving literature (as it is the first to document a giver-recipient asymmetry involving how to give), suggests that givers should earmark cash gifts more often, and clears many paths for future research (on other potential giver-recipient asymmetries tied to how to give).
Im Moment der Geschenkübergabe erweist es sich, ob das Ziel, Freude auszulösen, erreicht wird. Schon die gedankliche Vorwegnahme dieses Augenblicks in der Vorbereitungsphase leitet die Entscheidungen des Gebers und seine Aktivitäten. Dazu gehört auch das Verpacken, denn die Art der Verpackung liefert später dem Empfänger einen ersten Eindruck, der die Wahrnehmung des Geschenks beeinflusst und auch Hinweise auf Gedanken und Mühen des Gebers vermittelt. Die Übergabe des Geschenks verlangt von den Beteiligten ein hohes Ausmaß an Aufmerksamkeit. Der Empfänger hat zudem klar definierte Gefühlsregeln einzuhalten und Überraschung, Freude oder Dankbarkeit zu zeigen, selbst wenn die verlangten Emotionen seinen tatsächlichen widersprechen. Diese Gefühlsarbeit erfordert hohe Fähigkeiten der verbalen und non-verbalen Kommunikation.
Gifting behavior is a niche part of consumer behavior that deals with the behavior exhibited by customers in the process of selection and purchase of gifts. A gift is given as a token of appreciation, love, regard, reciprocity and expectation and hence is concerned with a tangible product and an intangible expression. The intangible part of the gift is more valuable and hence customers exercise great care in the process of selection of a gift. The resultant questionnaire comprised nineteen Likert scales reflecting the different dimensions of gifting behavior on which the exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation was conducted. The survey was carried out with 100 respondents shopping for gift articles in the town of Pondicherry using convenience sampling method. In this paper gifting behavior has been identified to classify under six dimensions namely merchandise, emotion, atmospheric, convenience, social and service. Gift items are a major market for a retailer and this scale would be useful for retailers to check their gift shopper satisfaction preparedness level. This study in future can be extended to other cities in India and can also be carried for specific demographic variables like gender or age.
Most gifts are occasion‐based as opposed to non‐occasion‐based. That is, most gifts are given in the presence of a special occasion, rather than in the absence of one. Across a series of scenario‐based studies, the present research demonstrates that, despite occasion‐based gifts being much more common, recipients anticipate that their happiness levels will be quite high when receiving non‐occasion‐based gifts, varying little with gift quality. In contrast, they anticipate that their happiness levels will not always be high when receiving occasion‐based gifts, varying greatly with gift quality. These diverging outcomes arise because the caliber of gift that is required to signal care and thus meet a recipient’s expectation is much lower for non‐occasion‐based gifts than for occasion‐based ones. Critically, givers misforecast recipients’ anticipated positive reactions to non‐occasion‐based gifts, helping to explain why these gifts are, unfortunately, rather rare.
La théorie économique classique offre une perspective principalement normative de la prise de décision. La psychologie cognitive et sociale en offre une perspective essentiellement descriptive. Cet article présente une synthèse structurée d'un troisième courant de recherches, situé au croisement des deux courants précédents, et connu sous le nom de ‘ Théorie du comportement décisionnel ’. (Behavioral Decision Theory). Ces recherches montrent que les preneurs de décisions s'écartent souvent des normes prescrites par la théorie économique. Cet article en explique les raisons et explore ce que ces recherches impliquent pour la prise de décision en marketing.
Prior research on gift giving has often treated “making recipients happy” as interchangeable with “improving recipients’ welfare.” We propose givers’ motive to make recipients happy is better understood as a desire to induce positive affective reactions, such as a smile from recipients. This “smile-seeking” motive yields a mismatch between gift choices and recipients’ preferences, because attributes that promote recipient happiness upon gift reception are often not the same attributes that augment recipients’ overall welfare. We find a considerable givers-recipients preference discrepancy that cannot be explained by extant theories of perspective taking (Studies 1 & 2), is mitigated when the affective reactions are not immediately obtainable (Studies 3 & 4), and is mediated by the anticipation of these affective reactions (Studies 4 & 5). Moreover, in a longitudinal field survey (Study 6), givers derive more enjoyment from their observation of the recipients’ initial affective reactions than from their observation of recipients’ long-term satisfaction. Our findings challenge extant assumptions about gift-giving motives, and attest to the importance of affective reactions in interpersonal decision making.
Attitudes toward athletes with disabilities were examined using two approaches. The first considered implicit attitudes using the Implicit Association Test (IAT), while the second involved two widely used measures of explicit attitudes toward persons with disabilities. A broad sample of athletic activities, practiced by persons with and without disabilities, was used as target material for presentation to undergraduate participants (n = 115). The implicit measure showed a strong negative bias toward athletes with disabilities. Explicit attitude measures also showed a bias toward persons with disabilities, although their correlation with implicit measures was relatively low. Reasons for this lack of correspondence are considered, as are suggestions for future research on attitudes toward persons with disabilities.
The research reported in this article examines how multiple affective stimuli of differing valence (i.e., both positive and negative) are integrated into an overall affective response. Prior research on the integration of positive and negative information has not focused on affect, and previous affect integration research has not considered both positive and negative feelings. Two experiments investigate how positive and negative affective stimuli combine to influence overall affective responses to an advertisement, content-specific beliefs, and overall ad evaluations. Both recency and contrast effects were observed on positive affective response and positive beliefs, but comparable effects on negative affective response and negative beliefs were not evident. The results support a motivational influence of affect on judgments.
Usability is becoming more and more important for information centres and digital libraries, because it is a core prerequisite to compete with the popular search via Google. A quick and easy method for improving the usability of a Web site or software is paper prototyping. Thereby, graphics and photos are often included as placeholder in the paper prototype. However, there is the danger that such visual details can distort the findings on the usability of the structure and navigation of the prototype. The reported study illustrates this effect for three different design versions of a homepage of a library 2.0 as paper prototypes. The multi-method approach of the study provides also a possibility how a misinterpretation due to single details can be avoided. Further implications for technology-enhanced learning and libraries 2.0 are discussed.
The current research examines how positive mood influences consumer evaluations of brand extensions. As a means of addressing this issue, we integrate findings from prior research on brand extensions with those concerning the effect of mood on similarity and evaluative judgments. Our results indicate that positive mood primarily enhances evaluations of extensions viewed as moderately similar (as opposed to very similar or dissimilar) to a favorably evaluated core brand. This pattern of effects prevailed in separate studies using two different types of mood manipulations. The evidence supports a mood process in which the influence of positive mood on extension evaluations is mediated by its effects on perceptions of the similarity between the core brand and the extension as well as the perceived competency of the marketer in producing the extension. Implications of these findings for marketing managers are presented along with suggestions for further research. Copyright 2000 by the University of Chicago.
Data collected with a short World Wide Web (WWW) survey on paranormal belief, age, sex, locus of control, extraversion, emotional and physical well-being, and mood were compared with findings from recent literature while controlling for effects of self-selection. Each variable was measured with one item. The sample comprised 342 women, 648 men, and 8 participants of unknown sex, of whom 76.7% were self-selected and 23.3% did not select themselves. There was a weak but, given the large sample, significant effect of self-selection regarding paranormal belief (rpb 932 = .08) but no relationships for paranormal belief and the examined variables. In the entire sample, statistically significant correlations ranging from .13 to .07 between paranormal belief and female sex, scores on external locus of control, good mood, extraversion, and emotional well-being corresponded with previous offline results.
The relationship in memory between affect evoked by an ad during exposure and the brand name is discussed and tested. Two studies tested the possible role of advertising in strengthening ties between affect and a brand name in memory by examining accessibility of ad affect and its possible relevance to decision making. The first study assessed whether the brand name could serve as a prime for ad affect and whether such affect is likely to have greater influence in low than high involvement decisions. The second study showed that subjects whose brand preferences were influenced by positive affect during ad exposure were more able to feel positive when the brand name was used as a subsequent retrieval cue than either subjects without positive affect at exposure or subjects for whom a different brand name was used as the subsequent retrieval cue. Implications are drawn from these results for the storage and retrieval of advertising-elicited affect in memory.
Conducted 3 experiments in which the qualitative nature of memorial processing was manipulated at both input (encoding) and output (retrieval). A total of 76 undergraduates participated. In line with previous studies, it was found that for each type of encoding, retention levels were highest when the same type of information was used as a retrieval cue. However, rhyme encoding followed by a rhyme cue gave lower performance levels than did semantic encoding followed by a semantic cue; also, the advantage of semantic encoding over phonemic encoding increased as the retrieval cue was made more compatible with the encoded trace. It is concluded that the notions of encoding specificity and depth of processing are both necessary to give an adequate description of the results. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review of the literature concerning the promotive influence of experimentally generated happiness and sadness on helping suggests that (a) increased helping among saddened Ss is an instrumental response designed to dispel the helper's negative mood state, and (b) increased helping among elated Ss is not an instrumental response to (maintain) the heightened effect but is a concomitant of elevated mood. A derivation from this hypothesis—that enhanced helping is a direct effect of induced sadness but a side effect of induced happiness—was tested in an experiment that placed 86 undergraduates in a happy, neutral, or sad mood. Through a placebo drug manipulation, half of the Ss in each group were led to believe that their induced moods were temporarily fixed, that is, temporarily resistant to change from normal events. The other Ss believed that their moods were labile and, therefore, manageable. As expected, saddened Ss showed enhanced helping only when they believed their moods to be changeable, whereas elated Ss showed comparable increases in helping whether they believed their moods to be labile or fixed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
Subjects were introduced to one male and one female voice by a tape recording with instructions to attend to characteristics
of the voices. Then 18 pairs of words were presented visually on slides. The subject’s task during each 10-sec interslide
interval was to repeat silently the pair of words over and over again in the male voice, in the female voice, or in the subject’s
own voice. A surprise recognition test for the words indicated that the words were more likely to be recognized if they were
spoken in the same Voice at test as was used to repeat them during presentation. Recognition of the words repeated in the
subject’s own voice was not affected by the sex of the speaker at test. In Experiment 2, different speakers were used at test
than those used by the subjects to repeat the words. The interaction between the sex of voice used at encoding and at test
was again significant, but recognition was generally lower than in Experiment 1. It was concluded that it is not necessary
to assume that subjects have literal copies of spoken words in memory but speaker’s voice does form an integral part of the
verbal memory code and its influence is specific to a given speaker as well as to a given class of speakers (male or female).
Gift-giving has often puzzled economists, especially because efficient gifts-like cash or giving exactly what a person asks for-seem crass or inappropriate. It is shown in a formal game-theoretic model that gifts serve as "signals" of a person's intentions about future investment in a relationship, and inefficient gifts can be better signals. Other explanations for the inefficiency of gift giving are advanced, and some stylized facts about gift-giving practices are described (many of which are consistent with the signaling view of gifts).
Every finite noncooperative game can be presented as a weighted network congestion game, and also as a network congestion game with player-specific costs. In the first presentation, different players may contribute differently to congestion, and in the second, they are differently (negatively) affected by it. This paper shows that the topology of the underlying (undirected two-terminal) network provides information about the existence of pure-strategy Nash equilibrium in the game. For some networks, but not for others, every corresponding game has at least one such equilibrium. For the weighted presentation, a complete characterization of the networks with this property is given. The necessary and sufficient condition is that the network has at most three routes that do traverse any edge in opposite directions, or it consists of several such networks connected in series. The corresponding problem for player-specific costs remains open.
This study demonstrates the facilitating effect of positive mood on brand attitudes for readers of print advertising and explores contingencies and cognitive processes underlying that effect. Mood appears to affect the amount of total cognitive elaboration, bias the evaluation of argument quality, and peripherally affect brand attitudes. An experiment using print ads reveals that positive moods create less elaboration, which results in more heuristic processing and reduces the extent to which message evaluation--itself favorably influenced by positive moods--mediates brand attitudes. The effect is greater when the reader has a low need for cognition and when the ad contains weak message arguments. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
In the first section of this essay gift exchange is discussed in terms of its relevance for the development and maintenance of identity. The acceptance of a gift, it is suggested, is in fact an acceptance of the giver's ideas as to what one's desires and needs are. Gift giving as a mode of social control and expression of unfriendliness is considered. The relationship between gift exchange and social structure is analyzed from the standpoint of the "gratitude imperative." The essay is concluded with a treatment of benefit exchange as a technique for the regulation of shared guilt.
The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
This study explored the impact of positive mood on the cognitive processes mediating attitude change in response to a persuasive communication. Subjects in either a good mood or a neutral mood were exposed to either a proattitudinal or a counterattitudinal message comprised of either strong or weak arguments. Subjects were also provided with a persuasion cue that could be used to judge the validity of the message without processing message content. As expected, subjects in a positive mood exhibited both attitude change and cognitive responses that were indicative of reduced systematic processing. Relative to subjects in a neutral mood, subjects in a good mood showed attitude change that was significantly less influenced by manipulations of message quality, and tended to be more influenced by the presence or absence of the persuasion cue. Subjects experiencing a positive mood recalled less of the message, and their cognitive responses differentiated less between strong and weak arguments and more between t...
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A field study investigated the role of type of helping task in the previously observed relationship between feeling good and helping. Results indicated that procedures designed to induce good mood are likely to facilitate helping only where the helping task is not incompatible with the good feeling state. Implications for the mediation of the relationship between good mood and helping are discussed.
The economic portion of family life involves the exchange of goods and care. The paper argues that there are four identifiable kinds of utility that can be derived from participating in the extended family. Furthermore, as income increases, the total utility involved in giving care to distant kin falls. However, on the cost side the opportunity cost incurred by giving a gift away probably increases as income increases while the production cost falls. In neo‐classical terms the individual would have an incentive to evade responsibilities to distant kin as soon as his costs exceeded the utility he gained from these arrangements. The kin and the community, however, can and do levy an additional disapprobation cost on evaders; and the magnitude of this cost may well turn out to be critical in determining whether or not the extended family will break down in any community.The assertion that the extended family breaks down as income rises has been questioned on theoretical and empirical grounds. Furthermore, this paper is sceptical about the argument that such a breakdown is desirable from the point of view of economic development. This is because there is no disincentive to work when the participants in an extended family find the arrangement mutually valuable as is the usual case; and because the extended family can be a source of entrepreneurial strength.
Presents comments on the origins of a defective sense of self and on the resulting disabilities in the area of perception and of interpersonal relations. The giving and receiving of gifts as acts which involve both perception and interpersonal relations is shown through case illustration where the acceptance of a gift was used for therapeutic purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contends that social psychological investigators should begin work from naturally occurring instances of social phenomena. Progressive steps should then be taken to establish the power, generality, and theoretical/conceptual underpinnings of the phenomenon of interest. Examples of this orientation include (a) work on bystander intervention that was inspired by the Kitty Genovese incident and (b) research on obedience to authority, which was sparked by the Nazi concentration camp phenomenon. The actions of other people or one's own actions can also provide topics for research: An experience in which the author was persuaded to donate to a charity a second time through the use of the words "even a penny will help" was the impetus for his research on compliance. Another naturally occurring compliance strategy studied by the author was "throwing a low ball," a pricing technique used by car salespersons. It is argued that natural observation should not only be used to identify effects suitable for research, it should also be used to check on the validity of findings from that experimentation. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent changes in pretheoretical orientation toward problems of human memory have brought with them a concern with retrieval processes, and a number of early versions of theories of retrieval have been constructed. This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by non-list items. Experiments designed to test the currently most popular theory of retrieval, the generation-recognition theory, yielded results incompatible not only with generation-recognition models, but most other theories as well: under certain conditions subjects consistently failed to recognize many recallable list words. Several tentative explanations of this phenomenon of recognition failure were subsumed under the encoding specificity principle according to which the memory trace of an event and hence the properties of effective retrieval cue are determined by the specific encoding operations performed by the system on the input stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replies to an article by R. B. Zajonc (see record) in which Zajonc differed greatly from the present author in his conceptualization of emotion and its relations with cognition, as well as in his evaluation of the evidence. The boundaries of emotion as a phenomenon and whether sensory preferences can be regarded as emotions are discussed, and the evidence Zajonc regards as supporting his claims for the independence of cognition and emotion and the primacy of emotion are analyzed. Finally, the indeterminancy of the issue of cognitive vs emotional primacy is emphasized. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
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A state-dependent learning paradigm was used in which subjects encoded and recalled equivalent lists of conceptually categorized words in each of the following conditions: (a) encode following administration of a marijuana placebo—recall placebo, (b) encode placebo—recall following administration of a marijuana placebo—recall placebo, (b) encode placebo—recall following administration of active marijuana, (c) encode marijuana—recall marijuana, and (d) encode marijuana—recall placebo. Free recall of both words and categories was more complete in the encode marijuana—recall marijuana condition than in the encode marijuana—recall placebo condition, a finding indicative of asymmetric state-dependent learning. However, these differences were not apparent when recall was prompted with appropriate extralist retrieval cues. It was concluded that the accessibility of retrieval cues which provide access to higher-order memory units which have been encoded in the dissociated state depends on restoration of that state at the time of attempted recall. Several implications of this reasoning for future studies of the cognitive mechanism underlying human state-dependence were considered.
Discusses R. S. Lazarus's (see PA, Vols 69:11728 and 25:2812) challenge
of the view that there are circumstances under which affect precedes
cognition and that affective arousal that does not entail prior cognitive
appraisal exists. His argument, however, is based entirely on an
arbitrary definition of emotion that requires cognitive appraisal
as a necessary precondition. To satisfy this concept of emotion,
Lazarus has broadened the definition of cognitive appraisal to include
even the most primitive forms of sensory excitation, thus obliterating
all distinction among cognition, sensation, and perception. No empirical
evidence is offered to document the principle of cognitive appraisal
as a necessary precondition for emotional arousal. It is concluded
that the contrasting view of an affective primacy and independence
is derived from a series of findings and phenomena, including the
existence of neuroanatomical structures allowing for independent
affective process. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008
APA, all rights reserved)
In a free recall experiment, divers learnt lists of words in two natural environments: on dry land and underwater, and recalled the words in either the environment of original learning, or in the alternative environment. Lists learnt underwater were best recalled underwater, and vice versa. A subsequent experiment shows that the disruption of moving from one environment to the other was unlikely to be responsible for context-dependent memory.
At the psychological level the reasons for holding or for changing attitudes are found in the functions they perform for the individual, specifically the functions of adjustment, ego defense, value expression, and knowledge. The conditions necessary to arouse or modify an attitude vary according to the motivational basis of the attitude. Ego-defensive attitudes, for example, can be aroused by threats, appeals to hatred and repressed impulses, and authoritarian suggestion, and can be changed by removal of threat, catharsis, and self-insight. Expressive attitudes are aroused by cues associated with the individual's values and by the need to reassert his self-image and can be changed by showing the appropriateness of the new or modified beliefs to the self-concept Brain washing is primarily directed at the value-expressive function and operates by controlling all environmental supports of old values. Changing attitudes may involve generalization of change to related areas of belief and feeling. Minimal generalization seems to be the rule among adults; for example, in politics voting for an opposition candidate does not have much effect upon party identification.
Despite growing evidence that depression is linked with self-focused attention, little is known about how depressed individuals become self-focused or, more generally, about what arouses self-focus in everyday life. Two experiments examined the hypothesis that affect itself induces self-focused attention. In Experiment 1, moods were manipulated with an imagination mood-induction procedure. Sad-induction Ss became higher in self-focus than did neutral-induction Ss. Experiment 2 replicated this effect for sad moods by means of a musical mood-induction procedure and different measures of self-focus. However, Experiment 2 failed to support the hypothesis that happy moods induce self-focus. The results have implications for mood-induction research, self-focused attention, and recent models of depression.
Motivational and cognitive mediators of the reduced processing of persuasive messages shown by recipients in a positive mood were tested. Ss in positive or neutral moods read strong or weak counterattitudinal advocadies for either a limited time or for as long as they wanted. Under limited exposure conditions, neutral mood Ss showed attitude change indicative of systemic processing, whereas positive mood Ss showed no differentiation of strong and weak versions of the message. When message exposure was unlimited, positive mood Ss viewed the message longer than did neutral mood Ss and systematically processed it rather than relying on persuasion heuristics. These findings replicated with 2 manipulations of mood and 2 different attitude issues. We interpret the results as providing evidence that reduced cognitive capacity to process the message contributes to the decrements shown by positive mood Ss.
Investigated the effects of a person's positive affective state on his or her subsequent helpfulness to others. "Feeling good" was induced (a) in 52 male undergraduates by having received cookies while studying in a library (Study I), and (b) in 24 female and 17 male adults by having found a dime in the coin return of a public telephone (Study II). In Study I, where the dependent measure involved volunteering in reply to a student's request, a distinction was made between specific willingness to help and general willingness to engage in any subsequent activity. In Study II, the dependent measure was whether Ss spontaneously helped to pick up papers that were dropped in front of them. On the basis of previous research, it was predicted that Ss who were thus made to "feel good" would be more helpful than control Ss. Results support the predictions.
Gift giving behavior Traditional exchange in modern markets
- R A Belk
Belk, R. A. (1979). Gift giving behavior. In.J. Sheth (Ed.), Research in marketing (Vol. 2, pp. 95-126). Greenwich, CT: JAI. Belshaw, C. S. (1965). Traditional exchange in modern markets, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Some factors influencing decision making strategy and risk taking Affect and cognition: The 17th
- A M Isen
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- R Patrick
- G Nowicki
Isen, A. M., Means, B., Patrick, R., & Nowicki, G. (1982). Some factors influencing decision making strategy and risk taking. In M. S. Clark & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Affect and cognition: The 17th Annual Carnegie Symposium on Cognition Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
An introduction to the design and analysis of experiments in education and psychology
- J J Kennedy
Kennedy, J. J. (1978). An introduction to the design and analysis of experiments in education and psychology. Washington, D.C.: University Press.
Pleasure, reward, preference: Their nature, determinants and role in behavior Mood and memory
- D E Berlyne
- K B Madsen
Berlyne, D. E., & Madsen, K. B. (1973). Pleasure, reward, preference: Their nature, determinants and role in behavior. New York: Academic. Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
Engrams as cuegrams and forgetting as cue overload
- Watkins
Watkins, M. J. (1979). Engrams as cuegrams and forgetting as cue overload. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Memory organization and structure (pp. 21-39). New York: Academic.
Uniqueness" The human spirit of difference
- C R Snyder
- H L Fromkin
Snyder, C. R., & Fromkin, H. L. (1980). Uniqueness" The human spirit of difference. New York: Plenum.
Some factors influencing decision making strategy and risk taking
- Isen