No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Product characterization of kodo ko jaanr: Fermented finger millet beverage of the Himalayas
Abstract
Kodo ko jaanr is a traditional mild-alcoholic beverage prepared from seeds of finger millets in the Eastern Himalayas. Forty samples of kodo ko jaanr were collected from the Darjeeling hills and Sikkim in India and subjected to microbiological and analytical characterization. Population of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) was detected at the level of 7.1 and 5.9 log cfu g−1, respectively. Yeasts consisted of Pichia anomala, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida glabrata, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, and LAB consisted of Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lactobacillus bifermentans in kodo ko jaanr samples. Samples were tested for pathogenic contaminants. Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus were not detected in any sample. The pH, moisture, acidity and alcohol content of the product were 4.1, 69.7%, 0.27% and 4.8%, respectively. Kodo ko jaanr is rich in crude fibre. Ash, fat, protein and calorie content remained the same as that of substrate.
... Consumption of alcoholic beverages with ethanol as a major constituent has raised economic, social, and health problems throughout the world (Room et al., 2003;World Health Organization, 2011). Despite the serious health issues, consumption of homebrewed alcoholic beverages (HBABs) that comprise both the non-distilled beverages prepared from rice (Tamang, 2006) and millet cereals (Thapa et al., 2004) and the distilled liquors commonly prepared from cereals fruits and sugar (Thapa et al., 2015) has been practiced in Nepal since the ancient times (Thapa et al., 2015). Ethanol content in alcoholic beverages ranges from 7-21% (v/v) in wine, 20-50% (v/v) in liqueur and 3-6% (v/v) in beer (Anonymous, 1992). ...
... Ethanol content is a quality index and flavor indicator for beverages (Wang et al., 2003). In a nationwide cross-sectional study, the average ethanol concentration in Nepal's commonly available HBAB was higher than the ethanol content in beer and wine markets but less than in branded liqueurs (Thapa et al., 2004). The current study comprises the assessment of brewing water hardness and alkalinity, and ethanol content in non-distilled and distilled HBABs in a research locale of Nepal, Pokhara countryside, to generate the relevant data associated with variations in fermentation and distillation techniques, ingredients composition, brewing water source, hardness, and alkalinity. ...
... The non-distilled HBABs in the Himalayan region of Nepal, Bhutan, and India are mild strength, calorific, and inexpensive beverages (Tamang, 2006). The rice with its sweetened taste is of better quality (Thapa & Tamang, 2004). Brewing water quality affects the enzymatic activity of yeasts in wort and the taste and quality of alcoholic beverages. ...
The current study determined brewing water hardness, alkalinity, and ethanol content in non-distilled and distilled home-brewed alcoholic beverage (HBAB) samples available in the local households of Pokhara, Nepal countryside. The HBAB samples selected for the ethanol content determination were (i) non-distilled home-brewed alcoholic beverages bhate jand & chhyang prepared by fermentation of a mashed mixture of glutinous steamed rice and starter culture media of marcha (yeasts) and tongba prepared by fermentation of a mashed mixture of steamed finger millet and marcha (yeasts) starter, and (ii) distilled HBAB viz. local raksi prepared by fermentation of a mashed mixture of millet grains and yeasts followed by the subsequent distillation in different lots in household distillery plants. The study revealed desirable hardness but excess alkalinity factors in the brewing water samples. The non-distilled HBABs were found to have less than half the ethanol content in distilled HBABs. Among the non-distilled HBABs, steamed rice fermented chhyang had higher ethanol concentration than glutinous rice fermented bhate jand and finger millet fermented tongba beverages. The standard guidelines for brewing water hardness and alkalinity and standardization of ethanol content are essentially required for branding and commercialization and restricted consumption of the Nepalese HBABs. This study provides useful data for national economic and health plans for these purposes.
... Isolates derived from all the seven districts revealed the presence of S. cerevisiae. Many worker reported S. cerevisiae as the dominant alcohol producing yeast in fermented products worldwide (Sujaya et al., 2004;Thapa and Tamang, 2004;Xie et al., 2007;do Amaral Santos et al., 2012;Jimoh et al., 2012;Miguel et al., 2013;Chakrabarty, 2017). ...
... S. fibuligera was the principal amylolytic yeasts found in Indonesian cassava-tape and ragi tape (Kuriyama et al., 1997). Many workers reported S. fibuligera from various fermented drinks (Tamang and Sarkar, 1995;Tamang, 2003;Thapa and Tamang, 2004 Thakur et al., 2015). S. fibuligera produces large amount of amylases, acid protease and β-glucosidase which have high potential of applications in fermentation industry (Chi et al., 2009). ...
... Several workers also retrieved Candida spp. from fermented products (Hancioglu and Karapinar, 1997;Sujaya et al., 2004;Thapa and Tamang, 2004;Xie et al., 2007;Soka and Irene, 2013;Thakur et al., 2015;Chakrabarty, 2017). ...
... Kodo ka jannr is a traditional mild alcoholic beverage prepared from the seeds of finger millets (Eleusine coracana) in the Eastern Himalayas. 16 During the preparation of kodo ka janar, dry seeds of finger millet are cleaned, washed, and cooked for about 30 min in an open cooker, excess water is drained off, and the cooked seeds are spread on a mat made up of bamboo, locally called mandra, for cooling. After this, 2% of a mixed starter culture of dry, powdered, marcha 17 is sprinkled over cooked seeds, mixed thoroughly and packed into a bamboo basket lined with fresh fern (Thelypterise rubescens), locally called thadre unioon, or banana leaves. ...
... It was also observed in kodo ko jaanr that there is an increase in calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron and phosphorous. 16,39 It is seen that Themsing is not only enjoy as beverages but also given in curing certain disease like waist and muscles pain and added as an ingredient in formulation of certain local medicines. These medicines formulated with local beverages (rakshi and lohpani) and given in the delivery, stomach pain, dysentery and chhatpa (a syndrome affecting people of cooler region when they go to hotter places). ...
Millets belonging to poaceae family is often called as nutricereals due to their high nutritional value. Millet is believed to be a climate-resilient crop, which could help feed the world’s ever-growing population. Realizing the potential of millets in boosting sustainability, the UN General Assembly recently proclaimed 2023 as the International Year of Millets in March 2021, to promote cultivation as a solution to climate and global food security challenges. Prior to the Green Revolution, millet was a popular crop in different parts of Northeast India. Though it was neglected but it was a part of people’s food system. Among all the Northeastern states of India, Millet was used to make local wine. These drinks were used during ceremonies, occasions and celebrations. These drinks are considered as nutritious and of high caloric value. This paper highlights the traditional method in preparation of millet wine and its benefits. Key words: Millets, Millet beverages, Millet Wine, Madua Apong, Kodo Ko Jaanr, Kiad Krai, Themsing, Rakshi, Tongba.
... Instead, traditional mild-alcoholic beverages viz kodo ko jaanr, chyang, bhaati jaanr, kiad, aitangba, haria, and so on (Table 1) are prepared from cereals (rice/wheat/fingermillets/barely) fermented by dry amylolytic starters in India. Microorganisms present in the final alcoholic products are supplemented by amylolytic starters during the alcoholic fermentation (Thapa and Tamang 2004). Saccharomyces is primarily involved in starters-fermented alcoholic beverages along with non-Saccharomyces yeasts in India (Nath et al. 2021). ...
... Along with moulds and few bacteria, yeasts population are consisted of S. cerevisiae and non-Saccharomyces spp. such as P. kudriavzevii, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, S. fibuligera, and W. anomalus in mild-alcoholic beverages (Ghosh and Das 2004, Thapa and Tamang 2004, Ghosh et al. 2014, Thakur and Bhalla 2015. ...
Ethnic Indian people have been domesticating beneficial microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts and moulds) by their wisdom of ethno-microbiological knowledge for production of flavoured and socio-culturally preferred fermented foods and alcoholic beverages for more than 8000 years. The purpose of this review is to collate the available literatures of diversity of Saccharomyces and non- Saccharomyces species associated with Indian fermented foods and alcoholic beverages. A colossal diversity of enzyme- and alcohol-producing yeasts under phylum Ascomycota has been reported from Indian fermented foods and alcoholic beverages. The distributions of yeast species show 13.5% of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and 86.5% of some non-Saccharomyces spp. in Indian fermented foods and alcoholic beverages, based on the reported literatures available till date. There is a research gap on prospect of yeasts research in India. Hence, we suggest that validation of traditional knowledge of domestication of functional yeasts needs to be studied to develop the functional genomics platforms for Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces spp. in Indian fermented foods and alcoholic beverages.
... Previously, a polymerase chain reaction-mediated denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) has been conducted on traditional Vietnamese alcoholic fermentation starter called Banh men indicated the presence of 13 species of fungi that includes yeasts and 23 species of bacteria (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). Additionally, species of amylase-producing Bacillus, acetic acid bacteria and plant pathogens/environment contaminants were also detected. ...
... The microbes associated with murcha, starter of kodo ko jaanr has been identified as Mucor cicinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis, R. stolonifer var. Lyococcus, S. cerevisiae, S. bayanus, Hansenula anomala, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lb. spp., Candida glabrata, Saccharomycopsis capsularis, S. fibuligera, Pichia burtonii, Pichia anomala, LAB like Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lb. bifermentans (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). Additionally, the presence of filamentous molds like Mucor circinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis; yeasts Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Pichia anomala, S. cerevisiae, Candida glabrata, and LAB-Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lb. ...
Fermented foods have been an important component of the human diet from the time immemorial. It contains a high amount of probiotics that have been associated to a wide range of health benefits, including improved digestion and immunity. This review focuses on the indigenously prepared prebiotic-and probiotic-containing functional fermented rice (named Xaj-pani) by the Ahom Community from Assam, in Northeast India, including all the beneficial and potential effects on human health. Literature was searched from scientific databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. Glutinous rice (commonly known as bora rice of sali variety) is primarily employed to prepare beverages that are recovered through the filtration process. The beer is normally consumed during religious rites, festivals and ritual practices, as well as being used as a refreshing healthy drink. Traditionally, it is prepared by incorporating a variety of medicinal herbs into their starter culture (Xaj-pitha) inoculum which is rich in yeasts, molds and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and then incorporated in alcoholic beverage fermentation. The Ahom communities routinely consume this traditionally prepared alcoholic drink with no understanding of its quality and shelf life. Additionally, a finally produced dried cake, known as vekur pitha act as a source of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and can be stored for future use. Despite the rampant use in this community, the relationship between Xaj-pani's consumption, immunological response, infectious and inflammatory processes remains unknown in the presence of factors unrelated or indirectly connected to immune function. Overall, this review provides the guidelines to promote the development of prebiotic-and probiotic-containing functional fermented rice that could significantly have an impact on the health of the consumers.
... The microbial flora found were Pichia anomala, Candida glabrata and Saccharomycopsis fibuligera. The fermentation is dominated by yeast (7.1 Log CFU g − 1 ), while LAB was less in number (5.9 Log CFU g − 1 ) as observed by Thapa & Tamang, 2004. ...
... The same is called tungtap in Meghalaya. Thapa & Tamang (2004) reported LAB in the range of 6.8 Log CFU g − 1 . The LAB identified were Lc. ...
Background
Food fermentation has been practiced since prehistoric times and developed over the years with modification in substrates, processes and technologies. It is carried out by microbial cultures with techniques such as back slopping and enrichment enhancing the organoleptic property, nutrient availability and storage life of food and in many cases contributing beneficial microbes to the diet of the consumer.
Scope and approach
The microorganisms involved in fermentation greatly vary according to the food product. One of the major groups of microbes used in traditional and industrial fermentation of cereals includes the lactic acid bacteria, many of which are known to have probiotic characteristics followed by yeast and mould. While dairy fermented foods have received attention as a source of probiotic microbes, those in non-dairy foods especially millets and cereal mixtures have not been documented. Traditional fermented foods of animal origin as well as other plant foods such as pulse, fruits and vegetables are also discussed. The review examines the presumptive probiotic bacteria found in non-dairy fermented foods around the globe.
Key findings and conclusions
This review is an attempt to collate the scientific progress with respect to probiotics in millet fermented foods, particularly of Africa and Asia. India has the largest documented number of fermented foods followed by Korea especially made with cereals. These fermented foods containing presumptive probiotic microorganisms may serve as probiotic supplements that are affordable as opposed to expensive probiotic formulations.
... Probably the amylolytic nature of the starters is contributed by filamentous moulds and amylaseproducing yeast present in starters (Hesseltine et al. 1988;Carroll et a. 2017;Gan et al. 2019). Since the major end product is an alcohol in cereal-based fermented beverages, produced by dry amylolytic starters in the Himalayas (Thapa and Tamang 2004;Tamang and Thapa 2006), we have also screened the ethanol tolerance ability of LAB strains. The alcohol content of kodo ko jaanr, an ethnic fermented finger Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
... millet beverage of the Eastern Himalayas, which is prepared using marcha is 4.8% (1.8-8.7%) (Thapa and Tamang 2004). Taking this information as a standard, we have used the ethanol concentration range of 3-10% in this test. ...
The Himalayan people prepare dry and oval to round-shaped starter cultures to ferment cereals into mild-alcoholic beverages, which contain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as one of the essential microbiota. There is no report on probiotic characters of LAB isolated from dry starters. Hence, we screened the probiotic and some functional properties of 37 LAB strains isolated from dry starters of the Eastern Himalayas viz. marcha, phab, paa, pee and phut. About 38% of the LAB strains showed high survival rate (> 50%) at pH 3 and 0.3% bile salts. Enterococcus durans BPB21 and SMB7 showed the highest hydrophobicity percentage of 98%. E. durans DMB4 and SMB7 showed maximum cholesterol assimilation activity. About 65% of the LAB strains showed the ability to produce β galactosidase. Majority of the strains showed phytase activity, whereas none of the strain showed amylase activity. About 86% of LAB strains showed an optimum tolerance of 10% ethanol concentration. Genetic screening of some probiotic and functional marker genes have also been analysed. The occurrence of clp L gene, agu A gene (survival of gastrointestinal tract conditions), apf, mub1 and map A gene (adhesion genes) was higher compared to other genes. The occurrence of bsh gene (bile salt tolerance) was detected in Pediococcus pentosaceus SMB13-1 and Enterococcus faecium BPB11. Gene ped B for pediocin with amplicon size of 375 bp was detected in E. durans DMB13 and Pediococcus acidilactici AKB3. Detection of nutritional marker gene rib A and fol P in some strains showed the potential ability to synthesize riboflavin and folic acid. LAB with probiotic and functional properties may be explored for food industry in future.
... Notably, C glabrata being in close proximity with S cerevisiae in the phylogenetic make up, exhibited similar results of carbon source utilization as well as survivability in the present study. Several researchers have reported the isolation of C glabrata from fermented foods of northeast India [7,136] and certain regions of south east Asia [4,137]. These isolates have also been reported to be moderate alcohol producers [136]. ...
... Several researchers have reported the isolation of C glabrata from fermented foods of northeast India [7,136] and certain regions of south east Asia [4,137]. These isolates have also been reported to be moderate alcohol producers [136]. In the current study the Candida glabrata isolate was found to show appreciable ethanol yield and fermentation efficiency in spite of low survivability ( and Saccharomycopsis fibuligera (KC8X) characterized from the same source material [5]. ...
Quorum sensing (QS) in yeast is a population density dependant phenomenon defined as the complex process of cell to cell communication, where the participating organisms detect, analyse and respond to the small diffusible quorum sensing molecules (QSMs), resulting in activation or repression of certain genes leading to changes in morphogenic transition, biofilm development or expression of virulence characters. Yeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms which are widely used for preparation of fermented foods and beverages worldwide. For the purpose of this investigation, yeast from traditional fermentative cakes exhibiting appreciable ethanol tolerance and IAA synthesizing ability were chosen that included Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Wickerhamomyces anomalous, Candida glabrata and Candida tropicalis. The isolates were assessed for their ability to express QSMs and responds to them. In order to determine their dominance, isolates were subjected to glucose and starch medium both individually and in combinations. Finally, the probable role of QSMs in ethanol fermentation process was examined. Results displayed the ability of the isolates to synthesize the QS molecule tyrosol. Isolate C tropicalis exhibited filamentous growth in response to tyrosol retrieved from other isolates. The dominance of isolates during resource competition appeared as W anomalous > C tropicalis > C glabrata > S cerevisiae in glucose medium and C tropicalis > W anomalous > C glabrata > S cerevisiae in starch medium in mono-culture conditions. In co-culture conditions, W anomalous could not sustain with C tropicalis in glucose which otherwise was reverse in starch. C tropicalis dominated all the co-cultures in starch followed by W anomalous, S cerevisiae and C glabrata. In glucose, the order was somewhat different. The fermentation efficiency was highest when Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida glabrata were co-cultured together in both starch and glucose. Under the influence of tyrosol, isolates C tropicalis, S cerevisiae and C glabrata were observed to exhibit higher ethanol tolerance compared to their normal threshold limits. Additionally, significant increase in growth was observed in C tropicalis and W anomalus isolates in starch and in C tropicalis and S cerevisiae in glucose medium. Enhancement in fermentative capacity of isolate S cerevisiae in starch medium under the influence of tyrosol was noted. The study concludes that tyrosol exerts enhancing effect in cell growth during fermentation and thereby augments the outcome of the process.
... Several species of filamentous molds Yang et al., 2011;Lv et al., 2012a;Chen et al., 2014;Das et al., 2017); yeasts (Hesseltine and Kurtzman, 1990;Tamang and Sarkar, 1995;Tsuyoshi et al., 2005;Jeyaram et al., 2008Jeyaram et al., , 2011Thanh et al., 2008;Fronteras and Bullo, 2017;Sha et al., 2017Sha et al., , 2018Sha et al., , 2019, and bacteria (Hesseltine and Ray, 1988;Tamang et al., 2007;Sha et al., 2017;Roslan et al., 2018) are found to coexist in traditionally prepared dry starters as "micro-resources" which have been sub-cultured to preserve essential microbiota for alcohol production by Asian people for centuries (Tamang et al., 2020). Filamentous fungi present in traditional starters from Asia have several functionalities such as saccharification (Lee and Lee, 2002;Thapa and Tamang, 2004), liquefaction (Suesse et al., 2016), and ethanol production (Dung et al., 2007;Chen et al., 2014) to produce different types of low-alcoholic beverages and highalcoholic distilled liquor. Filamentous molds are also responsible for the quality of alcoholic beverages including nutritional values and organoleptic properties such as flavor, taste, and color Tamang et al., 2016). ...
... We therefore used species from the Mucor circinelloides complex. Mucor circinelloides contributes in saccharification and liquefaction of cereal during fermentation of kodo ko jaanr, an alcoholic product of Sikkim fermented by starter marcha (Thapa and Tamang, 2004;Tamang and Thapa, 2006). M. circinelloides is an oleaginous fungus (Qiao et al., 2018) which produces lipids (Wei et al., 2013), cellulose degrading enzymes (Huang et al., 2014), and has several functional properties including antioxidants (Hameed et al., 2017). ...
Filamentous fungi are important organisms in traditionally prepared amylase and alcohol-producing dry starters in India. We collected 40 diverse types of amylase and alcohol-producing starters from eight states in North East India viz. marcha, thiat, humao, hamei, chowan, phut, dawdim, and khekhrii. The average fungal population was 4.9 × 10⁵ cfu/g with an average of pH 5.3 and 10.7%, respectively. In the present study, 131 fungal isolates were isolated and characterized based on macroscopic and microscopic characteristics and were grouped into 44 representative fungal strains. Based on results of morphological characteristics and ITS gene sequencing, 44 fungal strains were grouped into three phyla represented by Ascomycota (48%), Mucoromycota (38%), and Basidiomycota (14%). Taxonomical keys to species level was illustrated on the basis of morphological characteristics and ITS gene sequencing, aligned to the fungal database of NCBI GenBank, which showed seven genera with 16 species represented by Mucor circinelloides (20%), Aspergillus sydowii (11%), Penicillium chrysogenum (11%), Bjerkandera adusta (11%), Penicillium citrinum (7%), Rhizopus oryzae (7%), Aspergillus niger (5%), Aspergillus flavus (5%), Mucor indicus (5%) Rhizopus microsporus (5%), Rhizopus delemar (2%), Aspergillus versicolor (2%), Penicillium oxalicum (2%), Penicillium polonicum (2%), Trametes hirsuta (2%), and Cladosporium parahalotolerans (2%). The highest Shannon diversity index H was recorded in marcha of Sikkim (H: 1.74) and the lowest in hamei of Manipur (H: 0.69). Fungal species present in these amylolytic starters are morphologically, ecologically and phylogenetically diverse and showed high diversity within the community.
... It supplies nourishment, energy, and quenches thirst. The conventional process for making Chyang varies from place to place and primarily uses barley as substrate (Thapa and Tamang, 2004;Thapa and Tamang, 2006;Tamang et al., 2007). ...
... Apong is effective against a range of health concerns including gastrointestinal issues, skin ailments, respiratory problems, diabetes, and jaundice. The extract of 'kodo ko jaanr' is consumed by those recovering from illness and postnatal women due to its high caloric content [19] . Eu, crafted by the Toto tribes from finger millet, contains chemical compounds with antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-arthritic properties. ...
... These bacteria utilize sugars from the grains to produce lactic acid through a process known as heterofermentative lactic acid fermentation. Yeasts, including Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Pichia anomala and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida glabrata convert sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide through alcoholic fermentation [77,78]. The fermentation process breaks down complex carbohydrates and proteins into simpler forms, enhancing the availability of nutrients and their digestibility. ...
... Colonies were counted as colony forming units (cfu)/g sample. Identified strains of yeasts were preserved in 20% glycerol at −20•C (Thapa et al., 2004). ...
... Colonies were counted as colony forming units (cfu)/g sample. Identified strains of yeasts were preserved in 20% glycerol at −20•C [7]. ...
... Zinc content, a critical trace element, manifested an increase during both aerobic and anaerobic fermentations. This aligns with previous reports in rice and millet by Tamang and Thapa (2006) and Thapa and Tamang (2004), albeit with values surpassing those in the study by Karki (2013). ...
This review provides an in-depth investigation of Nepalese ethnic alcoholic beverages, with particular reference to traditional fermentation starters and the dynamics of finger millet fermentation. Commencing with an overview of murcha, mana, manapu crafting methodologies (making processes), the subsequent sections delve into physicochemical and microbiological aspects, unveiling disparities in moisture, amylase activity, and microbial counts between traditional fermentation starters, murcha and botanicals used to prepare them. Subsequently, the chapter focuses on traditional millet-based alcoholic beverages such as jand, tongba, and raksi, elucidating their preparation processes and properties encompassing physicochemical, sensorial, storage, and therapeutic aspects. Additionally, it explores different finger millet varieties for high-quality malt production and potential brewing applications. Insights into the impact of fermentation containers and cereal types on chemical and sensory attributes are also discussed. The review concludes by presenting nuanced perspectives on the future trajectories of Nepalese fermentation practices, challenges in preserving biodiversity, and cultural and socioeconomic empowerment of local communities. This comprehensive overview not only enriches academic discourse on traditional fermentation but also furnishes actionable insights for optimizing Nepalese ethnic alcoholic beverage production. This review holds paramount significance for the cultural and socioeconomic tapestry of Nepal and its ethnic groups. By unraveling the intricate processes of traditional fermentation, it sheds light on the cultural heritage embedded in these practices. Furthermore, the exploration of future trajectories underscores the potential for economic empowerment and sustainable development, ensuring the preservation of cultural identity amid evolving global landscapes. Indigenous fermented foods mirror a synthesis of technology ranging from primitive to culture-specific innovations, exhibiting diverse sensory and textural qualities. The exploration of alcoholic beverages unfolds unique brewing methodologies, exemplifying the intricate dynamics between tradition and industrialization in indigenous fermented beverages. Spontaneous food fermentation intricately intertwines with climatic nuances, raw material availability, socio-cultural factors, and ethnic preferences
... Kodo ko jaanr is the fermented beverages and it is the regional product of Sikkim. This product is specially made from dry finger millet (Eleusine Coracana (L) Gacrtn) seeds [50]. The common name of finger millet in Sikkim is called Kodo and sao its product name is named as Kodo ko jaanr. ...
Most of the people present in the Northeastern states of India are tribal people whose daily diet constitutes of various fermented food products. These food products are mostly prepared by their own traditional methods which they have inherited from their ancestors. This paper brings together a brief comparative study on the different fermented food products which are region specific and have their unique substrate and preparation methods. The substrates like cereals, pulses and vegetables are fermented by the local tribe. The alcoholic beverages produced in the states have unique taste and out siders preferred to take the drink. The common microorganisms like Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB), Candida sp., Bacillus sp., and Saccharomyces cerevisiae etc., are found in these fermented food products. These products help to improve the economy of the local people and it can be commercialized with proper formulation studies in future.
... People in some parts of The Great Himalayas of India, prepare an alcoholic product called kodo ko jaanr using finger millet by wild fermentation (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). In the production of alcohol from starchy materials, the complex starch is converted into sugars by mold and further fermented by yeasts to produce alcohol. ...
A value added alcoholic beverage was produced from under-utilized millets such as kodo millet and little millet by fermentation. The biochemical changes of alcoholic beverage was analysed at different time intervals from 0 h to 192 h. It was found that the Total Soluble Solids (TSS) content was 7.4% to 11.2% from 0 h to 192 h. The pH was recorded as 6.8 at 0 h and it declined to 4.1 at 96 h, and it reached 4.5 at 192 h. Total Titrable Acidity was in the range of 3.0 % to 5.87 %. Reducing sugar content was maximum at 96 h and reduced gradually from 6.42 % to 6.12 % in 144 h to 192 h respectively. The alcohol content was 10.9 % (V/V) at 192 h. The content of alcohol increased to 71 % from 48 h to 192 h. The prepared alcoholic beverage was organoleptically evaluated for flavour, pleasant or bitter taste, sweet or sourness on a five point hedonic scale and the developed product scored very good category with good flavor, sweet, less sour and pleasant taste. The present study proved that alcoholic beverage can be developed from millets by fermentation.
... In North-Eastern states of India, particularly in Sikkim an amylolytic fermented, alcoholic beverage called marcha is prepared traditionally by the local people (Tsuyoshi et al., 2005). People in some parts of The Great Himalayas of India, prepare an alcoholic product called kodo ko jaanr using finger millet by wild fermentation (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). In the production of alcohol from starchy materials, the complex starch is converted into sugars by mold and further fermented by yeasts to produce alcohol. ...
A value added alcoholic beverage was produced from under-utilized millets such as kodo millet and little millet by fermentation. The biochemical changes of alcoholic beverage was analysed at different time intervals from 0 h to 192 h. It was found that the Total Soluble Solids (TSS) content was 7.4% to 11.2% from 0 h to 192 h. The pH was recorded as 6.8 at 0 h and it declined to 4.1 at 96 h, and it reached 4.5 at 192 h. Total Titrable Acidity was in the range of 3.0 % to 5.87 %. Reducing sugar content was maximum at 96 h and reduced gradually from 6.42 % to 6.12 % in 144 h to 192 h respectively. The alcohol content was 10.9 % (V/V) at 192 h. The content of alcohol increased to 71 % from 48 h to 192 h. The prepared alcoholic beverage was organoleptically evaluated for flavour, pleasant or bitter taste, sweet or sourness on a five point hedonic scale and the developed product scored very good category with good flavor, sweet, less sour, pleasant taste with good flavor and no bitterness. The present study proved that alcoholic beverage can be developed from millets by fermentation.
... In India, the Himalayan region is known to be the focal point of production of traditional fermented food and beverages both alcoholic and non-alcoholic by the local tribal communities known to have devised their own starter cultures with native natural products which aids the fermentation process. In the Indian Himalayan Region, the weather remains cold for most of the year, because of which the tribal people prefer to feed on pre-digested food which are not only rich on nutritional value but are also simple to digest (Thakur & Bhalla, 2015;Thapa & Tamang, 2004;Watson, 1993;Bluhm, 1995;Freeman et al., 2019). Approximately 250 varieties of indigenous fermented foods and beverages are known to be prepared by different tribal communities of the Himalayan region (Tamang, 2010). ...
Consumption of fermented foods has been an integral part of the human food resource since the beginning of civilization. For generations, the practice of preparing fermented food have remained the same with a very little alterations in the techniques. Throughout the globe people with different ethnicity are known to produce fermented alcoholic beverages using variety of substrates depending upon the abundance and availability of the substrate in the region. Majority of the traditional fermented beverages have socio-cultural values amongst the tribal communities who consumes them, not only these fermented beverages have deep rooted link to rituals but also are consumed for nutritive and therapeutic purpose. These drinks are not only rich in its texture, flavor and nutrition but also fortified with the goodness of probiotic microflora which plays an imperative role in enhancing the overall dietary profile of the drinks. The high-altitude geographical regions of India are well-known for the rich diversity of ethno-medicinal plants, the tribal communities residing on the higher planes utilizes a variety of these ethnomedicinal plants for the preparation of ethnic fermented drinks which in turn augments the therapeutic value of the drinks. The present review exchanges insight on the preparation of some well-recognized drinks of the three regions of the North-West Indian Himalayan region i.e., Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
... The drinking culture of traditional fermented millet beverages of ethnic people of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim was mentioned in some historical literature works (Hooker, 1854;Risley, 1928;Gorer, 1938). The Himalayan beverage is considered a high-calorie food beverage with a low alcohol content of 4% (Thapa and Tamang, 2004) with bio-availability of minerals (Thapa, 2016). ...
... Unlike in other Asian countries, the Nepali, Bhutia, Lepcha, Tibetan, Ladakhi, Mongpa and Dukpa communities of the Himalayas sip the extract of the fermented finger millet beverage locally known as kodo ko jaanr or chyang (Fig. 7b), which are poured inside an artistically designed vessel, made of up bamboo shoot, called 'toongbaa' (Fig. 7c), by a narrow bamboo-made straw. Himalayan beverage is considered as a highcalorie food beverage with a low alcohol content of 4% [67], with bio-availability of minerals [68,69]. Though origin and history are unknown, it is assured that the Himalayan low alcoholic beverages prepared by using artisan starters contribute high-calorie food beverages and some essential bioactive compounds in the diets of highlander people in adaption to harsh climatic conditions and deficient of regular food supply. ...
One of the important dietary cultures of the Himalayan people is consumption of fermented foods and drinking of alcoholic fermented beverages, which are traditionally produced by the multiracial and multiethnic communities of the Himalayan people using their ‘ethno-microbiological’ knowledge of food fermentation. Besides delicacy, ethnical and cultural values, the Himalayan fermented foods are also the hubs of biological resources of beneficial and functional microorganisms which have been contributing health-promoting benefits to thousands of Himalayan people with a dearth of modern food products. There is no or rare publications on sporadic history, antiquity and origin of the Himalayan fermented foods. We designed questionnaire and sought information from different communities in different places of the Himalayas on oral history, legendries on origin and antiquity of fermented foods and alcoholic fermented beverages. Hence, the present article discusses the food culture, oral history, legendries and antiquity of some Himalayan fermented foods and alcoholic fermented beverages in the Himalayan regions, and also to validate the scientific evidence-based ethno-microbiological practices performed by the Himalayan people for food fermentation.
... Detection of yeasts throughout the fermentation period has a positive role in enhancing the development of the typical flavor in the final fermented products, besides their contribution to nutrient availability, as some of them also produce enzymes such as amylase, protease and phytase [79,80]. Thapa and Tamang [81] reported that mucoraceae fungi have roles in the initial phase of fermentation, mostly in scarification of the substrates which create favorable conditions for LAB. According to Petrova et al. [82], however, LAB of the genera Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Streptococcus are able to directly metabolize starch for the production of organic acids and other compounds, which have essential roles in the preservation and wholesomeness of food products. ...
The article addressed the microbial dynamics during the fermentation of "Shameta", traditionally fermented porridge made exclusively for lactating mothers in Ethiopia, particularly in Southwest Oromia. The dominance of lactic acid bacteria towards the ends of fermentation and changes in physicochemical environment of the double fermented "Shameta" discouraged potential pathogens introduced to the fermenting system along the raw materials to the extent of total elimination of coliforms and members of the family Enterobactericaeae. The survival, in low count, of some hardy type microbes like Staphylococcus species calls for development of appropriate starter culture for the products fermentation besides treatment of raw materials to be used for fermentation.
... This report is also consistent with the view of Izah et al., [11] who concluded that yeast and mould participate in the steeped maize for ogi production. Rhizopus sp. a fungus belonging to order Mucorales has been shown to aid the saccharification of substrates during the initial phase of fermentation [46]. Furthermore, the isolation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from the steep water of stored maize and fresh maize ogi affirms the reports of Oyedeji et al., [47] and Akinleye et al., [7] where S. cerevisiae was isolated from fermentation of steep water of maize during the production of ogi. ...
Ogi is a gruel that is widely consumed throughout Nigeria. Stored maize is often used in processing this fermented product
while fresh maize is used in some cases. In this study, the incidence of fungi and aflatoxin at different stages of ogi production
using stored and fresh maize was investigated. Samples of stored and fresh maize were collected from different points in the
market and processed into ogi in the laboratory. Fungi were isolated at different stages of ogi production i.e. maize, steep
water, and ogi samples. The incidence of each fungus was determined while their overall percentage incidence was determined
at the end of production. Aflatoxin contents (AFB1
, AFB2
, AFG1, and AFG2
) of the samples were analyzed using Thin Layer
Chromatography (TLC) using AOAC procedures while their nutrient was analyzed using AOAC method. The pH and TTA of the
samples were also determined. The result showed that the pH of the steep water decreased with the length of fermentation while
the TTA increased. The isolated fungi include Aspergillus niger, A. tamarii, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, Penicillium chrysogenum,
Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., Rhizopus nigricans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Aspergillus niger had the highest percentage
incidence followed by Penicillium sp. and A. flavus respectively. There was a significant high content of aflatoxin in stored maize
(18.48 μgkg-1) (p>0.05) compared to fresh maize (6.20 μgkg-1) with the corresponding significant higher content of aflatoxin
content in stored maize ogi (2.41 μgkg-1) compared to fresh maize ogi (0.17 μgkg-1) (p>0.05). In addition, the crude protein and
carbohydrate contents of fresh maize ogi (3.24 ± 0.03,46.68 ± 0.05) were significantly higher than that of stored maize ogi (3.13
± 0.04, 46.52 ± 0.05) (p>0.05). It was deduced that due to fungal activities in stored maize there was a reduction in the nutritional
composition of its ogi sample. This study also affirms that various processing methods employed during the production of ogi had
a significant effect on the reduction of aflatoxins in maize grains. Consumers are enjoined to consider the use of fresh maize in
making ogi because it was found to be better for ogi production due to its higher nutritional content with lowering fungal and aflatoxin
incidence. However, maize traders are advised to employ proper storage methods for storing their maize grains in order to reduce
fungal and aflatoxin contamination of maize products and selling lower quality maize grains to producers of maize foods to the barest
minimum thereby curbing the risk of malnutrition in infants and children.
... This report is also consistent with the view of Izah et al., [11] who concluded that yeast and mould participate in the steeped maize for ogi production. Rhizopus sp. a fungus belonging to order Mucorales has been shown to aid the saccharification of substrates during the initial phase of fermentation [46]. Furthermore, the isolation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from the steep water of stored maize and fresh maize ogi affirms the reports of Oyedeji et al., [47] and Akinleye et al., [7] where S. cerevisiae was isolated from fermentation of steep water of maize during the production of ogi. ...
Ogi is a gruel that is widely consumed throughout Nigeria. Stored maize is often used in processing this fermented product
while fresh maize is used in some cases. In this study, the incidence of fungi and aflatoxin at different stages of ogi production
using stored and fresh maize was investigated. Samples of stored and fresh maize were collected from different points in the
market and processed into ogi in the laboratory. Fungi were isolated at different stages of ogi production i.e. maize, steep
water, and ogi samples. The incidence of each fungus was determined while their overall percentage incidence was determined
at the end of production. Aflatoxin contents (AFB1
, AFB2
, AFG1, and AFG2
) of the samples were analyzed using Thin Layer
Chromatography (TLC) using AOAC procedures while their nutrient was analyzed using AOAC method. The pH and TTA of the
samples were also determined. The result showed that the pH of the steep water decreased with the length of fermentation while
the TTA increased. The isolated fungi include Aspergillus niger, A. tamarii, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, Penicillium chrysogenum,
Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., Rhizopus nigricans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Aspergillus niger had the highest percentage
incidence followed by Penicillium sp. and A. flavus respectively. There was a significant high content of aflatoxin in stored maize
(18.48 μgkg-1) (p>0.05) compared to fresh maize (6.20 μgkg-1) with the corresponding significant higher content of aflatoxin
content in stored maize ogi (2.41 μgkg-1) compared to fresh maize ogi (0.17 μgkg-1) (p>0.05). In addition, the crude protein and
carbohydrate contents of fresh maize ogi (3.24 ± 0.03,46.68 ± 0.05) were significantly higher than that of stored maize ogi (3.13
± 0.04, 46.52 ± 0.05) (p>0.05). It was deduced that due to fungal activities in stored maize there was a reduction in the nutritional
composition of its ogi sample. This study also affirms that various processing methods employed during the production of ogi had
a significant effect on the reduction of aflatoxins in maize grains. Consumers are enjoined to consider the use of fresh maize in
making ogi because it was found to be better for ogi production due to its higher nutritional content with lowering fungal and aflatoxin
incidence. However, maize traders are advised to employ proper storage methods for storing their maize grains in order to reduce
fungal and aflatoxin contamination of maize products and selling lower quality maize grains to producers of maize foods to the barest
minimum thereby curbing the risk of malnutrition in infants and children.i
... The similar mixed starters common in the Himalayas are marcha, phab, and hamei (Tamang et al. 1996, Thapa and Tamang 2004, Tamang et al. 2007), which are used by the ethnic people to ferment alcoholic beverages and drinks. Molds, mostly species of Mucor and Rhizopus, along with the amylolytic yeast Sm. buligera and alcohol-producing yeasts S. cerevisiae and P. anomala are the dominant organisms in these mixed starters along with LAB, Pediococcus, and Lactobacillus (Tsuyoshi et al. 2005). ...
... The presence of molds at the initial stage of fermentation of maize for Ogi production and the subsequent elimination had been reported previously [24,25]. Mucoraceae fungi have roles in the initial phase of fermentation mostly in saccharification of the substrates [26]. The study also confirmed the major involvement of LAB in Ogi fermentation. ...
... Consumption of alcoholic beverages started way back in the pre-Vedic period [1]. India is an abode of several tribal communities and is widely distributed in different geographical regions. ...
Eu," is a traditional millet-based mild alcoholic beverage consumed by the Toto tribe of West Bengal. Eu is prepared through the fermentation of millet with locally groomed starter culture "Moaa." The study highlighted the overview of the traditional process of Eu preparation along with its molecular and biochemical characterization. Semi-structured interviews were conducted for collecting the ethnobotanical data and the samples. We have also included qualitative assays like acute toxicity, antioxidant, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), molecular docking, and physiochemical characteristics such as pH and alcohol content. Moreover, metagenomics of the starter culture has been reported. This type of study on Eu has not been done previously. Therefore, it seems to be a pioneer report especially on the metagenomic analysis of Eu. Results revealed that Eu has a very low alcohol content (approximately 1-3%) and a high antioxidant capacity. GC-MS analysis identified thirteen different bioactive compounds. Metagenomics analysis revealed that the Eu has a high source of various beneficial gut microflora. Overall Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus are dominant genera identified in the starter culture. The present study revealed that the consumption of Eu is safe and has the potential to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). Hence, the commercialization of Eu can be an alternative source of income for the poor endangered Toto tribe.
... Filamentous fungi: Several species of filamentous fungi become the vehicle of choice to produce essential microbiota for alcohol-producing dry starters, fermented milk and cheeses, and are commonly used in Asia and Europe [19,38,87,117]. In particular, filamentous fungi present in traditional starters from Asia have several functionalities, such as saccharification, liquefaction and ethanol production to produce different types of lowalcoholic beverages and high-alcoholic distilled liquor [117][118][119][120][121]. In Europe, they are used in the development of different dairy products, ripening of various types of cheese (e.g., Roquefort, Camembert) and enzyme production [38,122,123]. ...
Citation: Voidarou, C.; Antoniadou, M.; Rozos, G.; Tzora, A.; Skoufos, I.; Varzakas, T.; Lagiou, A.; Bezirtzoglou, E.
... These results are in accordance with the fact that the lower the moisture content, the shelf life increases, and the microbial load decreases, leading to prolonged storage (Bhatt and Maheshwari, 2020). A few previous reports on TFB's such as Grawa, borde, tej, and kodo ko jannr have shown similar moisture, pH, and crude protein content to the three substrate-based lugri (Thapa and Tamang, 2004;Nemo and Bacha, 2020). Cereal-based fermented beverages are a major source of probiotics and have significant applications in industries (food, beverages, and pharmaceuticals) (Rezac et al., 2018;Ashaolu and Reale, 2020). ...
Cereal-based traditional fermented beverages (TFBs) are prevalent among India’s ethnic community, and lugri is one such TFB popular among the tribal people of the Lahaul valley in North-Western Himalaya. Previous studies have reported that lugri harbors probiotics and contains amino acids and vitamins but comprehensive substrate-specific exploration of lugri for probiotic attributes is unexplored. The present study selected three substrate-based lugri (wheat, rice, and barley) to study their biochemical properties and explore potential probiotics. This study screened the best probiotic strains for antioxidant studies and the fermentative process. A biochemical analysis determined that rice-based lugri had a higher alcohol content, electric conductivity, crude protein, and lower pH than barley and wheat-based lugri. A total of 134 distinct morphotypes were screened, and 43 strains were selected based on their qualitatively superior acid and bile tolerance. Rice-based undistilled lugri harbored the most probiotics, with 22 out of 43 strains isolated. All 43 bacterial isolates exhibited properties like cell surface hydrophobicity, cell-auto aggregation, β-galactosidase, and exopolysaccharide production, supporting them as possible probiotics. Based on antibiotic susceptibility, hemolytic activity, and biofilm formation, all the bacterial strains were found to be non-pathogenic. Taxonomically, they ranged among eight distinct genera and 10 different species. Statistically, 12 isolates were found to be the most promising probiotic, and eight strains were isolated from rice-based undistilled lugri. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of the promising isolates was tested, based on free-radical scavenging ability toward 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (4.39–16.41%) and 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (15.29–57.74%). The strain Lacticaseibacillus paracasei LUL:01 showed the best antioxidant activity and probiotic attributes, and hence was used for the production of fermented milk. The strain LUL:01 fermented the sterile milk within 18 h, and the viable count remained above the legal requirement of 6 log10 CFU/ml during 28 days storage at 4°C. The strain represents a suitable candidate for applying probiotic functional food formulation with several health benefits.
... Filamentous fungi: Several species of filamentous fungi become the vehicle of choice to produce essential microbiota for alcohol-producing dry starters, fermented milk and cheeses, and are commonly used in Asia and Europe [19,38,87,117]. In particular, filamentous fungi present in traditional starters from Asia have several functionalities, such as saccharification, liquefaction and ethanol production to produce different types of lowalcoholic beverages and high-alcoholic distilled liquor [117][118][119][120][121]. In Europe, they are used in the development of different dairy products, ripening of various types of cheese (e.g., Roquefort, Camembert) and enzyme production [38,122,123]. ...
Fermented foods identify cultures and civilizations. History, climate and the particulars of local production of raw materials have urged humanity to exploit various pathways of fermentation to produce a wide variety of traditional edible products which represent adaptations to specific conditions. Nowadays, industrial-scale production has flooded the markets with ferments. According to recent estimates, the current size of the global market of fermented foods is in the vicinity of USD 30 billion, with increasing trends. Modern challenges include tailor-made fermented foods for people with special dietary needs, such as patients suffering from Crohn's disease or other ailments. Another major challenge concerns the safety of artisan fermented products, an issue that could be tackled with the aid of molecular biology and concerns not only the presence of pathogens but also the foodborne microbial resistance. The basis of all these is, of course, the microbiome, an aggregation of different species of bacteria and yeasts that thrives on the carbohydrates of the raw materials. In this review, the microbiology of fermented foods is discussed with a special reference to groups of products and to specific products indicative of the diversity that a fermentation process can take. Their impact is also discussed with emphasis on health and oral health status. From Hip-pocrates until modern approaches to disease therapy, diet was thought to be of the most important factors for health stability of the human natural microbiome. After all, to quote Pasteur, "Gentle-men, the microbes will have the last word for human health." In that sense, it is the microbiomes of fermented foods that will acquire a leading role in future nutrition and therapeutics.
... The presence of moulds at the initial stage of fermentation and the subsequent reduction had been reported previously [30]. Fungi have role in the initial phase of fermentation mostly in saccharification of the predominantly starchy substrate [31]. ...
Kununzaki- a popular and an affordable West African cereal-based beverage was enriched with cocoa powder and subjected to ‘probiotication’ with ‘probiotic’ lactic acid bacteria and subsequently investigated for sustained viability of the microbes and ability to suppress growth of food-borne bacteria. This study enumerated the different microbes in enriched kununzaki drink before and during storage, identified the isolated microbes and assessed the viability of the ‘probiotic’ lactic acid bacteria (LABs) in the drink and determined the antagonistic effect of the LABs on two selected food-borne pathogens. This was with a view to enhancing the health giving attributes of affordable kununzaki, which is already a popular beverage in Nigeria. Laboratory results revealed total viable bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and mould counts to range from 4.69 – 8.76, 6.45 – 9.74 and 6.04 – 8.77 log cfu ml-1, respectively. The microorganisms isolated were identified as: Bacillus brevis, B. Badius, B. polymyxa, B. macquariensis, B. pantothenticus, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Serratia marcescens, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, L. fermentum, L. plantarum, L. casei, Aspergillus niger, and Curvularia affinis. ‘Probiotic’ lactic acid bacteria were viable (69.75 log cfu ml-1) at the end of four weeks of storage. The viabilities of Lactobacillus fermentum which were 9.75 and 9.58 log cfu ml-1 at ambient and refrigerated temperatures, respectively were higher than those of other lactic acid bacteria species. The same organism was found to be active against one of the tested food-borne pathogens, Escherichia coli as evident in the diameter of zone of inhibition on plate and broth culture analyses. The study concluded that Lactobacillus fermentum could be effectively used for ‘probiotication’ of kununzaki enriched with 20% cocoa powder and the resulting product exhibited potential of checkmating a food-borne bacterial strain and by implication has the potential of promoting the health of consumers. The product was also found to be microbiologically stable for 4 weeks of storage at ambient and refrigeration temperatures.
... Current studies have indicated that Qingke Jiu is abundant in βglucan, phenolic compounds, amino acids, and different kinds of vitamins (Prakash & Thapa, 2006;Thapa & Prakash, 2004;Zhang et al., 2013Zhang et al., , 2019. In the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, Qingke Jiu is an important source of nutrients for Tibetans. ...
Tibetan Qingke Jiu is the most important alcoholic beverage in the daily life of Tibetan people due to its unique flavor and rich nutrients. In this study, the aromatic characteristics of Qingke Jiu were studied by sensory analysis, aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA), quantitative analysis, and odor activity values (OAVs). Sensory evaluation demonstrated that Qingke Jiu had fruity, cooked potato, honey, sour, sweet, and caramel-like aroma. A total of 66 aroma compounds were identified by AEDA and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, with flavor dilution (FD) factors ranging from 4 to 2048. Among them, methional, acetic acid, ethyl butanoate, phenylacetaldehyde and β-phenylethanol appeared with the highest FD factors. The concentration of these aroma-active compounds was further quantitated by combination of four different quantitative measurements, and 17 odorants had concentrations higher than their odor thresholds. Based on the OAVs, phenylacetaldehyde, β-phenylethanol, ethyl phenylacetate, sotolon, furaneol, methional, methionol, γ-nonalactone, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, β-damascenone, ethyl 3-methylbutanoate, ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, and acetic acid could be potentially important to the overall aroma profile of Qingke Jiu.
... This crop produces tillers with erect and light green coloured stems around 1.7 m in height (Prasad & Staggenborg, 2010), smooth leaves which are hairy along the margins. The inflorescence is comprised of fingers with a cluster of 3-26, it has dense spikelets (Thapa & Tamang, 2004). Finger millet crop doesn't mature uniformly, and therefore its maturity is taken up when the earhead on the main shoot as well as 50% earheads on the crop turn brown. ...
Climate change is negatively influencing agricultural production, and there is an urgent need for a rational and cost-effective technique like crop diversification to develop resilience into agrarian systems. For diversifying against the monoculture of conventional staples, the proposed crops shall have essential nutritional advantages and also higher income perks for the farmers. Millets are the better options for the crop diversification. In India, millets are traditionally cultivated from pre-historic occasions. Millets because of their higher resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses, they are sustainable towards the climate. Nutritionally, millets are gluten-free and are with a micro-nutrients profile better than of conventional cereals like rice and wheat. But, millets have faced lots of neglect within the Indian subcontinent because the population is obtaining much more conscious from the challenges of food security and climate change. New methods for millet processing are essential to revert the dietary habits in favour of millet-based diets along with more economical initiatives for the farmers taking up the millet cultivation. In this review article, author have discussed the three millets namely foxtail millet, proso millet and finger millet with the hope of popularizing their cultivation in the Indian subcontinent. We hope that the information provided in this review will help in the better understanding of the minor millets. © 2020, Editorial board of Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences. All rights reserved.
Raksi is an ethnic alcoholic drink, distilled from traditional fermented cereal beverages. The objective of this work was to characterize the traditionally fermented alcohol (raksi). We processed six raksi samples at home using traditional methods, and collected four locally from hotels in various districts. During the distillation of raksi, raksi samples were physically analyzed and found to be colorless, strongly concentrated, and alcoholic in nature. While examining the collected alcohol samples, they were found to be light yellow, cloudy, with strong concentration, and unpleasantly alcoholic in nature. All the samples were acidic with a pH range of 3.6-4.5, turbidity range from 3.5-7.8, and TDS less than 14, TSS ranging from 35-850 ppm, and TA ranging from 0.016-0.234%. The alcohol percentage was found in the range 8-46%. Alcohol percentage was highest in sample LAR10, i.e., 45% using a hydrometer, 45.32% using a pycnometer, and 35.95% using HS-GC. Sample LAR4 showed a minimum alcohol % of 10% using a hydrometer, 10.11% using a pycnometer, and 8.68% using HS-GC. There was no detection of methanol and propanol from the HS-GC result; only the ethanol was detected. Almost all the distillates lied in the score panel of “good” to “very good” by using the hedonic scale. The total bacterial count was found in the range of 0-30 CFU/100 ml and 0-7 CFU/ml from the MF technique and pour plate method, respectively. Morphological and biochemical studies confirmed that the isolated organisms were Bacillus spp. We found most of the alcohol samples effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The substrates used for the fermentation of alcohol and their antibacterial efficacy showed insignificant association, i.e., p = 0.82 > 0.05. But the association between the alcohol percentage of samples and their antibacterial effectiveness was significant, i.e., p = 0.01 < 0.05. These findings highlight the characterization and detection of methanol and propanol in raksi, and they enhance the further findings of any hazards.
This study aimed to develop and optimize a ragi-based probiotic dairy beverage (RPDB) using two probiotic strains, Limosilactobacillus fermentum NCDC143 (LF) and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus NCDC347 (LGG). The ragi amount and fermentation duration were optimized through laboratory-scale trials based on sensory characteristics and antioxidant activity. The final optimized product, fermented with either strain, was acceptable to consumers, with average sensory scores above 7 on a 9-point hedonic scale. Proximate and physicochemical analyses were performed. Both fermented beverages (RPDB-LGG & RPDB-LF) showed significantly higher (p < 0.05) 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition activity (44% & 46%), Total Phenolic Content (359.83 µg GAE/ml & 374.94 µg GAE/ml), and Total Flavonoid Content (14.58 mg QE/ml & 15.36 mg QE/ml) compared to the non-fermented control. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis characterized the functional groups in the samples. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole high-resolution accurate mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRAMS)-based metabolomics revealed important biologically active metabolites in the probiotic beverage. Shelf-life analysis showed both beverages maintained recommended viable probiotic counts (at least 6–7 log CFU/ml) for 21 days at 4 °C. Notably, RPDB-LF exhibited better microbiological stability than RPDB-LGG during storage.
Fermentation technology is an old preservation technique that is employed to prepare various products. There are lots of food and beverages prepared using traditional methods/knowledge using various substrates and natural microbial flora shows functional and health benefits. Advanced knowledge of biotechnology and exploring the native species involved in producing fermented beverages opens new avenues for the development, optimization, standardization, and marketability of traditional fermented products. This chapter presents the overall view of types of fermented beverages (milk, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, etc.) from various countries, along with the present global market scenario of traditional fermented products. Fermented beverage consumption facilitates many health benefits (digestibility, nutritional benefits, anti-oxidative, cholesterol-lowering ability, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, gut health, etc.) are presented in this chapter.
Ethnic alcoholic beverages are widely brewed and consumed by the indigenous communities in North East India. The prevalent agro climate condition of North East India is favourable for paddy cultivation and as such, many food products including alcoholic beverages based on rice are prepared and brewed by the indigenous communities. A diverse range of rice-based alcoholic beverages (RABs), viz., Xaaj, Apong, Kiad Um, Chuak, Sekmai Yu-Sujen, Haria, Zu/Judima, Arak/Hor-Alank, Jou Bishi, Photika, Laopani, Tsa-pe are brewed by the diverse ethnic communities of this region Although, most of the ethnic alcoholic beverages such as Xaaj, Apong, Yuchii, etc. are brewed from rice, few like Chang or the Tongba, is brewed using millets as the substrates. In the cereal-based fermentation process, the starch in cooked rice is saccharified to yield sugar which is subsequently converted to alcohol. A starter culture concocted with several herbs initiates the fermentation process. A typical undiluted rice brew contains a higher alcohol content (18–25%) than wine (10–20%). Ethnic alcoholic beverages are intricately woven into the cultural and social fabric of North East India and play a significant role in local festivities and rituals of the ethnic communities. This chapter provides an overview of the alcoholic beverages of Northeast India in their historical and cultural context, the key ingredients used in their preparation, and the most popular beverages in each of the region’s eight states. It also explores the socioeconomic impact of alcoholic beverage production in the region and the challenges and opportunities facing the industry.
Pineapple, a tropical fruit with an important sugar content, is often used to produce a traditional wine. This study was carried out to explore the effect of heat and addition of sugar on pineapple must fermentation. Pineapple must was fermented and total soluble solids content, pH, temperature and alcohol content were analysed. A significant decrease in total soluble solids was detected during the fermentation (21.83 ± 0.34 to 7.00 ± 0.37), the pH value between 4.19 ± 0.02 and 3.39 ± 0.03 and the fluctuation in temperature was observed during the fermentation. The alcohol content significantly increased in all samples during fermentation. The alcohol content also significantly increased in the presence of sugar (9 ± 0.2 after 24 hours and 10 ± 0.2 after 48 hours) respectively. The use of yeast and sugar might be an important option to improve the alcohol content in pineapple wine. It will be important to explore the chemical component in both spontaneous and yeast fermentation for defining the quality of the traditional pineapple wine.
Traditional fermented beverages are culturally and socially accepted products for consumption, drinking, entertainment, customary practices, and for religious purposes. The purpose of this review was to identify some cereal-based fermented beverages and determine the differences in their production technologies. There are many unique regional variations in the preparation of each of the identified fermented beverages. They are prepared from raw materials such as maize, millet, rice, and sorghum. Majority of the fermented alcoholic beverages (binuburan, amba beer, sake, dolo, pito, and tchoukoutou) were produced using spontaneous fermentation and industrial fermentation (use of starter cultures) techniques. The various microbial communities associated with the traditional fermentation processes were dominated by Limosilactobacillus fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum for Lactic acid bacterial (LAB) species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida mycoderma for Saccharomyces and Candida species (yeasts), respectively; and Aspergillus aceti and Rhizopus stolonifer for Aspergillus and Rhizopus species (molds), respectively. Acetobacter, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Weissella, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, and Bacillus dominated other microbial genera. The involvement of lactic acid bacteria contributed to the safety and extension of the shelf life of the final products. Most of these beverages were found to be very rich in proteins, carbohydrates, calories, and B-group vitamins including thiamine, folic acid, riboflavin, and nicotinic acid. This article reviewed the available information, such as processing techniques of African traditional beverages, the raw materials used to producing them, and the microorganisms associated with the production processes.
Food is closely related with the diversity and adaptation of the people making it as a source of cultural identity and heritage. Ethnic food culture incorporates the culinary traditions, ingredients, and cooking techniques that are passed down through generations, preserving the uniqueness of the food products. Thus, it becomes important to preserve the ethnic food culture as it not only conserves cultural heritage and diversity but also contributes to a sustainable food system, food security, and resilience. Millets is the widely grown rain fed crop of Indian. Many millet-based food products are being prepared using the traditional processing techniques. But by implementing improved processing and utilizing techniques, it is possible to create value added products that are widely accepted. To ensure the advancement in this area, it is important to look into the processing techniques that are not only sustainable but also do not compromise with the nutritional profile of the product. Various treatments and techniques like soaking, heating, roasting, fermentation, etc. have been used since ages for the millet processing. Nowadays, specific unit operations, such as dehulling, soaking, grinding, puffing, roasting, malting etc. have been standardized and optimized. These modern food processing methods are employed to increase the food quality, safety, and convenience of food products, enabling commercialization millet-based products to meet the consumer demands for nutritious and sustainable options.
The concept of “ethno‐microbiology” is to understand the indigenous knowledge of the Indian people for production of culturally and organoleptically acceptable fermented foods by natural fermentation. About 1000 types of common, uncommon, rare, exotic and artisan fermented foods and beverages are prepared and consumed in different geographical regions by multi‐ethnic communities in India. Indian fermented foods are mostly acidic and some are alkaline, along with various types of alcoholic beverages. A colossal diversity of microorganisms comprising bacteria mostly belonging to phylum Firmicutes, filamentous moulds and enzyme‐ and alcohol‐producing yeasts under phyla Ascomycota and Mucoromycota, few bacteriophages and archaea have been reported from Indian fermented foods. Some microorganisms associated with fermented foods have functionalities and health promoting benefits. “Ethno‐microbiology” of ethnic Indian people has exhibited the proper utilization of substrates either singly or in combination such as fermented cereal‐legume mixture (idli, dosa and dhokla) in South and West India, sticky fermented soybean food (kinema and related foods), fermented perishable leafy vegetable (gundruk and related foods), fermented bamboo shoots (soibum and related foods) and fermented fish (ngari and others) in North East India, and fermented meat and sausage‐like products in the Indian Himalayas, fermented coconut beverage (toddy) in coastal regions, and various types of naturally fermented milk products (dahi and related products) in different regions of India. This review has also highlighted the “ethno‐microbiology” knowledge of the people involving the consortia of essential microorganisms in traditionally prepared amylolytic starters for production of cereal‐based alcoholic beverages. The novelty of this review is the interpretation of ethno‐microbiological knowledge innovated by ethnic Indian people on the use of beneficial microorganisms for food fermentation to obtain the desired fermented food products for consumption.
The Eastern Himalayan regions of India, Nepal and Bhutan have more than 200 varieties of unsurpassed ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages, which are lesser known outside the world. However, these ethnic foods are region- and community-specific, unique and some are exotic and rare, which include fermented vegetables, bamboo shoots, soybeans, cereals, milk (cow and yak), meats, fishes, and cereal-based alcoholic beverages and drinks. Ethnic communities living in the Eastern Himalayas have invented the indigenous knowledge of utilization of unseen microorganisms present in and around the environment for preservation and fermentation of perishable plant or animal substrates to obtain organoleptically desirable and culturally acceptable ethnic fermented food and alcoholic beverages. Some ethnic fermented products and traditionally prepared dry starters for production of alcoholic beverages of North Eastern states of India and Nepal were scientifically studied and reported till date, and however, limited publications are available on microbiological and nutritional aspects of ethnic fermented foods of Bhutan except on few products. Most of the beneficial microorganisms isolated from some ethnic fermented foods of the EH are listed in microbial food cultures (MFC) safe inventory. This study is aimed to review the updates on the beneficial importance of abundant microbiota and health-promoting benefits and functionalities of some ethnic fermented foods of the Eastern Himalayan regions of North East India, Nepal and Bhutan.
This research investigated the microbial analyses, nutritional qualities and physicochemical properties of sorghum co-fermented with various percent of Lima bean seeds (Lima-baba) for ogi-baba production. Sorghum grains fortified with Lima beans at 0% (ogi-baba), 10%, 20%, and 30% were fermented for 72 hours and steeped for another 24 hours after sieving. Bacterial counts increased in all the samples with the highest and lowest counts from 10% and 30% blends respectively. Fungal counts also followed the same trend. The pH decreased in the fermented blends with the lowest and the highest values in ogi-baba (3.3) and 30% Lima-baba (3.8) blends respectively. Reverse trend was observed in the total titratable acidity of the blends. The highest and the lowest temperature rise were seen in 10% blend (32 o C) and ogi-baba (30 o) respectively. Protein and fat contents increased in all the fermented blends with the highest contents from 30% Lima-baba (13.92) and 20% Lima-baba (5.23%) and the lowest contents from the ogi-baba (9.79% and 4.48%) respectively. Moisture contents decreased after fermentation. Crude fibre content reduced significantly in the fermented blends than ogi-baba sample. Total ash contents also decreased after fermentation with the highest and the lowest contents from 10% Lima-baba (0.82%) and 30% Lima-baba (0.52%) respectively. Carbohydrate contents also decreased in all the fermented blends. The texture and the colour of the blends were not significantly different from ogi-baba while the taste and aroma of 10% blend was not significantly different from ogi-baba sample. The blends were rated above average in terms of overall acceptability. Fermentation has significantly improved the nutrient contents of Lima-baba blends and the sensory evaluation was also more acceptable at 10% blend.
Kinema is a fermented soya bean food of Nepal and the hilly regions of North-eastern States of India. Generally, the fermentation is dominated by Bacillus spp. that often cause alkalinity and desirable stickiness in the product. The present study was undertaken in a limited number of commercial (market) kinema samples to test for the presence of foodborne pathogens and their properties. Bacillus cereus was present in numbers exceeding 104 cfu/g product in five of the tested 15 market samples. Enterobacteriaceae and coliform bacteria exceeded 105 cfu/g in 10 of the 15 samples. Escherichia coli exceeding 105 cfu/g was found in two samples. Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in any of the tested samples. Of 31 isolated typical and atypical strains of B. cereus, 18 representative strains were tested qualitatively for the ability to produce diarrhoeal type enterotoxin (BCET) using an Oxoid BCET-RPLA test kit. Overall, BCET was formed by 12 strains in BHIG (brain heart infusion broth +1% glucose), by seven strains on sterilized cooked rice, and by five strains on sterilized cooked soya beans. Semi-quantitative tests on BCET revealed that levels exceeding 256 ng/g soya beans, produced by single pure culture inoculation with the isolated B. cereus strains, were reduced to ≤ 8 ng/g by frying kinema in oil, a common procedure when making kinema curry. It was also shown in a mixed pure culture experiment that a kinema strain B. Subtilis DK-W1, is able to suppress growth and BCET formation by a selected toxin producing strain (BC7-5) of B. cereus. It is concluded that the traditional way of making kinema and its culinary use in curries is safe. However, for novel applications of kinema, safety precautions are advisable.
Schemes for a rapid and simple identification of lactobacilli from meat and meat products are presented which also include the species only recently published (e.g. L. divergens and L. carnis), and which were verified by the investigation of 229 strains newly isolated from meat and meat products and of nine type strains.They are primarily based on differences in the fermentation of sugars and other easily determinable physiological characteristics, and therefore permit a rapid assignment of a new isolate to one of the Lactobacillus species. However, in most instances this identification has to be confirmed by determining additional characteristics (e.g. the whole range of fermented carbohydrates, types of murein etc.).
The protein quality of oriental foods of soybean origin has been determined by the net protein utilization (NPU) method at a 10% level of protein in the diet. This method calls for the determination of whole body nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method and its calculation from body moisture on 77 male and female weanling rats fed varying quantity and quality of proteins for 10 days. The correla tion coefficient for the body nitrogen values obtained by the 2 procedures was 0.947. This high correlation permitted the computation of whole body nitrogen from body water in subsequent experiments. The proximate compositions of the soybean prod ucts were in agreement with those in previous reports. The generous amount of protein in edamame, tofu, and natto is confirmed. The NPU of the control proteins, powdered whole egg and crude casein, was 90.4 and 67.3, respectively, which cor responded to values reported by Miller and Bender using the same method. The NPU values obtained for the soybean products were 72.2, 65.0, 56.0, 44.4, and 35.6 for edamame, tofu, soybean sprouts, natto, and mung bean sprouts, respectively. Edamame and tofu, being both of good quantity and quality in protein, appeared to be dependable vegetable protein sources.
Sixty-one lactic acid bacteria from spoiled vacuum-packaged vienna sausages and 15 reference strains were tested for 72 phenotypic characteristics. An identification key and a computer data base, both specific for lactic acid bacteria from meat sources, were used for identification and the results were compared. There was a high correlation (86.9%) between the two procedures in the identification of strains to genus level. However, only a 54.8% correlation was obtained in identifying strains to the species level. With numerical taxonomy (Ssm matching coefficient with average linkage clustering) 60 strains were recovered in six clusters at the 89% similarity level. While most Leuconostoc strains clustered separately from the Lactobacillus strains, the identity of many leuconostocs was not clarified. The presence of a heterogeneous cluster containing typical and 'atypical' strains of the Lactobacillus saké/curvatus group and a separate homogeneous Lact. curvatus cluster was noted. Closer examination of the data suggested that the 'atypical' lactobacilli were all strains of Lact. saké.
Results of a Gram staining procedure varied with modifications of each of the steps involved. The best Gram differentiation was obtained when crystal violet and iodine solutions of high concentrations were used, and when n-propyl alcohol was used as the decolorizer. The decolorization step must be carefully quantitated, and one of the most important variables observed was whether a slide was brought into the decolorizer wet, or dry. Dry slides took 6 to 12 times as long to decolorize as wet. Wash steps, following crystal violet, and following the decolorizer, also greatly influence results by causing Gram-positive organisms to appear to be Gram-negative. The results indicated that Gram-stain procedures should not be varied to suit the whims of individual operators, and that each step could be specifically defined both as to the reagent used, and the procedure to be followed.
The followng Gram procedure is recommended for heat-fixed bacterial smears on glass slides. Flood the slide with Hucker's crystal violet for 1 ruin. Wash for 5 sec by dipping into tap water running into a 250 ml beaker at a rate of 30 ml per sec Rinse off the excess water with Burke's iodine, flood the slide with this solution for 1 min, then wash 5 sec in tap water as above. Decolorize by passing the wet slide through 3 (75 × 25 mm) Coplin dishes containing n-propyl alcohol, decolorize 1 min in each dish for a total of 3 min. Wash 5 sec in tap water as above, rinse off the excess water with 0.25% safranin, then flood the slide with this solution for 1 min. Wash as above, blot dry, and examine. An alternate procedure for decolorization would be to use either 95% n-propyl alcohol or 95% ethyl alcohol, but shorten the decolorization time to 30 sec per dish for a total of 1.5 min. After 10 slides, the decolorizer in the first dish should be replaced by fresh. This dish is then placed last in the sequence, with dish No. 2 moved to the No. 1 position.
Numerical taxonomy and identification of lactic acid bacteria from spoiled, vacuum packaged Vienna sausages Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd Edition The Yeasts—A Taxonomic Study
- G A Dykes
- T J Britz
- A Holy
- C Gopalan
- Rama
- B V Sastri
- S C Balasubramanian
- Hyderabad
- W F Harrigan
Dykes, G.A., Britz, T.J., von Holy, A., 1994. Numerical taxonomy and identification of lactic acid bacteria from spoiled, vacuum packaged Vienna sausages. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 76, 246–252. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B.V., Balasubramanian, S.C., 1995. Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad. Harrigan, W.F., 1998. Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd Edition. Academic Press, London. Hooker, J.D., 1854. Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains. John Murray, London. Kreger-van Rij, N.J.W., 1984. The Yeasts—A Taxonomic Study
Darjeeling District Gazetteer Food and Drinks in Ancient India Mineral composition of ragi
- O Malley
- L S S Prakash
- O Samantray
- G T Misra
- P K Patnaik
O'Malley, L.S.S., 1907. Darjeeling District Gazetteer. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi. Prakash, O., 1961. Food and Drinks in Ancient India. Munshi Ram Monoharlal Publication, Delhi. Risley, H.H., 1928. The Gazetteer of Sikkim. D.K. Publishing Distributors (P) Ltd., New Delhi. Samantray, G.T., Misra, P.K., Patnaik, K.K., 1989. Mineral composition of ragi. Indian J. Nutr. Diet. 26, 113–116.
The Lactic Acid Bacteria The Genera of Lactic Acid Bacteria
- B J B Wood
- W H Holzapfel
Wood, B.J.B., Holzapfel, W.H., 1995. The Lactic Acid Bacteria. Vol. 2: The Genera of Lactic Acid Bacteria. Chapman & Hall, London. ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Thapa, J.P. Tamang / Food Microbiology 21 (2004) 617–622
Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd Edition Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains The Yeasts—A Taxonomic Study
- W F Harrigan
- J D Hooker
Harrigan, W.F., 1998. Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd Edition. Academic Press, London. Hooker, J.D., 1854. Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains. John Murray, London. Kreger-van Rij, N.J.W., 1984. The Yeasts—A Taxonomic Study. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
The Yeast, A Taxonomic Study 4th Edition
- C P Kurtzman
- J W Fell
Kurtzman, C.P., Fell, J.W., 1998. The Yeast, A Taxonomic Study 4th Edition. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
UV method for the determination of l-lactic acid and d-lactic acid in foodstuffs and other materials Methods of Biochemical Analysis and Food Analysis using Single Reagents
- Boehringer
Boehringer-Mannheim, 1989. UV method for the determination of l-lactic acid and d-lactic acid in foodstuffs and other materials. In: Boehringer-Mannheim (Ed.), Methods of Biochemical Analysis and Food Analysis using Single Reagents. Boehringer-Mannheim GmbH, Biochemica, pp. 78–81.
Microbiological and biochemical studies of indigenous fermented cereal-based beverages of the Sikkim Himalayas
- S Thapa
Thapa, S., 2001. Microbiological and biochemical studies of indigenous fermented cereal-based beverages of the Sikkim Himalayas. Ph.D. Thesis, Food Microbiology Laboratory, Sikkim Government College (North Bengal University), India, 190pp.
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
- P H A Sneath
- N S Mair
- M E Sharpe
- J G Holt
Sneath, P.H.A., Mair, N.S., Sharpe, M.E., Holt, J.G., 1986. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Vol.
Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd Edition
- W F Harrigan
Harrigan, W.F., 1998. Laboratory Methods in Food Microbiology 3rd
Edition. Academic Press, London.
The Gazetteer of Sikkim
- H H Risley
Risley, H.H., 1928. The Gazetteer of Sikkim. D.K. Publishing
Distributors (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
Darjeeling District Gazetteer
- O ' Malley
O'Malley, L.S.S., 1907. Darjeeling District Gazetteer. Gyan Publishing
House, New Delhi.
Food and Drinks in Ancient India
- O Prakash
Prakash, O., 1961. Food and Drinks in Ancient India. Munshi Ram
Monoharlal Publication, Delhi.
Mineral composition of ragi
- G T Samantray
- P K Misra
- K K Patnaik
Samantray, G.T., Misra, P.K., Patnaik, K.K., 1989. Mineral
composition of ragi. Indian J. Nutr. Diet. 26, 113–116.
UV method for the determination of l-lactic acid and d-lactic acid in foodstuffs and other materials
- Boehringer-Mannheim
Mineral composition of ragi
- Samantray