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Dolphin-watching tour boats change dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) behavior
Abstract
Over the last decade there has been considerable growth in marine mammal-watching tourism throughout the world. Due to the species use of coastal habitats, bottlenose dolphins are most frequently exposed to dolphin-watching tourism. We conducted boat-based focal follows of schools of bottlenose dolphins to determine the effect of boats on dolphin behaviour. A CATMOD analysis showed that behaviour differed by boat number, in particular, resting behaviour decreased as boat number increased. Dolphins rested less and engaged in more milling behaviour in the presence of permitted dolphin-watching boats compared to non-permitted boats. An increase from 49 to 70 permitted trips per week and a change in their departure times resulted in a further decrease in resting behaviour. Currently the effects of boats, in particular permitted boats, on dolphin resting behaviour whilst they are in the Bay of Islands, are substantial. In the light of these findings we suggest that current legislation in New Zealand is not affording this isolated population protection from disturbance.
... Dolphins are significantly affected by human interactions both at an individual and population level (Bejder et al., 2006a;Bejder et al., 2006b;Lusseau et al., 2006). Numerous studies examining the effects of viewing or swim-with tours have shown that vessels and swimmers disturb dolphins' natural behaviour patterns, causing shifts in activity budgets, changes in group cohesion and group size, deviations in swim patterns, increased travelling behaviour, and reductions in natural foraging and resting behaviours (Allen and Read, 2001;Bejder et al., 2006a;Bejder et al., 2006b;Constantine et al., 2004;Samuels and Bejder, 2004). These short-term behavioural changes can lead to long-term biological impacts for dolphin populations such as declines in reproductive health and permanent habitat displacement or abandonment (Bejder, 2005;Bejder et al., Wells, 2011;Samuels and Bejder, 2004;Wells and Scott, 1997). ...
... This is similar to Samuels and Bejder's (1998;2004) findings in which all recorded travel by conditioned dolphins was from vessel to vessel. Milling was combined with travelling because it was infrequently observed and other studies have suggested it may be a transitional state (Constantine et al., 2004;Peters et al., 2013). ...
... Considering that the development of play is crucial for animal social skills, less interaction with conspecifics particularly for conditioned juveniles or calves could result in developmental delays or associated problems (Foroughirad and Mann, 2013;Mann and Barnett, 1999;Mann and Kemps, 2003;Samuels and Bejder, 2004). Resting is one of the most easily disturbed natural behaviours; the lack of observed resting behaviour was consistent with numerous studies, which documented declines in bottlenose dolphin resting behaviour in the presence of vessels (Arcangeli et al., 2009;Constantine et al., 2003;Constantine et al., 2004;Lusseau, 2003;Yazdi, 2007). ...
Panama City, Florida is considered a notorious ‘hot spot’ in the southeastern United States for chronic illegal feeding and harassment of bottlenosedolphins. The nature and extent of these interactions was evaluated by Samuels and Bejder (2004); they concluded that food provisioning was thebasis for human interactions with wild dolphins, and that these encounters were likely harmful to dolphins. A follow-up study was conducted in2014 to reassess the current state of human interactions with wild dolphins. The number of conditioned dolphins (n = 21) tripled compared to theprevious study. Both studies found conditioned dolphins engaged in human interaction events during approximately 75% of observable time pointswhen vessels or swimmers were present. In this study, conditioned dolphins spent as much as 81% of their time begging or patrolling and significantlydecreased their distance moved while doing so. Nested multinomial regression analysis revealed conditioned dolphins engaged in resting or foraging(i.e. natural) behaviour were extremely likely to switch to begging or patrolling (i.e. interaction) behaviours when vessels or swimmers were present.Numerous high risk situations were observed for both conditioned dolphins and humans during these interactions. The latest development in illegalfeeding was documented: bait boats feeding dolphins to lure the animals into interactions with tour vessels and swimmers. Our observations indicatethat the problem in Panama City has escalated: dolphins are being actively provisioned, often for long periods of time; the proportion of conditioneddolphins has increased; interacting dolphins and humans are both at increased risk for injury, illness, or death; and conditioned dolphin activitybudgets and movement patterns continue to be negatively impacted by human behaviour. We recommend a more aggressive management strategy,such as targeted and sustained enforcement of existing regulations as well as additional restrictions that prohibit close approaches and in-waterinteractions for Panama City in order to curtail continued harassment of dolphins and reduce the risk of injury for both humans and dolphins.
... The Bay of Islands (BOI) is a sheltered habitat containing over 144 islands, and numerous inlets, bays and estuaries. Bottlenose dolphins inhabit the BOI year-round, with 1-3 groups of 15-20 individuals usually present at any time (Constantine et al., 2004;Peters and Stockin, 2016). These dolphins are not exclusively resident in the BOI, but range along the northeast coast of the North Island (Constantine, 2002;Berghan et al., 2008;Tezanos-Pinto et al., 2013), and display seasonal inshore and offshore movements (Constantine and Baker, 1997;Hartel et al., 2014;Peters and Stockin, 2016). ...
... These measures were insufficient to mitigate impacts on the dolphin population. The dolphins became rapidly sensitized to swimmers (Constantine, 2001) and behavioral states were altered by vessel presence, with dolphin tour vessels having the greatest impact (Constantine and Baker, 1997;Constantine, 2001;Constantine et al., 2004;Peters and Stockin, 2016). Rapid declines in local abundance (Tezanos-Pinto et al., 2013), changes in fine-scale habitat use (Hartel et al., 2014) and decay in social structure (Constantine, 2002;Hamilton, 2013) continued to indicate a highly impacted population (Hamilton, 2013). ...
... In the absence of true control data, modeling to factor out the impacts of research activities and platforms is advised Lusseau, 2003a;Richter et al., 2006;Guerra et al., 2014;. Moreover, long-term data covering periods of step-wise changes in tourism (e.g., Constantine et al., 2004;Bejder et al., 2006b), and data from populations exposed to different levels of tourism (e.g., Lusseau, 2004;Fumagalli et al., 2018), have much more explanatory power than shortterm data from one site. Lastly, information from benchmark studies at other locations can significantly enhance investigation and management of tourism effects, especially in data-deficient situations. ...
The complete collection of papers from the research topic "Whale-watching impacts: science, human dimensions and management"
... Identifying and quantifying the impacts of cetacean watching have become a growing concern for conservation management and are the prerequisite to actioning a reduction in any short-and long-term consequences it may have on cetaceans [10][11][12]. Changes in cetacean behavioural states are easily measured in the field and are frequently used to evaluate short-term disturbances resulting from dolphin-watching vessels on the targeted species [11][12][13][14][15][16]. Dolphins react to the vessels' presence by showing short-term antipredator behavioural responses, such as forming tighter groups [10,17,18], altering their swimming speed and direction [18] or displaying more erratic surface movements [13,15,19]. ...
... Dolphins often display avoidance reactions before a vessel arrives, as they can detect the underwater noise produced by engines from a distance [18,19,[21][22][23]. Avoidance responses can include increasing the depth and duration of dives [18,19,21,24] and reducing socialisation such as resting and feeding activities with conspecifics in favour of travelling [11,14,16,20]. Such alterations in behavioural budgets have great energetic costs for the dolphins, increasing their physical demand [11,13,19,21], which over the long term can contribute to reduced reproductive success and population decline [10,21,[25][26][27]. ...
... Minimal changes in speed and gearshifts were ensured to limit disturbance to dolphins. Maintaining such an approach protocol minimised the impact of the research vessel on the dolphins, especially compared to that of dolphin-watching vessels [13,14]. ...
Marine wildlife tourism has rapidly developed in Reunion Island, due to a large demand for interactions with a resident population of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris). The presence of dolphin-watching vessels close to dolphin groups can cause short-term impacts on their behaviour; cumulative incidences likely result in deleterious long-term impacts on the population. Using scan sampling, we collected behavioural data on spinner dolphins to evaluate the short-term effects of dolphin watching on their behaviour. The dolphins were less likely to begin socialising or diving while travelling and more likely to stay travelling and milling in the presence of vessels. Additionally, activity budgets for resting and socialising decreased simultaneously with increased travelling and milling. Avoidance responses significantly increased with an increase in the number of vessels and non-compliance with the local dolphin-watching guidelines. These behavioural responses are likely to have energetic costs for the dolphins, which may lead to decreased survival and reproductive success at individual and population levels. More restrictive regulations, increased surveillance and animal-based measures are key tools to adapt the conservation efforts in Reunion Island. Further studies on the island’s resident dolphin populations are necessary to ensure the continuity of dolphin-watching activities in a sustainable manner.
... The number of vessels present consistently has effects on dolphin behavioral states and movement patterns [3,4,19,20,22,62]. Up to 12 vessels were observed with a single dolphin group. ...
... Fine-scale responses of dolphins to vessel presence (e.g., diving behavior, acoustic communication, duration of dolphin and vessel interactions, variation in distances between vessel operations and dolphins, vessel speed approaches and directions) will improve understanding of the effects of vessel activity on dolphins in the CCSC. Long-term monitoring projects of vessel impacts on dolphins have led to management practice and policy changes including the establishment of speed restriction zones [23], curtailed numbers and duration of daily dolphin-watching ecotourism trips [62], and enforced defined vessel approach distances to dolphins [24]. As laws for boating around dolphins in Texas are currently lacking, extensive knowledge of the impacts of vessel operations on Texas dolphins could prompt the development of boating regulations near dolphins to better protect the species. ...
Simple Summary
Dolphins alter their behavior and movement in response to human coastal activities (e.g., commercial shipping, dredging, ecotourism). The Port of Corpus Christi, Texas, is the largest port in the USA based on total revenue tonnage, yet little research has been conducted on the local bottlenose dolphins since the 1980s, prior to major oil exportation and infrastructure growth. The behavior and movement patterns of dolphins in the presence and absence of vessels were recorded using a shore-based digital theodolite and analyzed using multinomial logistic regression and generalized additive models. Dolphins frequently foraged, traveled, socialized, and milled in the Corpus Christi Ship Channel despite the presence of one or more vessels within 300 m of dolphins during 80% of observations. Dolphin behavior and movement patterns were significantly affected by season, time of day, group composition, and vessel characteristics. Dolphins appear to remain in the active Texas ship channel despite high vessel traffic. The observed dolphin–vessel interactions emphasize the need for long-term monitoring of dolphins near human activities and enforced boating regulations near important marine mammal habitats.
Abstract
Although the Port of Corpus Christi, Texas, has become a top oil exporter, it is unknown if local dolphins are disturbed by high year-round vessel traffic. A shore-based digital theodolite and automatic identification system receiver were used to record data to assess common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) behavioral states and movement patterns in the Corpus Christi Ship Channel (CCSC) in relation to vessel traffic. Multinomial logistic regression and generalized additive models were applied to analyze the data. Vessels were present within 300 m of dolphins during 80% of dolphin observations. Dolphins frequently foraged (40%), traveled (24%), socialized (15%), and milled (14%), but rarely oriented against the current (7%) or rested (1% of observations). Season, time of day, group size, vessel type, vessel size, and number of vessels were significant predictors of dolphin behavioral state. Significant predictors of dolphin movement patterns included season, time of day, group size, calf presence, vessel type, and vessel numbers. The CCSC is an important foraging area for dolphins, yet the high level of industrial activity puts the dolphins at risk of human-related disturbance and injury. There is a crucial need to monitor the impact of increased anthropogenic influences on federally protected dolphins in the active CCSC, with broad application to dolphins in other ports.
... fundamental in physiological terms, may affect the health of individuals and their reproductive success, thus leading to a population decline as reported in other studies (Christiansen et al., 2010;Constantine et al., 2004). Bejder et al. (2006) reported that an increase in the number of permits by even one tour vessel led to significant impacts on the bottlenose dolphin population of Shark Bay, Australia. ...
... As females nurse during resting periods, a reduction of resting could have serious implications for nursing behaviour (Stensland and Berggren, 2007). Studies have also shown that a reduction of the resting state could induce physiological stress, increase heart rate, and inflate energetic costs, thus reducing energy reserves (Constantine et al., 2004). Low energy reserves could also lead to higher predation risks due to reduced alertness (Christiansen et al., 2010). ...
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Tourism impact Markov chains Behavioural budget Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Management Mozambique A B S T R A C T Swim-with-dolphin (SWD) activities are popular but can negatively impact target populations. It is important to consider the behavioural responses of dolphins, and quantify the impact on individuals and populations, as well as maximise opportunities for sustainable tourism that benefits socioeconomic growth while encouraging pro-environmental behaviour. This is of relevance in `developing countries, where ecological studies are scarce and tourism industries may have developed before science-based management measures were implemented. This study aimed to determine the effects of SWD tourism on the behaviour of resident Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve (PPMR), Mozambique. Markov-chain models were used to describe dolphin behaviour transition probabilities in different tourism contexts between 2007 and 2009 (low tourism) and 2017-2019 (high tourism). Results detected significant short-term changes in the behaviours of dolphins. In the early years (2007-2009), dolphins were likely to remain in their preceding behaviour if they were resting, travelling, and foraging. However, for later years (2017-2019) this only occurred if they were travelling. Overall, after tourist swims, and under both tourism contexts, dolphins were more likely to travel and less likely to socialise, rest, or forage. The findings raise concerns that, despite current management measures, SWD activities still affect dolphin behaviour and impose short-term negative effects to their activity budget. Our study recommends time-and area-closures, speed restrictions, and mandatory training programmes to all SWD staff. Given that SWD and whale-watching activities take place along the coast of Mozambique, national regulations are urgently needed to minimise potential long-term negative effects on cetacean populations.
... Studies on ecotourism worldwide have found that cetaceans respond to tourist vessels through behavior changes. Behavioral response is often recorded as changes in the time spent traveling, foraging, or resting in the presence of tourism vessels (Coscarella et al., 2003;Constantine et al., 2004;Williams et al., 2006;Stockin et al., 2008;Arcangeli and Crosti, 2009;Lusseau et al., 2009;Visser et al., 2011;Dans et al., 2012;Steckenreuter et al., 2012;Avila et al., 2015). Changes to respiration rate (Christiansen et al., 2014;Schuler et al., 2019), surfacing behaviors (Coscarella et al., 2003;Hastie et al., 2003;Lemon et al., 2006;Noren et al., 2009;Stamation et al., 2010), group size or dispersion (Bejder et al., 1999;Bejder et al., 2006a;Tosi and Ferreira, 2009;Steckenreuter et al., 2012) and increased erratic movements (Lusseau, 2006;Stensland and Berggren, 2007;Avila et al., 2015) have also been observed as a response to vessel presence. ...
... One alternative explanation for avoidance to paddleboards found in the Churchill River estuary may be related to the large number of paddleboards found in close proximity to each other. Greater intensity of behavioral responses with increasing numbers of vessels has been observed in humpback whales (Schuler et al., 2019;Amrein et al., 2020), killer whales ), Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus) (Visser et al., 2011), Hawaian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) (Timmel et al., 2008), dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) (Lundquist et al., 2013a) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) (Constantine et al., 2004;Stensland and Berggren, 2007;Steckenreuter et al., 2012;Pirotta et al., 2015). Paddleboards in the Churchill River estuary are often in clumped groups likely due to their limited mobility. ...
As interest in tourism and conservation grows worldwide, whale-watching has become a popular means of educating the public about wildlife conservation. The short-term impact of ecotourism industries on observed species has been widely studied with findings that indicate responses are most often behavior alterations or avoidance. Close vessel interactions with beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucas ) are a major draw for whale-watching ecotourism in Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. As the Churchill River estuary and surrounding waters are assessed for a Marine Protected Area, information on the response of belugas to vessels are needed to inform management. To assess this, an oblique time-lapse camera system with a 5-minute photo interval was set up overlooking a section of the Churchill River estuary that is shared by belugas and tourist vessels. Measurements calculated from photos were used to compare the distance between belugas and kayaks, paddleboards, motorboats, and Zodiac whale-watching vessels. These distances were compared to an expected distribution generated from locations of belugas in photos without the presence of vessels. We found evidence that belugas are attracted to kayaks, avoid paddleboards, and are neutral regarding motorboats and Zodiacs. This is the first study to quantify the behavioral response of cetaceans to tourist vessels using a camera system and a distance-based analysis. Results could inform the development of a site-specific management system that accounts for beluga-vessel relationships.
... Surveys are commonly conducted by human spotters from vessels and follow strict protocols, such as maintaining a sufficient distance from the animals so as not to disturb the animals or to elicit a behaviour response from them [7]. However, vessel presence and associated noise are known to impact on cetacean behaviour patterns, behavioural budgets, group size, composition, habitat loss, and range shifts [8][9][10][11][12][13]. ...
... Bottlenose dolphins in the North Island of Aotearoa New Zealand are heavily exposed to the tourism industry and vessel traffic, and show sensitisation and increased avoidance levels with prolonged exposure to swimmers [69] and dolphin watching tour boats [6,9,12]. The presence and noise of a research vessel may also affect dolphin behaviour and bias observations [7,70]. ...
Generating accurate estimates of group sizes or behaviours of cetaceans from boat-based surveys can be challenging because much of their activity occurs below the water surface and observations are distorted by horizontal perspectives. Automated observation using drones is an emerging research tool for animal behavioural investigations. However, drone-based and boat-based survey methods have not been quantitatively compared for small, highly mobile cetaceans, such as Delphinidae. Here, we conduct paired concurrent boat-based and drone-based surveys, measuring the number of individuals in 21 groups and the behaviour within 13 groups of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). We additionally assessed the ability to detect behaviour events by the drone that would not be detectable from the boat. Drone-derived abundance counts detected 26.4% more individuals per group on average than boat-based counts (p = 0.003). Drone-based behaviour observations detected travelling 55.2% more frequently and association in subgroups 80.4% more frequently than boat-based observations (p < 0.001 for both comparisons). Whereas foraging was recorded 58.3% and resting 15.1% less frequently by the drone than by boat-based surveys, respectively (p = 0.014 and 0.024). A considerable number of underwater behaviours ranging from individual play activities to intra- and inter-species interactions (including those with humans) were observed from the drone that could not be detected from the boat. Our findings demonstrate that drone surveys can improve the accuracy of population counts and behavioural data for small cetaceans and the magnitude of the discrepancies between the two methods highlights the need for cautious interpretation of studies that have relied on boat-derived data.
... Three main factors have been highlighted to explain the group size in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.): i) foraging strategy (dolphins engaged in coordinated hunting to prey on fish schools may form larger groups than dolphins catching solitary fish); ii) presence of calves (nursery groups may be larger than groups without calves); iii) presence of predators (larger groups were found where the presence of predators was higher) (Bearzi et al. 1997;Wells et al. 1999;Acevedo-Gutierrez and Parker 2000;Mann et al. 2000;Constantine et al. 2004;Gowans et al. 2007;Gibson and Mann 2008). In the Mediterranean Sea, where predator attacks on coastal dolphins are extremely rare (Heithaus 2001;Natoli et al. 2021), some human activities, such as marine traffic and anthropogenic noise, may be perceived as risky situations resembling the presence of predators and eliciting anti-predator reactions. ...
Abstract
Understanding how environmental and anthropogenic factors influence group living is particularly valuable from an eco- logical and management point of view, since social systems influence individual feeding, breeding and health, which in turn affect the population size. Foraging strategies, presence of calves and avoidance of predators are known factors influencing group size in bottlenose dolphins, but little research has been done to investigate the concomitant effect of environmental, social and anthropogenic factors. Thus, here we tested the relationship between the group size of a common bottlenose dolphin population in Sardinia (Mediterranean Sea) and some proxies of prey availability (sea surface temperature, seabed depth and habitat type), social context (presence of calves and sex ratio) and sea ambient noise levels, as noise may impair communication and elicit predator avoidance-like response. Group size, both at intra-population (PGS) and individual levels (IGS), was mainly influenced by water temperature, noise, and the social factors. PGS changed with seasons and both PGS and IGS decreased with increasing sea surface temperature, likely suggesting a relationship between group size and the availability of demersal species assemblages, since the latter are known to be strongly affected by temperature. Further, the increase in noise levels led to a reduction in PGS (in presence of calves) and in IGS (in females with calves only). In degraded acoustic environments, the communication between group members may be further impaired by the density of individuals, thus mother-calf pairs may try to reduce the effect of boat noise by staying in a smaller group, where the masking of one’s signals by those from conspecifics decrease.
Significance statement
The study highlighted the relationship between SST (sea surface temperature) and clustering pattern of a Mediterranean common bottlenose dolphin population, which in turn may derive from the influence of water temperature on prey abundance and distribution. Further, the effect of noise and boat presence on the grouping of the most vulnerable portion of the popula- tion (mothers with calves) was described for the first time. These results support the need for further investigations with the aim of better understanding the effects of warming and noise on coastal dolphins and provide information potentially useful in a management context.
... Disturbance can be particularly detrimental when it occurs during vulnerable times for the animal-for example, when caring for the young with higher energetic costs (Oftedal, 2000). Mother-calf bottlenose dolphin pairs, for instance, increase their dive duration in the presence of boats, suggesting some form of avoidance behavior (Constantine et al., 2004;Zeppel, 2009;Guerra et al., 2014). There are still no regulations in place for swimming or diving with wild dolphins in Mexico, which exposes populations that inhabit these waters to potential risk. ...
... These results suggest that whale resting behaviours may have been disturbed in the presence of the vessel and this disturbance was sustained once the vessel departed. A reduction in time spent resting during whale-watching has been a typical behavioural response shown in other species, including humpback whales [46,45], pilot whales [2], Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus; [49]) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus, [16,31]). Here, the reduction in resting does not clearly impact the energy budget of the mothers and calves, as the respiration rate, an indirect measure of energy expenditure [22,41], did not differ among phases. ...
Southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) are listed as Endangered under the Australian EPBC Act 1999. They migrate to shallow, coastal waters during the winter to mate, calve and nurse their young. During this time, they are easily accessible to the boat-based whale-watching industry. The aim of the study was to determine if whale-watching at 300 m distance affects the behaviour of southern right whales. To achieve this, behavioural focal follows on mother-calf pairs were conducted using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in the presence and absence of a commercial whale-watching vessel. There was no significant effect of phase (control, before, during, after) on the whales' respiration rate, swim speed, nursing rate and duration, maternal rate of active behaviours, tactile contact or calf pectoral fin contact. There was a significant reduction in resting between control and after phases, for both mothers (from 62% to 30%) and calves (from 16% to 1%). At 300 m distance and slow speed, vessel noise was measured to be slightly above ambient noise at the lower TOL 0.25 kHz band, however, vessel noise was masked by ambient noise within the higher frequency TOL 2-10 kHz bands. A factor which may have contributed to a decline in resting after whale-watch approaches, was an increase in vessel speed upon departure, which consequently increased vessel noise. Based on this, we recommend that vessels maintain a slow speed (e.g., ≤10 knots) within 1 km distance from the whales whilst conducting whale-watch activities.
... Previously, Wu et al. (2020) reported a short-term behavior response of the DRE humpback dolphins to eco-tourism. The disturbance caused by the dolphin-boat-interaction results in an increased diving time (Tosi and Ferreira, 2008), which consequently compromises the energetic intake sufficiency and reproductive success by reducing the time/effort dolphins spend on foraging, reproduction, and socializing (Constantine et al., 2004;Shawky et al., 2020). However, our results suggested that the dolphins' fitness, as measured by the mortality rate , presented an opposite trend compared to the shipping intensity within the dolphin UD. ...
It is generally accepted that vessel activity causes various behavioral responses of cetaceans and undermines individual fitness. Whether or how it can lead to a demographic response of populations remains rarely examined. In the northern Beibu Gulf, China, vessel activities have sharply increased in the past two decades, while abnormal demographic dynamics was recently noted for the resident Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins. The present study first examined the humpback dolphins' utilization distribution (UD) from 2003 to 2019. Habitat suitability was then modeled with the sighting data collected before the most recent population reduction. Finally, we tried to disentangle the anthropogenic driver of dolphin demography by cross-referring the spatiotemporal development of dolphins' UD, vessel activities, and habitat suitability. Our results showed that the dolphins' UD shrank substantially during the port expansion in the early 2010s, and we suggest that the consequential increase in vessel activities might impose extra marine stressors on the resident humpback dolphins. To reduce the boat interaction , the dolphins steadily shifted their core area to a less suitable area in the east during 2015-2017, when unnaturally low survivals were recorded. Afterward, the dolphin core area partially shifted back to the more suitable area in the west, which corresponded to the improving dolphin survival in 2018. Our finding suggested that the vessel activity may be responsible for the dolphin displacement, while staying in the less suitable area may further lead to a more severe and acute demographic consequence on the population. The underlying and indirect impact of vessel activities as disclosed by the present study is particularly important for port management, marine planning, and conservation practice regarding coastal cetaceans, especially for those resident and endangered populations inhabiting the urbanized coastal areas.
... Cruise ships also contribute noise continuously at anchorage, when generators and engines are required to retain power (Akaroa Harbour Operating Requirements, 2022), and tender vessels shuttle passengers to and from the Akaroa wharf. Both tour vessels (e.g., Constantine et al., 2004;Lusseau, 2003) and other motor vessels (e.g., Buckstaff, 2004;Van Parijs & Corkeron, 2001;Williams et al., 2006) have been shown to induce changes in cetacean behavior, and potentially related displacement from habitat has been observed (Allen & Read, 2000;Bejder et al., 2006a;Lusseau, 2005). While isolating the exact cause of these behavioral changes presents a challenge, recent research has shown that noise levels can play a key role (Sprogis et al., 2020). ...
Cetacean tourism and vessel traffic have grown considerably around the world in recent decades. At Akaroa Harbor, Aotearoa New Zealand, recreational vessel traffic, dolphin tourism, and cruise ship presence increased substantially between 2008 and 2020. We examined the relationship between vessel traffic parameters and the presence of Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori) during the austral summer 2019–2020, using automated vessel tracking and autonomous passive acoustic monitoring. Data were collected between December 2019 and May 2020, including the entirety of the first COVID‐19 nationwide lockdown. Generalized additive models revealed that increasing levels of motor vessel traffic, the presence of cruise ships, and high levels of dolphin tour vessel traffic resulted in decreases in acoustic detections of dolphins. Our findings suggest that Hector's dolphins at Akaroa Harbor were displaced from core habitat in response to each of these vessel traffic parameters. We recommend that managers use immediately actionable tools to reduce the impacts of vessels on these dolphins.
... Significance level is indicated by: "*" p < 0.05, "***" p < 0.001. (Nowacek et al., 2001) or altering behavioral state from activities such as foraging and socializing to travelling (Arcangeli and Crosti, 2009;Constantine et al., 2004;Lusseau, 2003;Marley et al., 2017;Steckenreuter et al., 2012;Stensland and Berggren, 2007) in response to the oncoming vessel. The lack of change in whistle detection between 2018 and 2020 at LBK suggests dolphins did not avoid the area during the pandemic despite an increase in vessel activity of $80%. ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, changes in vessel activity and associated noise have been reported globally. Sarasota Bay is home to a large and increasing number of recreational vessels as well as a long-term resident community of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus. Data were analyzed from two hydrophones to compare the soundscape during the COVID-19 pandemic to previous years (March–May 2020 and 2018/2019). Hourly metrics were calculated: vessel passes, 95th percentile sound levels [125 Hz and 16 kHz third octave bands (TOBs), and two broader bands: 88–1122 Hz and 1781–17 959 Hz], and dolphin whistle detection to understand changes in vessel activity and the effect on wildlife. Vessel activity increased during COVID-19 restrictions by almost 80% at one site and remained the same at the other site. Of the four sound level measures, only the 125 Hz TOB and 88–1122 Hz band increased with vessel activity at both sites, suggesting that these may be appropriate measures of noise from rapid pass-bys of small vessels in very shallow (<10 m) habitats. Dolphin whistle detection decreased during COVID-19 restrictions at one site but remained the same at the site that experienced increased vessel activity. The results suggest that pandemic effects on wildlife should not be viewed as homogeneous globally.
... Significance level is indicated by: "*" p < 0.05, "***" p < 0.001. (Nowacek et al., 2001) or altering behavioral state from activities such as foraging and socializing to travelling (Arcangeli and Crosti, 2009;Constantine et al., 2004;Lusseau, 2003;Marley et al., 2017;Steckenreuter et al., 2012;Stensland and Berggren, 2007) in response to the oncoming vessel. The lack of change in whistle detection between 2018 and 2020 at LBK suggests dolphins did not avoid the area during the pandemic despite an increase in vessel activity of $80%. ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, decreases in large vessel activity and low-frequency noise have been reported globally. Sarasota Bay is home to a large and increasing number of recreational vessels, as well as a long-term resident community of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus. We analyzed data from two hydrophones to compare the soundscape during the COVID-19 pandemic to previous years (March–May 2020 and 2018/2019). Hourly metrics were calculated: vessel passes, 95th percentile noise levels (125 and 16 kHz Third Octave Bands (TOBs) and two broadbands: 88–1122 Hz, 1781–17959 Hz), and dolphin whistle detection, to understand changes in vessel activity and the effect on wildlife. Vessel activity increased during COVID-19 restrictions by almost 80% at one site and remained the same at the other. Changes in noise levels varied between sites. Only the 125 Hz TOB and 88–1122 Hz band increased with vessel activity at both sites, suggesting this may be an appropriate measure of noise from small vessels in very shallow (<10 m) habitats. Dolphin whistle detection decreased during COVID-19 restrictions at one site but remained the same at the site that experienced increased vessel activity. Our results suggest that pandemic effects on wildlife should not be considered to be homogeneous globally.
... Such behavioural changes have been observed with more cetaceans. For instance, an assessment of how dolphinwatching tour boats affect the behaviour of bottlenose dolphins, Constantine et al. (2004) concluded that perhaps the most concerning change was the reduction of resting behaviour. Their findings suggested that the increasing frequency and the numbers of boats decrease their resting behaviour. ...
Whale-watching in Iceland has grown rapidly since 2003, contributing to the local and national economy. Research has shown that whale-watching can cause both short-and long-term impacts on whales' welfare when the operations are not run sustainably. Due to the lack of governmental involvement, its management in Iceland is based on self-governance. Whale-watching is limited to Code of Conduct guidelines attempting to manage the whale-watching operations. Insight regarding the quality of management of the industry is missing. Therefore, this research fills in that void by exploring the whale-watching industry in Iceland and revealing the emergent issues of management. In order to do so, perspectives were obtained through semi-structured interviews of stakeholders of the Code of Conduct regarding their experiences with it. Additionally, data were collected through observations. The outcomes highlight key issues that emerge in the management of CoC, aiming to contribute to a more sustainable whale-watching industry of Iceland.
... Whistle is common among the killer whale (Orcinus orca) [62], some species of dolphins like (tursiops truncatus) [63] and various species of mammals. ...
As a scientific study of marine-life habitation, populations, and interactions among organisms
and surrounding environment, marine ecology includes numerous fish and mammals as part and
parcel. Marine fish and mammals have an enormous impact on marine ecosystems. Not only for
their ecological values, but also for commercial purposes, a proper estimation of their population
size is necessary. Besides, an efficient monitoring of populations and communities is the
precondition of ecosystem-based management in marine areas. Most conventional techniques for
estimating fish population are visual sampling techniques, environmental DNA (eDNA)
technique, minnow traps, removal method of population estimation, echo integration techniques,
etc., which are sometimes complex, costly, require human interaction, and harmful for
inhabitation of marine species. In order to overcome these difficulties, an acoustic signal
processing technique is proposed in this thesis. The method is based on a novel statistical signal
processing technique called “cross-correlation” and different types of acoustic signals produced
by diverse species of marine fish and mammals, like chirps, grunts, growls, clicks, etc. Our goal
was to build a framework so that the technique can be implemented in practice. Therefore, we
have investigated different tasks, which are crucial during its practical implementation like
estimation with respect to different fish acoustics, different number of sensors and different
distributions of fish and mammals. Similarly, we have carried an investigation to select the
optimum estimation parameter for the technique. We have also analyzed different impacts, i.e.,
underwater bandwidth, SNR, etc., which have significant effects on practical estimation of this
technique. From this research, we have found that chirp signals can produce better estimation
results among the three fish acoustics, i.e., chirps, grunts, and growls signals. Among the three
fish distributions, i.e., Exponential, Normal, and Rayleigh, Exponential distribution of fish and
mammals produce better results. An increasing number of acoustic sensors provide better results
in this technique. However, limited bandwidth of underwater channel poses a barrier during
acquisition of fish signals, which has infinite bandwidth. To overcome this problem, a proper
scaling is a mandatory task. We find that scaling factor 0.59512 for chirp signal and 0.55245 for
grunt signal at 5 kHz underwater bandwidth. Similarly, a low signal to noise ratio (SNR) is also
an impediment to obtain an accurate fish population. We have found that estimation with
minimum SNR of 20 can perform like the noiseless estimation. These findings will immensely
help the future researchers during practical implementation of the technique.
... Nevertheless, most studies focused on the population-level and short-term behavioural responses (e.g. Magalhães et al., 2002;Constantine et al., 2004;Bejder et al., 2019;Schuler et al., 2019;Sprogis et al., 2020;Chalcobsky et al., 2020;Kassamali-Fox et al., 2020). Assessing individual exposure rates from human-induced stressors, especially from tourism impacts, is a way to assess which part of the population might be more vulnerable, and it is vital for proper environmental management. ...
... Panel (b) shows the smallest proportion of each network that would have to be affected by human disturbance to increase the average epidemic size when affected individuals have their behavioral or immunological competence increased by 1. 6. Panel (c) shows the smallest number of affected individuals that must be initially exposed and infected with a pathogen to increase the probability of an epidemic to 50%, when competence is increased by 1.6 and 15% of the network is affected by human disturbance. [52,66,67,101,133,145,147,150,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,65,170,171,172,173,174,175,23,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217] Decreased time spent in habitat Higher edge vulnerability (Increased Susceptibility) ...
Humans have been altering wildlife habitatsHabitat and wildlife behavior worldwide at an accelerated pace in recent decades. While it is well-understood how human-induced behavioral changes affect infectious disease risk in terrestrial wildlife, less is known in marine life. Here we examine this link in marine mammalMarine mammals populations by (1) conducting a systematic literature review to determine how human disturbancesDisturbance change marine mammal behavior in ways that can impact disease spread, and (2) using a mathematical modeling framework to examine how these behavioral changes might influence potential epidemics. Human disturbances can influence marine mammal behavior in ways that increase their exposure and susceptibility to pathogens, as well as their infectivity, or ability to effectively shed pathogens and infect conspecifics. When these changes to exposure, susceptibility, and infectivity are applied in four different marine mammal case studies (California sea lionsSea lion, Zalophuscalifornianus; Australian humpback dolphinsHumpback dolphin, Australian, Sousa sahulensisSousa sahulensis; killer whalesKiller whale, Orcinus orcaOrcinus orca; Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphinsBottlenose dolphin, Indo-Pacific, Tursiops aduncusTursiops aduncus), epidemics are predicted to be larger and more likely to occur. Considering the rate at which human disturbanceDisturbance is increasing in the marine environmentEnvironment and the large number of marine mammal species and populations that are endangeredEndangered or on the verge of extinctionExtinction, we advocate for the careful consideration of the direct and indirect impact of human disturbance on marine mammalMarine mammalshealthHealth.
... Eco-tourism has been proposed to be one of the major threats to the DRE humpback dolphins (Chen et al., 2016;Wu et al., 2020). Dolphin-boat interaction has been suggested to alter the dolphin behavior budget (Constantine et al., 2004). If the behavior harassment is intense, it may further cause the displacement of animals (Shannon et al., 2017). ...
Beibu Gulf's (BBG) Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins present both a genetic differentiation and phenotypical differences from conspecifics from other areas of the South China Sea. Given the recent urbanization and industrialization in southern China, humpback dolphins from the BBG warrant conservation attention. However, this population's demographic trend is unclear, making it hard to take conservation measures. To assess the population status of humpback dolphins in the BBG, photo-identification surveys were conducted between 2015 and 2019 in the inshore region surrounding the Dafeng River Estuary, which represents the most urbanized and industrialized coastal area of the BBG region. Robust design modeling suggested a constant survival for the female adults (0.89, 95% CI: 0.83-0.94). In comparison, the survival of the juvenile and sex-undetermined adults dropped from 0.92 (95% CI: 0.75-0.98) in 2015 to 0.86 (95% CI: 0.71-0.94) in 2016 and bounced back to 0.89 (95% CI: 0.80-0.94) in 2018. The low level of survival may justify the rapid decline in the annual population size from 156 (95% CI: 133-184) in 2015 to 102 (95% CI: 98-107) in 2019. We found little impact of emigration on the dolphin demographic process. Instead, the low and fluctuating survivals, although with overlapping confidence intervals, seemingly suggested a presence of strong marine stressor(s). Our study highlighted that obtaining high-resolution data is essential to improving our understanding of the demographic dynamics. Moreover, the anthropogenic stress in the BBG region should be quantitatively studied in both temporal and spatial perspectives, to help depict the ecological response of the dolphins to anthropogenic activities.
... This could be solved by regulating the number of boats that can approach dolphins at any one time and imposing a time limit for how long any boat can be in close proximity of a dolphin individual or group. In other parts of the world, some codes include restrictions on the number of commercial boats operating in the area and/or the number of boats at any one time that can approach dolphins [32], but there seem to be no instances where the duration of exposure to the disturbance of individual dolphins is kept within specific limits [68][69][70]. This is likely to be because of the difficulty in routinely recognizing individual animals and applying a code of conduct that addresses this. ...
Levels of boat traffic in coastal seas have been steadily increasing in many parts of the world, introducing pressures on marine wildlife through disturbance. The appropriate management of human activities is important not only to preserve wildlife, but also for the local communities that depend on ecotourism for employment and their economy. This study presents further insight into bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) responses to boats in New Quay Bay (West Wales) within the Cardigan Bay Special Area of Conservation. This region is heavily dependent on wildlife tourism, and marine traffic is regulated through a long-standing Code of Conduct. Based on a long-term dataset spanning the months of April to October and the years 2010–2018, the study found that compliance to a code of human behaviour increased dolphin positive responses towards boats. Dolphin responses to individual named boats and to different boat types were examined in greater detail. Speed boats, small motorboats, and kayaks were found to break the code most often, resulting in higher rates of negative response by dolphins. Visitor passenger boats formed the majority of boat traffic in the area, and showed greater compliance than other general recreational crafts. Suggestions are made for the better protection of the coastal dolphin population, as well as the role that citizen science can play to help achieve this goal through working directly with wildlife trip boats and the recruitment of local observers.
... Human disturbances such as urbanization and deforestation have accelerated over the last century 1 , affecting biodiversity at a global scale 2,3 . Human activities have shown significant impact on wildlife, such as influencing their behaviours 4 , feeding schedules 5,6 , habitat use 7 , and time spent on nursing young 8,9 . Although urbanization generally has a negative effect on wildlife [10][11][12][13] , it has also been shown to provide animals living space in city habitat 14 . ...
Human activities such as urbanization often has negative affects wildlife. However, urbanization can also be beneficial to some animals by providing suitable microhabitats. To test the impact of urbanization on cold-blooded animals, we first conducted a snake survey at a national nature reserve (Xianghai natural reserve) and an adjacent tourist bird park (Red-crowned Crane Park). We show high presence of Elaphe dione in the tourist park even with high human activities and predator population (the endangered, red-crowned crane, Grus japonensis). We then radio-tracked 20 individuals of E. dione, set seven camera traps, and recorded the temperature of the snakes and artificial structures in Crane Park to document their space use, activity, and thermal preference, respectively. Our results show E. dione preferred to use artificial facilities to shelter from their predators and for thermoregulation. The high number of rats from the camera traps indicate abundant prey items. Overall, E. dione appears to be adapted to modified habitats and may expand population size at the current study site.
... Increasing boat traffic, however, causes the dolphins auditory, physical and visual stress because it alters the distance between the cetaceans and forces them to escape the disturbance. This extraordinary activity alters the cetaceans' decision-making as well as their reproductive success and population (Buckstaff, 2004;Constantine, Brunton, & Dennis, 2004;Erbe, 2002;Lusseau, 2005;Meissner et al., 2015;Nowacek et al., 2001, Trave et al., 2017. In addition, studies on whale-watching showed that repeated exposure to whale-watching vessel traffic can compromise the fitness of individual cetaceans, which can affect the entire population (IWC, 2006;Trave et al., 2017). ...
Cetacean watching is an increasingly popular economic activity in Ecuador for tourism operators. Despite government regulations, cetacean watching can have a negative impact on observed animal populations. To enhance good dolphin-watching practices, a course was carried out in Puerto El Morro, Ecuador about sensitisation activities promoting empathy towards and knowledge about bottlenose dolphins, local avifauna and mangrove ecosystems. The course provided tourism operator staff with theoretical and practical knowledge on dolphin physiology and ecology, with a focus on empathy towards the species and on regulations to be respected during the watching tours. The course included interactive workshops, didactic materials, advice, video screening and structured conversations. Two innovative questionnaires were implemented on the boat during 68 dolphin-watching tours to evaluate whether the training course had improved the regulation compliance and on-tour guiding quality of the tour guides and boat drivers. The results showed a statistically significant improvement in dolphin-watching practices in compliance with the “Regulations for the Whale and Dolphin Watching of Ecuador” (p = .0002) and in guidance quality (p = .0004) after the training course. Boat drivers were identified as influential actors in compliance with regulations and should also be included in the environmental awareness training courses. The study showed that empathy-based sensitisation and knowledge reinforcement positively affect policy compliance and can generate new sustainable approaches for future dolphin-watching activities.
... Nevertheless, most studies focused on the population-level and short-term behavioural responses (e.g. Magalhães et al., 2002;Constantine et al., 2004;Bejder et al., 2019;Schuler et al., 2019;Sprogis et al., 2020;Chalcobsky et al., 2020;Kassamali-Fox et al., 2020). Assessing individual exposure rates from human-induced stressors, especially from tourism impacts, is a way to assess which part of the population might be more vulnerable, and it is vital for proper environmental management. ...
The whale-watching industry can represent a critical anthropogenic stressor for the targeted populations. Identifying and characterizing the individual exposure to wildlife tourism in island-associated cetacean communities is especially relevant in small, remote oceanic regions relying on tourism. This study characterized the spatial and temporal variation of the whale-watching pressure on common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) in Madeira Island and identified the most exposed portion of the population, making use of diverse long-term datasets (i.e. sighting data, photographic data and vessels’ tracks) obtained year-round from platforms of opportunity (whale-watching operators) and proposing a new descriptive index which estimates the cumulative exposure rates. Core areas of encounters with the whale-watching vessels were identified off the capital city of Funchal. A daily average of 6.5 (±2.2 SD) vessels were concurring in this area, with a significantly higher number recorded between May and October and a peak of 14 vessels in August. From a total of 367 identified bottlenose dolphins and 536 pilot whales, a minimum of 6% and 10%, respectively, were identified as island-associated individuals. Cumulative exposure rates for these individuals could reach levels over two times higher than the general trend for both species. A higher proportion of island-associated bottlenose dolphins were recorded in the winter season. In contrast, island-associated pilot whales were predominant (over 50%) or in a high proportion (over 40%) during all the year. The present study highlights the importance of using data from platforms of opportunity to investigate anthropogenic stressors, as tourism-based cetacean observation. It also provides insights into the whale-watching pressure on island-associated individuals occurring in oceanic areas and calls attention to the need of monitoring the fitness and well-being of these wildlife populations in Madeira Archipelago, an outermost European region.
... Shortterm changes reported includes behavioral changes, some of which may alter biologically important behavior such as feeding [i.e. 1, 6,7] and resting [i.e. 8,9,10,11], changes in inter-animal distance, respiration patterns, and path directedness [5,12,13]. These modification in the long-term can influence the viability of populations, either by decreasing their fitness or result in chronic levels of stress, which might have a negative effect on health [4]. ...
... Many of these BSE populations are also exposed to prolonged periods of low salinity that may contribute to ongoing mortality events for dolphins (Carmichael et al. 2012, Meager andLimpus 2014). Populations of bottlenose dolphins with high site fidelity in the GoM and elsewhere have also been negatively affected by tourism and increased boat traffic (Constantine et al. 2004, Bejder et al. 2006. Thus, dolphin populations with small ranges and high site fidelity may be particularly vulnerable to cumulative stressors associated with pollution and other point sources of disturbance such as fishery and other human interactions. ...
Ecosystems are experiencing elevated levels of disturbance, and species with narrower niches are often more vulnerable to disturbances. Niche breadth is often measured in terms of either diet or habitat use but diet and spatial use are infrequently considered in tandem. These different aspects of niche breadth potentially expose species to different types of disturbances; species with narrow dietary niches may be more affected by disturbances that alter trophic relationships, while species with narrow habitat niches may be more vulnerable to habitat loss and point‐source pollutants. We examined dietary and habitat niche breadth of common bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus truncatus, from three different nearshore sites in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Using stable isotopes, we determined proportional contributions of different prey groups to dolphin diets at each site and through time at one site. We used satellite‐linked telemetry at two sites to determine habitat use and site fidelity. Additionally, we examined the literature on cetacean diet, habitat use, movement, and IUCN status to determine relationships between niche breadth and population status for different species. Dolphin diets varied among sites as available prey varied, but Perciformes fish were the most frequently consumed prey. At the site for which we had temporal data, dolphins consumed more cephalopods in 2015 and 2018 but otherwise consumed primarily Perciformes fish. Dolphins had small utilization distributions and exhibited high site fidelity. Data from 31 cetacean species revealed that most species with vulnerable, threatened, or endangered IUCN statuses not only have specialized diets but also exhibit high site fidelity. Dolphins had diet characteristic of flexible generalists but were habitat specialists with high site fidelity. Dolphin populations in the GoM may have altered their diets in response to environmental changes that have altered community composition and trophic dynamics. On the other hand, their high site fidelity has exposed them to point‐source pollutants, such as oil spills, persistent organic pollutants, and freshwater. Our broader analysis of cetaceans confirmed that species with specialized diets and high site fidelity were the most vulnerable to disturbances, providing a framework to predict which nearshore dolphin populations, and cetaceans in general, are most vulnerable to environmental changes.
... Avoidance behaviours, or transition between behaviours have been recorded, including the cessation of feeding or resting (e.g. Williams et al., 2002a,b;Williams, 2011;Constantine et al., 2003Constantine et al., , 2004Coscarella et al., 2003;Lusseau, 2003Lusseau, , 2004Lusseau, , 2006Jahoda et al., 2003;Ö stman-Lind et al., 2004;Samuels and Bejder, 2004;Scheidat et al., 2004;Bejder et al., 2006;Lemon et al., 2006;Richter et al., 2006;Underhill, 2006;Morete et al., 2007;Yazdi, 2007;Arcangeli and Crosti, 2009;Christiansen et al., 2010;Scarpaci et al., 2010;Schaffar et al., 2009Schaffar et al., , 2013Stamation et al., 2009;Steckenreuter et al., 2011Steckenreuter et al., , 2012Montero-Cordero and Lobo, 2010;Lundquist, 2011;Visser et al., 2011;Lundquist et al., 2012;Steckenreuter et al., 2012;Machernis, 2014;Symons et al., 2014;Patroni et al., 2019;Sprogis et al., 2020). Repeated vessel interactions could make these reactions, though typically only observed in the direct presence of vessels, have a more significant outcome to both individual and population success than is currently considered (e.g. ...
The interactions between wildlife tourism operators and the animals that they rely on are complex. For commercial whale watching, the recognition of the potential disturbance from the vessels generates uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of management strategies for it to remain a ‘no-take’ practice. This warrants further evaluation. In this study, we analysed the activities of the whale watching fleet in Tofino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, to evaluate industry sustainability and its ability to meet legislated conservation objectives. Visual observations gave context to an analysis of the communications of the fleet, made using Very High Frequency (VHF) marine radio. Transcription of these communications demonstrated three main themes; whale location, whale ‘transfers’ between operators, and encounter or ‘show’ quality. Cumulative encounter times from the fleet far exceeded the 30-minute limit recommended in the whale watching guidelines. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) were subject to the longest periods of vessel presence, with an average time spent in active encounters of 4.21 ±1.96 hours. This extended to almost the full operating day if whales remained within a feasible travelling distance of Tofino. Humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae) and gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) encounters also exceeded the suggested time limit by 2.40 ± 1.73 hours and 1.31 ±1.07 hours, respectively. Increased education and the addition of spatial and temporal restrictions in management regimes could address the shortcomings of the current system to minimize potential disturbance to whales from commercial whale watching encounters and facilitate sustainable industry practices.
Background
Sustainable management requires spatial mapping of both species distribution and human activities to identify potential risk of conflict. The common bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) is a priority species of the European Union Habitat Directive, thus, to promote its conservation, the understanding of habitat use and distribution, as well as the identification and spatial trend of the human activities which may directly affect populations traits, is pivotal.
Methods
A MaxEnt modeling approach was applied to predict the seasonal (from April to September) habitat use of a small population of bottlenose dolphins in the north-western Sardinia (Mediterranean Sea) in relation to environmental variables and the likelihoods of boat and fishing net presence. Then, the overlapping areas between dolphin, fishing net and boat presence were identified to provide insights for the marine spatial management of this area.
Results
Three of the main factors influencing the seasonal distribution of bottlenose dolphins in the area are directly (boating and fishing) or indirectly (ocean warming) related to human activities. Furthermore, almost half of the most suitable area for dolphins overlapped with areas used by fishing and boating. Finally, relying on fishing distribution models, we also shed light on the potential impact of fishing on the Posidonia oceanica beds, a protected habitat, which received higher fishing efforts than other habitat types.
Discussion
Modelling the spatial patterns of anthropogenic activities was fundamental to understand the ecological impacts both on cetacean habitat use and protected habitats. A greater research effort is suggested to detect potential changes in dolphin habitat suitability, also in relation to ocean warming, to assess dolphin bycatch and the status of target fish species, and to evaluate sensitive habitats conditions, such as the Posidonia oceanica meadow.
There is scientific consensus that human activity through whale-watching is causing an increasing amount of damage to the natural environment, which poses critical challenges to the goal of sustainability. Based on a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the scientific literature, this study calls for urgent rethinking in regards to whale-watching sustainability. A new, integrative framework for research actions built upon the concept of regenerative tourism is provided so as to lead to a more balanced evaluation of environmentally and socially responsible whale-watching tourism. The assessment of the literature review leads to three main research areas that have driven the research field in whale-watching tourism: the ecological responses of cetaceans due to human disturbance, the determinants of whale-watching tourism demand, and the impact of tourism on sustainability from macro-cultural and political perspectives. The new integrative framework, which additionally considers innovation and external drivers as prominent research areas, proposes future guidelines for studying the interplay between some of the more specific research topics: social change, economic drivers, gender perspective, co-creation, social responsibility, technology, climate change and long-term cumulative effects, among other issues of concern.
Our compilation provides a geographical, chronological, and qualitative overview of these encounters, reviews both humans' and dolphins' deleterious behaviors during interspecific interactions and summarizes the main risks to both humans and dolphins during close encounters. Based on this review, we outline and discuss how both animal welfare and human safety should be managed such that these activities are sustainable; the demand for personal wildlife experiences continues to grow at an alarming rate and the economic pressures placed on wild animal populations run the risk of damaging the very environmental assets that support this industry if they cannot be managed effectively.
The socioeconomics of the Anthropocene is exposing coastal regions to multiple pressures, including climate change hazards, resource degradation, urban development and inequality. Tourism is often raised as either a panacea to, or exacerbator of, such threats to ecosystems and sustainable livelihoods. To better understand the impacts of tourism on coastal areas, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched for the top 100 cited papers on coastal tourism. Web of Science suggested ‘highly cited’ papers were also included to allow for more recent high-impact papers. Of the papers retrieved, 44 focused on the impacts of tourism. Social/cultural and environmental impacts were viewed as mostly negative, while economic impacts were viewed as mostly positive but only of actual benefit to a few. In addition, when compared with recent whole-of-sector reviews and reports it was evident that coastal tourism is increasingly a global enterprise dominated by large corporations that leverage various interests across local to transnational scales. Through this global enterprise, even the positive economic benefits identified were overshadowed by a broader system of land and property development fuelling local wealth inequity and furthering the interests of offshore beneficiaries. Only two highly cited papers discussed tourism within a broader context of integrated coastal zone management, suggesting that tourism is mostly assessed as a discrete sector within the coastal zone and peripheral to other coastal management considerations or the global tourism sector as a whole. The findings have relevance to the holistic management of coasts, coastal tourism and the achievement of sustainable development goals in a way that considers the increasing threats from coastal hazards, resource extraction and urbanisation, as well as the pervasive impacts of international business systems from local to global scales.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Primate tourism is a growing phenomenon, with increasing pressure coming from several directions: the private sector, governments, and conservation agencies. At the same time, some primate sites are working to exclude or severely restrict tourism because of problems that have developed as a result. Indeed, tourism has proven costly to primates due to factors such as disease, stress, social disruption, vulnerability to poachers, and interference with rehabilitation and reintroduction. Bringing together interdisciplinary expertise in wildlife/nature tourism and primatology, experts present and discuss their accumulated experience from individual primate sites open to tourists, formal studies of primate-focused tourism, and trends in nature and wildlife tourism. Chapters offer species- and site-specific assessments, weighing conservation benefits against costs, and suggesting strategies for the development of informed guidelines for ongoing and future primate tourism ventures. Primate Tourism has been written for primatologists, conservationists and other scientists. It is also relevant to tourists and tourism professionals.
Before the 2020 COVID‐19 pandemic, cruise ship tourism had been one of the fastest growing segments of global tourism, presenting a range of potential impacts. At Akaroa Harbour, Aotearoa New Zealand, the number of annual cruise ship visits more than quadrupled following earthquake damage to Ōtautahi Christchurch's Lyttelton Port in 2011. Akaroa Harbour is an area of core use for endangered and endemic Hector’s dolphins ( Cephalorhynchus hectori ). Dolphins here are exposed to some of the highest levels of cetacean tourism in Aotearoa New Zealand.
Relationships were examined between growth in cruise ship visits, as well as tours focused specifically on dolphins, and long‐term trends in summer distribution of Hector’s dolphins at Akaroa Harbour, from 2000 to 2020. Core use areas for Hector’s dolphins within the harbour were quantified via kernel density estimation using data from 2,335 sightings from over 8,000 km of standardized survey effort. Data were allocated into four periods based on varying levels of tourism.
Dolphin habitat preference varied over time, with the greatest change occurring between 2005–2011 and 2012–2015. When comparing these periods, the spatial overlap of core habitat was less than 24%. Dolphin distribution shifted towards the outer harbour after 2011 and has remained relatively consistent since.
The observed shift in distribution coincided with the more than fourfold increase in annual cruise ship visits to Akaroa Harbour. Several pressures related to cruise ship tourism are likely to have influenced habitat preferences of dolphins. Further investigation into causal factors of the observed shift is warranted.
In the wake of the COVID‐19 pandemic, the future of cruise ship and wildlife tourism is in flux. Our findings suggest that the future re‐development of this industry should follow a precautionary approach, with the onus on industry to provide evidence of sustainability before proceeding.
Tour guides represent the forefront of responsible Cetacean-Based Tourism (CBT), client satisfaction and product development. How an operation and specifically the guide facilitates the activity can shape tourists’ attitudes and change their behaviour towards the environment, turning consumers into stewards of the environment. This study examined the validity and success of a guide training workshop for CBT operators in the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve (PPMR), Mozambique. A questionnaire survey was implemented pre- and post-training to measure the operators’ knowledge of aspects related to CBT and attitudes towards sustainable tourism and local regulations. Results suggest that the training workshop improved guide knowledge, which in some cases showed significant variations according to demographic variables namely, gender, education, and years of experience in the current job position. Mandatory guide training is recommended and should include not only product knowledge but also content on visitors’ expectations, interpretive guiding, and experience brokering. Presential training, refresher sessions, and English lessons are also advised. If these recommendations are put in place, then there is the potential for sustainable CBT to flourish in Mozambique, bringing much needed environmental and economic sustainability to this developing country.
Porras-Murillo LP, Wong G, Chacón IS. 2022. Human-wildlife interactions in a major tourist destination: Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica. Biodiversitas 23: 2417-2425. This study characterized the interactions between tourists and wildlife in terms of the most common interactions and the species that interact the most. Interactions were observed during 65 sampling days between 2012 and 2020. In each event, the following data were recorded: date, time (hour), site, type of interaction, and species that participated. To characterize the interactions, the effects of the day of the week, the season, the daily period, and the site on the number of daily interactions were evaluated. Also, to understand the more frequent interactions, the effect of species and type of interaction on the number of daily interactions were evaluated. The results indicated more interactions in the dry season, between 10 am and 2 pm, at Manuel Antonio Beach, Costa Rica. Although interactions were recorded for 39 species, white-faced monkey and raccoon were the species with the most interactions. Raccoons had more interactions related to food than the tourists called or approached them; white-faced monkeys had a similar number of interactions in these categories. Interactions between tourists and wildlife in the Manuel Antonio National Park (PNMA), Costa Rica, coincide with the times and places in the park with the highest concentration of tourists. Therefore, there is evidence of the need to promote tourism with appropriate behavior of observation and respectful appreciation of wildlife, and the use of more sectors of the park is essential to avoid damage to fauna.
Studies of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) habitat use in their Hawaiian breeding grounds have revealed that mother‐calf pairs favor shallow waters to avoid harassment from males. However, human activity in these same waters may exert an opposing force on habitat use. To investigate this hypothesis, instantaneous scan samples of whale and vessel distribution were collected from West Maui, Hawaiʻi. Theodolite position fixes were combined with GIS techniques to determine the depths and seabed terrain type occupied by 161 humpback whale pods containing a calf (calf pods) and 872 pods without a calf (noncalf pods). We found no significant diurnal trends for noncalf pods, but calf pods occupied progressively deeper water over the course of each day. There was no evidence that this shift was related to (1) a “spillover” resulting from high mother‐calf density in shallow water, (2) harassment by males occupying the same space as mother‐calf pairs, or (3) the presence of mainly older and larger calves. However, while diurnal trends of whale‐watching vessels largely mirrored those of mother‐calf pods, nonwhale‐watching vessels tended to remain in shallower waters throughout the day. These results suggest that nearshore vessels may negatively impact the natural preference of mother‐calf pairs for shallow waters.
The spatial–temporal distribution of cetacean species often overlaps with fishing practices in the Mediterranean, having direct and indirect consequences. This is the first long‐term study focusing on the effects of fisheries on the behavior of T. truncatus in Montenegro. Focal group scan sampling was used during surveys between September 2016 and August 2020 to create transition probability matrices using first‐order Markov chains for behavioral states in both control (absence of fishery practices) and impact chains (presence of fishery practices). Despite the low number of dolphin‐fishery interactions in Montenegro, results revealed that the behavioral budgets of T. truncatus were significantly altered both for commercial and artisanal fisheries. However, the magnitude of the threat differed between practices, with commercial fisheries altering three out of the four behaviors in the behavioral budget while artisanal fisheries altered just one. Significant behavioral changes due to disturbance can have negative consequences on the energy budget of individuals and while the Montenegrin fishing fleet is currently limited to 224 vessels, the significant effects already witnessed are concerning for Montenegrin bottlenose dolphins. To develop in‐situ mitigation strategies, there is a clear need to better understand the impact that fisheries interactions have on these individuals.
Vessel noise is a primary driver of behavioural disturbance in cetaceans, which are targeted during whale-watch activities. Despite the growing, global effort for implementing best-practice principles, to date, there are no regulations on whale-watch vessel noise levels. Here, we test the hypothesis that a whale-watch vessel with a low noise emission will not elicit short-term behavioural responses in toothed whales compared to a vessel with a louder engine. We measured behavioural responses (n = 36) of short-finned pilot whales ( Globicephala macrorhynchus ) to whale-watch vessel approaches (range 60 m, speed 1.5 kn). Treatment approaches with a quieter electric engine (136–140 dB) compared to the same vessel with a louder petrol engine (151–139 dB) (low-frequency–mid-frequency weighted source levels, re 1 µPa RMS @ 1 m) were examined. Focal whales were resting mother and calves in small group sizes. During petrol engine treatments, the mother’s mean resting time decreased by 29% compared to the control (GLM, p = 0.009). The mean proportion of time nursing for the calf was significantly influenced by petrol engine vessel passes, with a 81% decrease compared to the control (GLM, p = 0.01). There were no significant effects on behaviour from the quieter electric engine. Thus, to minimise disturbance on the activity budget of pilot whales, whale-watch vessels would ideally have source levels as low as possible, below 150 dB re 1 µPa RMS @ 1 m and perceived above ambient noise.
Diving is a critical behaviour of marine mammals, including belugas, which dive to forage and travel under Arctic sea ice. While the limitations of dive behaviour and physiological dive adaptations have been the focus of several studies, cellular adaptations, particularly those of the immune system, have been little considered. However, diving itself presents several challenges that can impact immune responses, leading to disease or injury. As beluga dive their behaviour changes in response to human activity or environmental shifts. It is necessary to better understand how the beluga’s immune system functions during diving. This review provides a brief overview of what is known about beluga’s diving behaviour and physiology and discusses the first efforts to understand the link between diving and health via immune function in belugas. This new area of research is an important consideration regarding potential sub-lethal impacts of a rapidly changing Arctic environment on beluga’s diving behaviour, health and disease susceptibility.
Denning chronology and behavior of black bears (Ursus americanus) were investigated in east-central Alberta. Twenty-eight instrumented bears were monitored from fall through spring in 1975-76 and 1976-77. Adult males exhibited significantly longer movements to den sites than other cohorts. Bear dens usually were located on the periphery of summer ranges or beyond. Bears selected mixed stands of mature aspen (Populus spp.) and spruce (Picea spp.), or mature spruce stands for den sites. Muskeg was avoided. All but 2 dens were excavated beneath ground level or under rootmasses of fallen trees. All chambers were lined with grasses and litter from the immediate proximity of the den. Observed periods of den construction ranged from 5 to 10 days. Bears entered their dens during a 4-week period starting 7 October in 1975 and during a 5-week period starting 1 October in 1976. Delayed denning in 1975 was attributed to the abundance of blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) that persisted into fall. Denning dates varied among bear cohorts; adult females and subadults denned first and adult males last. The average overwinter weight loss of 11 bears without offspring was 16%. The energy demands of nursing offspring (N = 1 bear) or den abandonment (N = 4 bears) each accounted for an additional 9% overwinter weight loss. Time of emergence from dens spanned the 1st 2 weeks of April in both years. Adult males emerged first and females with cubs last. Females with offspring (i.e., females with cubs or yearlings) remained in the vicinity of dens for an average of 17 days (9-23 days) after emergence, whereas bears without offspring (i.e., adult males, subadults, and barren females) did so for an average of 7 days (2-13 days).
A description of the social structure of a species is a first step toward understanding its social organization and, ultimately, the evolutionary processes that shaped its social system. Since the mid-1960s the rapid accumulation of information from field studies of terrestrial mammals has made it possible to propose models to explain the evolution of mammalian social systems. These models have examined the species distribution of characteristics such as group size, group compositions, spatial patterns of individuals, and social interactions in relation to environmental variables (for example, Crook and Gartlan, 1966; Eisenberg et al., 1972; Clutton-Brock, 1974; Jarman, 1974; Emlen and Oring, 1977; Wrangham, 1980). Predictable patterns of organization have been found which provide insights into the adaptive significance of the social systems. Until recently, available information for cetaceans has been inadequate to allow construction of comparable models. A surge of systematic field studies of the behavior and ecology of cetaceans is beginning to provide the requisite information for examination of cetacean societies within a general mammalian context. To this end, this chapter presents the results of one study of the social structure of the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus.
Compared to other stretches of the New Zealand coast, very little is known about the cetacean fauna off the West Coast of the South Island. The purpose of this paper is to describe the near-shore distribution and abundance of dolphins in that area by summarising the results of two major studies. Between February 1995 and February 1997, 97 day trips were undertaken from Westport, Greymouth, and Jackson Bay in a small boat to survey the near-shore distribution of dolphins. Between July 1994 and February 1997, 283 field days were spent on the water in Doubtful Sound studying the local bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) population of c. 63 individuals. At the same time, three longer surveys were undertaken into other fiords of Fiordland which indicated the presence of further populations. Altogether, five delphinid species were recorded in various abundances. Small-medium-sized groups of Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori) with 1-60 individuals were observed in almost all areas of Westland in winter as well as in summer. Maximum densities peaked at 5-18 individuals per nautical mile of coastline between Cape Foulwind and Hokitika. Dusky and common dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus and Delphinus delphis) occurred almost exclusively in summer in groups of 2-150 individuals, often with calves, especially at Cape Foulwind and Jackson Head. Bottlenose dolphins {Tursiops truncatus) and killer whales (Orcinus orca) were observed rarely off Westland, but occurred more frequently in Fiordland.
Conservationists are missing opportunities to protect species at mass tourism sites where wildlife itself is not the main tourist attraction. At such locations are , i.e. tourists with multiple interests who encounter wildlife or fragile ecosystems inadvertently. A case study from Lamanai Archaeological Reserve, Belize, reveals the motivations of incidental ecotourists and their impact on an endangered primate species, the black howler monkey, Alouattapigra. Four hundred and seventy-one visitors were surveyed to assess their travel goals, conservation commitments, and reactions to viewing howler monkeys. Data were also collected on the behaviour of tourists and monkeys during encounters. More intense tourist interactions with howler monkeys were correlated with the number of tourists and the duration of the encounter; guided parties interacted more intensely than unguided parties. Tourists were largely unaware that these interactions may harm the howler monkeys. Qualitative observations of howler response to tourists suggest short- and long-term negative impacts. These impacts could be mitigated through more effective guide training, limiting tourist group size, and increasing entrance fees at the Reserve. Improving environmental education may reduce impacts and motivate some tourists to become advocates for conservation of endangered species.
A tagging-observation program was conducted to study the behavioral ecology of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins near Sarasota, Florida. Forty-seven bottlenose dolphins (24 males, 23 females) werecaptured. tagged, and released a total of 90 times from 29 January 1975 through 25 July 1976. Tagged animals were identified during regular boat surveys, and information was collected on all individuals and groups encountered. A total of997 tagged or marked bottlenose dolphins were sighted. A population of bottlenose dolphins was identified in an estuarine-nearshore area extending about 40 km to the south from Tampa Bay and up to 3 km into the Gulfof Mexico. Social organization was characterized by small dynamic groups that appeared to be subunits ofa larger socially interacting herd. Average group size of 688 groups was 4.8 bottlenose dolphins (standard error = 0.16), Bottlenose dolphins concentrated in different areas seasonally, possibly in response to distribution changes of important prey species. Feeding strategies of the bottlenose dolphins apparently varied according to available water depth and differed from strategies of pelagic small cetaceans. Calving apparently occurred from spring to early fall.
Tourist use of the natural environment has continued to increase rapidly. This has resulted in many authors expressing concern over the impact of this increasing use. This paper briefly reviews these concerns and outlines the general types of management responses to increasing tourist pressure on the natural environment. One type of management response lies in educating tourists and this paper argues that this can be an effective means of reducing negative impacts. A number of important educational techniques which can be used in an interpretation programme for 'ecotourists' is outlined and their use and assessment is advocated.
This study investigated the impact of tourism on the behaviour of female harp seals (Phoca groenlandica) and their pups during the whelping seasons of 1986 and 1987 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. The seals' behaviour during and after visits by tourists was compared with behaviour observed at undisturbed sites. Virtually all aspects of the behaviour of mothers and pups were significantly affected by the presence of tourists. Female attendance was significantly reduced and those females that remained with their pups when tourists were present spent significantly more time alert and less time nursing their pups. Pups were more active with tourists present, resting less and changing location more frequently. Pups also spent significantly more time alert and engaged in agonistic behaviour. When tourists approached to within 3 m or touched pups, the young seals frequently exhibited a freeze response which was observed only in this context. Pup age and tourist behaviour affected the degree of disturbance. After the tourists departed, most females returned to their pups promptly and behaviour characteristic of undisturbed situations usually resumed within 1 h.
Marine tourism has surfaced as a pressing topic in the field of ocean and coastal management. Neither necessarily good, nor bad, this tourism is inherently controversial. Today, demand for travel exhibits greater variation and magnitude than ever in history. In response, the tourism industry has become the largest business on earth. This, coupled with the respect people profess for marine environments and local peoples, creates feelings of ambivalence for the tourist. Sociologically, the activity of tourism may be studied as a symbolic interaction fostering social solidarity. Ecotourism, a recent phenomenon attuned to the ideal of sustainable development, is suggested to emerge through the social construction processes of restoration and enhancement. The papers in this theme volume add fuel to the proposition that the resolution of tourism problems in the coastal zone will require the scientific study of environmental and social conditions, policy analyses, planning, and public education.
This study examines the question of whether the evasive behavior of northeastern offshore spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata) during fishing for tuna (by the Mexican fleet) varies in geographic areas of the eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO). It also investigates whether evasion differs between northeastern offshore spotted and eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris orientalis). Observations recorded in the database of the Mexican Programa Nacional de Aprovechamiento del Atun y de Proteccion de Delfines (PNAAPD) from 1992 to 1995 were analyzed. The calculated evasion index was the estimated percentage of dolphins that evaded capture in relation to the herd's estimated initial size in each set. Evasion index by set was averaged in 2 x 2 quadrants and then used to draw a contour map. Three areas were outlined with low (25%), medium (44.44%), and high (71.80%) median evasion indices. These areas were significantly different (P<0.0001) according to the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric multisample test, thus indicating a spatial pattern in evasive behavior of northeastern off-shore spotted dolphins during fishing operations of the Mexican fleet. Spatial patterns in evasive behavior might be related to the dolphins' learning capacity, hence experience of individual dolphins or herds with tuna purse-seining in the EPO should be estimated to demonstrate this. To be representative, future research should utilize available historical fishing effort data for the international fleet. Furthermore, a multivariate approach to this issue is necessary. One of the investigated areas (mouth of the Gulf of California) was further analyzed regarding differences between two stocks of dolphins. Evasion indices for eastern spinners were significantly different from those for northeastern offshore spotted dolphins (P<0.0001, Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test). This difference may correspond to different evasive strategies used by the two stocks to evade capture in the net, such as evasion under the net and dispersion (division of herd into subgroups during the set). Eastern spinners apparently evaded more frequently than northeastern offshore spotted dolphins by diving under the net. During the three set stages of tuna fishing (before chase, during chase, and during encirclement), eastern spinner dolphins dispersed less often than spotted dolphins, behavior that may permit them to coordinate their evasive movements more effectively than northeastern off-shore spotted dolphins. Evasion over the net was rarely observed in either stock.
The effects of the presence of vessels on the behaviour of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) was studied in Hervey Bay, Queensland, where southward-migrating whales are the focus of a commercial whale-watching industry. The behaviour of whales was observed from a small yacht under sail. Rates of occurrence of units of behaviour for entire pods were obtained from continuous sampling of pods. Pods without calves showed lower rates of behaviour generally when vessels were within 300 m of them. Pods both with and without calves were more likely to dive rather than slip under when vessels were within 300 m. Hybrid multidimensional scaling of rates of behaviours of pods indicated differences between suites of behaviours exhibited by pods when vessels were within 300 m of them and when they were not. Classification of the patterns of occurrence of behaviours demonstrated that for pods both with and without calves, different units of behaviour tended to occur together when vessels were within 300 m and when they were not. Whale watching offers a nonlethal commercial use of whales, but in Hervey Bay, whale watching affects the behaviour of whales, which, although migrating, can be involved in breeding ground activities. Whether the short-term behavioural changes described here are accompanied by longer term avoidance of Hervey Bay by humpback whales as they migrate south remains to be determined.
The management of many ocean wildlife species is left in an institutional void, yet certain species command considerable public attention and have burgeoning management problems. In this paper the non-consumptive recreational use of Killer Whales ( Orcinus orca ) on Canada's Pacific Ocean coast is used as an example of management difficulties that are associated with oceanic species. Problems associated with jurisdiction and institutional arrangements are coupled to significant levels of biological uncertainty and restricted management options, as well as to management concerns associated with the human domain. The case is conceptualized as an interaction between the human and more general ecological spheres, mediated by the history of the relationship between humans and the species in question. Two routes to regulation are presented, dealing respectively with the human and ecological aspects. Of particular significance is the idea that both types of information are necessary to maximize utility to both the human user and the Whales.
Results from an ongoing study of recreational use are presented to indicate some of the variables that have emerged. These are to be interpreted within current resource management infrastructure to create a tenuous situation. The unfortunate logic that results from this study is that if Killer Whales (a high-profile species) in Canada (a well-endowed nation) have not warranted more substantial protection, then the outlook for less well-known marine species in areas of the world where resource management priorities involve more direct survival concerns, is not optimistic.
A bstract
Theodolite tracking (61 d; 251 h) was used to quantify dolphin reactions to boats and swimmers in the austral summers of 1995‐1996 and 1996‐1997. Dolphins were accompanied by swimmers (within 200 m) for 11.2% of the total observation time, whereas boats accounted for an additional 12.4%. Dolphins were not displaced by either of these activities. Swimmers caused only weak, non‐significant effects, perhaps because dolphins could very easily avoid them. Reactions to the dolphin‐watching boat were stronger. Analyses of relative orientation indicate that dolphins tended to approach the vessel in the initial stages of an encounter but became less interested as the encounter progressed. By 70 min into an encounter dolphins were either actively avoiding the boat or equivocal towards it, approaching significantly less often than would be expected by chance. Analyses of group dispersion indicate that dolphins were significantly more tightly bunched when a boat was in the bay.
Nature-based tourism activities have been developing over the last decade, but it is still difficult to manage these activities sustainably. This sector is increasingly focusing on whales and dolphins in coastal communities, but the exact effects of these tourism activities are unclear. Markov chain modeling may help researchers assess the effects of tourism activities on the behavioral budget of small cetaceans. Matrix models have been used widely in population ecology to provide successful management guidelines. From June 2000 to August 2001, I collected information on the behavioral state of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops spp.) schools from a population residing in Doubtful Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand. In addition, I recorded the occurrence of boat and dolphin interactions. I then calculated the transition probabilities of passing from one behavior to another by using a first-order, time-discrete Markov chain model. Behavioral transitions during which a boat-dolphin interaction occurred were compiled in an "impact" chain. All other transitions were tallied in a control chain. I then quantified the effect of boat-dolphin interactions during behavioral transitions by comparing the behavioral transition probabilities of both chains. Socializing and resting behaviors were disrupted by interactions with boats to a level that raises concern. Both the duration of bouts and the total amount of time spent in both these behavioral states were substantially decreased. Dolphins were significantly more likely to be travelling after an interaction with a boat. However, the overall behavioral budget of the population was not significantly affected. Therefore, the bottlenose dolphin population seems to be able to sustain the present level of boat interactions because of its low intensity. More effort is needed to develop prognosis analyses in order to understand how the effect of boat interactions on dolphins changes with variations in intensity.
Two contrasting results emerge from comparisons of the social systems of several odontocetes with terrestrial mammals. Researchers have identified remarkable convergence in prominent features of the social systems of odontocetes such as the sperm whale and bottlenose dolphin with a few well-known terrestrial mammals such as the elephant and chimpanzee. In contrast, studies on killer whales and Baird's beaked whale reveal novel social solutions to aquatic living. The combination of convergent and novel features in odontocete social systems promise a more general understanding of the ecological determinants of social systems in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, as well as the relationship between relative brain size and social evolution.
The behaviour and heart rate of nine incubating Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) and one chick at crèche age were recorded in a breeding colony at Esperanza Station, Antarctica, during natural activity and disturbance. Heart rates were obtained by safety-pin electrode ECG and implantable radio-transmitters. In adults, minimal heart rate at rest was 86 bpm (beats per minute), rising to a maximum of 127 bpm when the birds were standing. Heart rates reflecting the degree of disturbance rose from resting levels to 110, 118, 127 and 145 when the stimulus was sheathbill, congener, human and helicopter, respectively. In the chick, normal heart rates were higher by 140 bpm than in adults (2.2 kg as opposed to 4.5 kg). Heart rates during natural activity ranged from 220 (sleep) to 287 bpm (food run). Disturbance resulted in heart rate increasing from resting levels to 240 (congener), 260 (approaching helicopter), 273 (helicopter overhead) to 310 bpm (capture by a human). Helicopters even when 1500 m away caused scattering of the birds and other panic reactions. A hand-reared chick in an enclosure did not show any fearful reaction (behaviour, heart rate) to helicopter approach whilst the observer was standing close by which indicates habituation to human disturbance. We propose that wild Adélie penguins, although often seemingly unconcerned, react strongly to man-made stimuli during the breeding season, resulting in reduced fledging and hatching success. Disturbance should be kept to a minimum.
This study monitored the impact of habituation and tourism on a community of chimpanzees in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. From February 1992 to June 1993, chimpanzees' initial reactions to contacts with human observers were recorded together with other factors such as numbers of observers present and the method used to locate the chimpanzees. On 54 occasions with various numbers of observers (and/or tourists) present, activity rates were recorded for the observed individuals. Numbers of observers present (up to five) had no impact on the chimpanzees' initial reaction, and the only significant change in activity caused by higher numbers of observers (up to 15) was an increasing vocalisation rate. As visitor satisfaction declines with groups of more than six to eight people it is suggested that tourist groups viewing chimpanzees should be kept at a maximum number of 10 (including guides).
The impact of small boats on harbour seal haulout behaviour was studied from May to August 1997 in Métis Beach, Canada. The number of seals hauled- out increased throughout the summer and was aected by air temperature, tide, and wind direc- tion. Disturbances most often were caused by kay- aks and canoes (33.3%), motor boats (27.8%), and sailboats (18%). Numbers of seals hauled-out decreased after a disturbance, except during the molting period when seals seemed more reluctant to enter the water. The most severe reaction was seen with the approach of kayaks-canoes with a flushing response of 86% compared to 74% by motor boats and 0% by sailboats. While animals were hauled- out, they spent over 70% of their time resting and comfort behaviour and 11-34% of their time in alert behaviour. Increases in alert behaviour by seals occurred during a disturbance, but changes were quite subtle.
On the basis of 2255 hr contact with free-living gorilla, and considerable observation of two captive infants, sixteen types of vocalization are described. Some of these could be grouped to give twelve basic categories. For each of the sixteen types data are presented on the frequency with which it is given by each age/sex class, the contexts in which it is given, the nature of the responses elicited from the various age/sex classes, etc.
If logging is to be compatible with primate conservation, primate populations must be expected to recover from the disturbance and eventually return to their former densities. Surveys conducted over 28 years were used to quantify the long-term effects of both low- and high-intensity selective logging on the density of the five common primates in Kibale National Park, Uganda. The most dramatic exception to the expectation that primate populations will recover following logging was that group densities of Cercopithecus mitis and C. ascanius in the heavily logged area continued to decline decades after logging. Procolobus tephrosceles populations were recovering in the heavily logged areas, but the rate of increase appeared to be slow (0.005 groups/km(2) per year). Colobus guereza appeared to do well in some disturbed habitats and were found at higher group densities in the logged areas than in the unlogged area. There was no evidence of an increase in Lophocebus albigena group density in the heavily logged area since the time of the logging, and there was a tendency for its population to be lower in heavily logged areas that in lightly logged areas. In contrast to the findings from the heavily logged area, none of the species were found at a lower group density in the lightly logged area than in the unlogged area, and group densities in this area were not changing at a statistically significant rate. The results of our study suggest that, in this region, low-intensity selective logging could be one component of conservation plans for primates; high-intensity logging, however, which is typical of most logging operations throughout Africa, is incompatible with primate conservation.
Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.
We used a case study of a coastal bottlenose dolphin population to present a framework for determining the number of individuals present and assessing the likely time scale over which trends in abundance may be determined. Such a framework is appropriate for animal species that possess natural markings sufficient for individual recognition, and may be valuable in the development and implementation of management and monitoring programs for vulnerable populations.Population abundance was estimated using mark-recapture methods applied to photoidentification data. This experiment was designed to minimize violation of method assumptions so as to allow use of the most parsimonious model for analysis. The data were examined critically to investigate mark-recapture assumptions, while analytical methods and data were selected to minimize and, where necessary, account for violations. The estimated number of animals with long-lasting marks from left and right side estimates were 73 +/- 12 and 80 +/- 11 individuals, respectively (means +/- 1 se). When divided by the estimated proportion of such animals in the population (0.57 +/- 0.043 and 0.61 +/- 0.035, respectively) and averaged, weighted by inverse variance, a total population size of 129 +/- 15 individual animals was estimated (95% CI = 110-174 animals).Data on calves observed and carcasses recovered suggest that the population could be increasing or decreasing at an annual rate of up to 5%. A power analysis, undertaken to investigate the length of monitoring program required to detect changes in population abundance at a 90% level of certainty, showed that detection of a trend could only occur following >8 yr of research effort. Biennial sampling has power similar to that of annual sampling, but savings in resources are offset by the loss of data on the reproductive histories of individuals.
Traditionally, marine resources have been managed such that controls on new developments are implemented only when harmful effects on other environmental or economic interests can be demonstrated This approach poses particular problems for the conservation of coastal cetaceans because potential threats to their populations are diverse and likely to interact, individual threats may result from multiple sources, and the problems inherent in studying cetaceans result in considerable scientific uncertainty and low statistical power to detect any effects. Consequently, many countries are adopting integrated coastal management programs and precautionary management principles. In practice, however, issues continue to be dealt with within traditional frameworks that require demonstration of harm. Because cetaceans are long-lived, they demand long-term studies, and populations could decline to dangerously low levels before management action is taken. We illustrate these Problems using a case study from the Moray Firth Scotland. This inshore area will soon be designated and managed as a "special area of conservation" to protect bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) under the European Community's Habitats Directive. The population is small and isolated, and it faces a wide range of potential threats, but there remains considerable uncertainty over the magnitude of each threat. We combined power analysis and population viability analysis to explore the relative consequences of adopting either traditional or precautionary approaches to management. In this case, our results reaffirm the need for precautionary management. More generally, we illustrate how this approach can be used to provide a more scientific basis for determining the level of precaution required to address particular management issues in this and other marine systems.
Southern fur seals Arctocephalus
australis in Peru have declined gradually over the past decade, and declined dramatically (72%) as a result of low food availability during the severe El Niño in 1997–98. In 1999, seals abandoned some historically important breeding sites. This is particularly alarming because new sites were not colonized. Our objective was to examine how habitat features and human disturbance influenced whether sites were currently used, abandoned or apparently not used in the past by fur seals for breeding. Data were collected on 14 variables at 70 potential breeding sites at three guano reserves in Peru. Discriminant analysis revealed significant multivariate differences among sites currently used for breeding, abandoned sites and unused sites (F=5.97, P<0.00001), and the model classified 74% of sites correctly. Currently used sites were less likely to have human disturbance and more likely to have offshore islands, stacked rocks, tide pools and abundant shade. Separate discriminant analyses for each reserve produced similar results. Habitat associated with thermoregulation (e.g. shade or pools) may be more important to fur seals in Peru, which breed at lower latitudes and are at greater risk of overheating on land than other populations. Habitat with minimized human access may be especially important to seals in small populations in which individuals may perceive themselves as more vulnerable because of decreased vigilance and dilution effects. Seals in our study selected breeding habitat with stacked rocks, which create shade and tide pools for thermoregulation and make human access difficult; but pups might suffer higher mortality in this habitat. We hypothesize that fur seals in Peru may exhibit an Allee effect, whereby suitability of habitat varies with population abundance.
Understanding the effects of human disturbance on endangered wildlife populations is critical to their conservation. We examined the effects of roads and human disturbance on the survivorship and foraging efficiency of Amur tigers ( Panthera tigris altaica) on and near Sikhote-Alin State Biosphere Zapovednik, Primorye Krai ( province), Russia. To evaluate the effects of roads, we estimated survivorship of radiocollared tigers and their cubs living in three types of areas: (1) areas with primary roads, (2) areas containing secondary roads, and (3) areas with minimal or no road access. We classified a tiger into one of these three treatments based on which types of roads bisected their 50% minimum convex polygon home ranges. Over a 9-year period (1991–2000), adult female survival was greatest (χ 2 = 12.2, df = 2, p = 0.002) for radiocollared tigers in roadless areas. All adult female tigers in roadless areas survived their tenure in those locations (n = 2), whereas all died or disappeared prematurely from areas with primary roads (n = 6). Cub survival was lower in areas with primary and secondary roads than in roadless areas (χ 2 = 10.9, df = 1, p < 0.009). We evaluated the effects of human disturbance at kill sites by examining 86 kills made by 15 tigers determining whether human disturbance had occurred at the kill site, and examining prey carcasses after tigers left, to estimate the percent meat eaten and whether the tiger abandoned the kill following human disturbance. Tigers undisturbed at kills consumed more meat ( Z = 3.71, p = 0.0002) from each kill than disturbed tigers did. Undisturbed tigers also spent more time at each kill site than disturbed tigers did ( Z = 2.3; p = 0.02). Abandonment of kills occurred in 63% of 24 instances when tigers were disturbed by people. Because roads decrease the survivorship and reproductive success of tigers, we recommend that in habitats managed for tigers, construction of new roads should be prohibited wherever possible and access to secondary roads (e.g., logging roads) should be reduced or prevented wherever possible. Protected areas seem to cease functioning as source populations where road access exists, and unprotected areas—the majority of Amur tiger range—cannot sustain stable populations with the increasing threat of human access to tiger habitat.
Resumen: Entender los efectos de la perturbación humana sobre poblaciones de vida silvestre en peligro es crítico para su conservación. Examinamos los efectos de caminos y perturbación humana sobre la supervivencia y eficiencia de forrajeo de tigres Amur ( Panthera tigris altaica) en y cerca de Biosfera Estatal Zapovednik Sikhote-Alin, Primorye Krai ( provincia), Rusia. Para evaluar los efectos de los caminos, estimamos la supervivencia de tigres con radio-collares y sus crías en áreas de tres tipos: 1) áreas con caminos primarios, 2) áreas con caminos secundarios y 3) áreas con mínimo o sin acceso de caminos. Clasificamos un tigre en uno de estos tres tratamientos con base en cuales tipos de caminos dividen el 50 % mínimo del polígono convexo de sus rangos de hogar. En un período de 9 años (1991–2000), la supervivencia de hembras adultas fue mayor (χ 2 = 12.2, g.l. = 2, p = 0.002) en tigres con radio–collar en áreas sin caminos. Todas las hembras adultas en áreas sin caminos sobrevivieron su dominio en esas localidades (n = 2), mientras que todas murieron o desaparecieron prematuramente en las áreas con caminos primarios (n = 6). La supervivencia de crías fue menor en áreas con caminos primarios y secundarios que en áreas sin caminos (χ 2 = 10.9, g.l. = 1, p < 0.009). Evaluamos los efectos de la perturbación humana en sitios de depredación mediante el examen de 86 muertes causadas por 15 tigres, determinando si había ocurrido perturbación humana en el sitio, y mediante el examen de restos de las presas después de que se alejaron los tigres, para estimar el porcentaje de carne consumida y si el tigre abandonó su presa después de una perturbación humana. Los tigres no perturbados consumieron más carne ( Z = 3.71, p = 0.0002) de cada presa que los tigres perturbados. Tigres no perturbados pasaron más tiempo con su presa que tigres perturbados ( Z = 2.3, p = 0.02). El abandono de presas ocurrió en 63 % de 24 eventos cuando los tigres fueron perturbados por humanos. Debido a que los caminos reducen la supervivencia y el éxito reproductivo de los tigres, recomendamos que en los hábitats bajo manejo para tigres, se debe prohibir la construcción de caminos donde sea posible y se debe reducir o prevenir el acceso a caminos secundarios (e. g. caminos madereros) donde sea posible. Las áreas protegidas dejan de funcionar como poblaciones fuente donde existe acceso a caminos, y las áreas no protegidas ( la mayor parte del rango de tigre Amur) no pueden sostener poblaciones estables con la incremento en la amenaza del acceso humano al hábitat de los tigres.
One of the results of human disturbance at seabird colonies may be the provocation of the typical vertebrate adrenocortical response to stressors, but there have been few studies that demonstrate this. The present study demonstrates that simple human presence at the nest site, without effects of capture or handling, is physiologically stressful for breeding Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) that are not accustomed to seeing humans. It also demonstrates that birds that have been exposed to very high levels of human visitation via tourism do not respond to human presence as a stressor, whereas those exposed to moderate levels of disturbance do not show evidence of habituation over a period of a few years. These results suggest that tourist visits should be concentrated in a small part of breeding colonies, allowing birds nesting in the visitation area to habituate, leaving the remainder of the colony free of disturbance