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Impact of ambient odors on mall shoppers' emotions, cognition, and spending: A test of competitive causal theories
Abstract
The authors tested the effect of ambient scents in a shopping mall environment. Two competing models were used. The first model is derived from the environmental psychology research stream by Mehrabian and Russel (1974) and Donovan and Rossiter (1982) where atmospheric cues generate pleasure and arousal, and, in turn, an approach/avoidance behavior. The emotion–cognition model is supported by Zajonc and Markus (1984). The second model to be tested is based on Lazarus' (1991) cognitive theory of emotions. In this latter model, shoppers' perceptions of the retail environment and product quality mediate the effects of ambient scent cues on emotions and spending behaviors. Positive affect is enhanced from shoppers' evaluations. Using structural equation modeling the authors conclude that the cognitive theory of emotions better explains the effect of ambient scent. Managerial implications are discussed.
... For instance, some researchers found that product olfactory attributes have minor, indirect and insignificant influence on consumer purchase decision Orth & Bourrain, 2005Chebat & Michon, 2003). Conversely, other studies reported that flavour, pleasant odour; aroma, freshness and congruent scent significantly influence consumer purchase of a product Spangehen, Grohmann & Sprott, 2005;. ...
... Pertinently, product scent, aroma or even congruence is part of intrinsic attributes of a product which creates uniqueness and reminds customers about a particular product (Mitchell et al., 1995). It is surprise to say that a number of studies have reported minor or insignificant effect of these olfactory properties on consumer behaviour variables (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Orth & Bourrain, 2005. ...
... Interestingly, some researchers have contended that flavour, pleasant odour; aroma and congruent scent significantly relate to consumer purchase of a product Spangehen, Grohmann & Sprott, 2005;. Conversely, other researchers' findings revealed that olfactory properties have minor, indirect and insignificant relationship with consumer purchase behaviour (Chebat & Michon, 2003;45 Mattila & Wirtz , 2001;Orth & Bourrain, 2005. Product olfaction influences consumer purchase behaviour (Mahmoudi et al., 2012). ...
This research work investigated the relationship between multisensory attributes of malt drinks and consumers' purchase decisions in South East of Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study were to investigate the extent visual, gustatory, tactile, olfactory attributes, purchase intent and gender relate to consumers' purchase decisions of malt drinks. The study adopted an ex-post facto and survey research design. The population size of the study was unknown while the sample size was 384. The average stability reliability test coefficient was 0.908. Data generated were presented on the frequency and percentage tables. Structural Equation Modeling was used to test the formulated hypotheses. The findings showed that visual attribute of malt had a significant positive relationship with consumers' purchase decisions; gustatory attribute of malt had a significant positive relationship with consumers' purchase decisions; tactile attribute of malt had a significant but negative relationship with consumers' purchase decisions; olfactory attribute of malt had a significant positive relationship with consumers' purchase decisions; consumers' purchase intent significantly and positively mediates the relationship between the predicting variables and consumers' purchase decisions of malt drinks. The findings also showed that gender significantly moderates th e relationship between the study variables and consumers' purchase decisions of malt dri nks. The findings further revealed that the relationship between the predicting variables and consumers' purchase decisions of malt drinks significantly differ by gender groups. The study found that the relationships were stronger among females than males. The findings also indicated that the interactions between the predicting variables significantly and pos itively led to consumers' purchase decisions of malt drinks. The implication of the findings is that all the predicting variables used in the study have contributed in enhancing sustainable purchase behaviour. The gustatory attribute was found to be the most important predictor as well as the most significant determinant of consumers' purchase decisions of malt drinks in South East, Nigeria. The study recommends amongst others that malt manufacturers, managers and other stake holders in the beverage industry should continue to invest more on visual, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory attributes of malt drinks for improved and sustained consumers' satisfaction and patronage toward the purchase and consumption of malt drinks in Nigeria.
... In other words, upon entering a given environment, a person first evaluates the external and internal cues in terms of his or her own experience and goals; once such an appraisal is made, an emotion will result (Lazarus, 1991). The cognition-emotion theory has received empirical support in retail atmospherics (Baker, Grewal, & Parasuraman, 1994;Chebat & Michon, 2003) and serves as an overarching conceptual framework for the current study. ...
... Environmental psychology literature suggests that retail atmospherics make a significant impact on shoppers' perception and shopping behaviour (Baker et al., 1992;Bellizzi et al., 1983;Chebat & Michon, 2003). This seems to be the case among visually impaired shoppers in our focus groups. ...
... External and internal cues must be evaluated in the light of one's own experiences and goals. Chebat and Michon (2003) [14] validated this view in a retail setting when observing the effects of environmental odours on mood and cognition. ...
... External and internal cues must be evaluated in the light of one's own experiences and goals. Chebat and Michon (2003) [14] validated this view in a retail setting when observing the effects of environmental odours on mood and cognition. ...
After OpenAI announced the GPT-3.5 model in November 2022, it opened up a new breakthrough in AI technology for content generation. Existing studies are mostly conducted in terms of traditional AI applications in various industries, and few studies have specifically explored the impact of AIGC on the emotional aspects of prosumer behavior. This study explores the difference in consumer behavioural intention between AIGC and human-designed advertisements. A total of 3 experiments were conducted to obtain data from 550 subjects. The results of the study show that ①consumer behavioural intention is higher when consumers see product advertisements generated by AI. ② Emotional attitudes mediate the effect of AI-generated advertisements on intention to produce and consume. ③ Prosumer' capability to regulate emotions mediates the effect of AI-generated advertisements on consumer-producing behavioural intentions. The main innovation of this study lies in the research perspective, comparing AIGC materials with artificially designed materials, which expands the existing research on production and consumption decision-making, and the use of Midjourney to design the experimental materials, which is an extension of the application of academic research tools. Practically the results of the study can provide companies with suggestions for marketing and emotional communication.
... There is sufficient evidence to support the idea that music affects consumer behavior ( [21,25,26]). Customers' perceptions of service quality are influenced by music ( [27,28]). In addition, it might increase subsequent patronage of customers and traders [26]. ...
... Furthermore, the external design of the store, such as the window displays, affects how customers feel about the store and perceive its identity as well as their choice to join a market [33,34]. In line with [28], smell presence and how the customer perceives the quality of the things provided, as well as the atmosphere in which he is buying, can affect a customer's mood. According to [35] Scent characteristics may improve a shopper's processing fluency in a marketplace. ...
The study examined the factors influencing market place quality from shoppers’ and shop owners’ perceptions using Alasinloye market place as a case study, with a view to analyzing what shoppers and shop owners value, the environmental situation of the markets, and the quality of management. The study identified the socio-economic and social characteristics of shoppers and shop owners and identified the physical and design characteristics of the market area. Assess the environmental quality; examine the factors that drive or inhibit patronage in the market. Data for this research were acquired from both secondary and primary sources. The questionnaire was administered using a systematic random sampling technique to shoppers and shop owners inside the market area. From two thousand shops (2,000) shops owners in the study areas, four hundred and eighty (480) shops owners were selected for questionnaire administration, signifying 24%. The average population of shoppers that patronized the Alasinloye market in a day, amount to fifteen thousand and six hundred shoppers (15600). Seven hundred and eighty (780) shoppers were selected as the sample size representing 5%. ANOVAL, regression, and descriptive statistics tools were employed to analyze the data. The results obtained show that a Physical Characteristics Index (PCI) of 3.42 was obtained from shoppers, whereas shop owners had 4.21. The perception of Social Characteristics Indices (SCI) of 3.66 was obtained from shoppers, whereas shop owners had 3.55. The results of experts’ perception of the Design Characteristics Index (DCI) show that Alasinloye Market had 3.16. The result of the Market Quality Index (MQI) for the Alesinloye market is 3.44. The results on the relationships between the shoppers’ and shop owners’ socio-economic characteristics and market quality in Alesinloye market show that gender, age, level of education, occupation, among others with Beta -0.165, 0.217, 0.361, 0.235 and p value<0.032, 0.003, 0.004, and 0.001 were significant. The results of the regression analysis displaying the correlation between socioeconomic characteristics, design characteristics, physical characteristics, social characteristics, and market quality shows F-value of 5.232E3 and p-value of 0.000. It was obvious that the relationship was significant. The study concluded that the influencing factors for shoppers and shop owners to market place patronage and quality are directly related to the socioeconomic characteristics of shoppers and shop owners, design characteristics and physical characteristics, and social characteristics of the market place.
... Ndengane et al.'s (2021) [43] work demonstrates that the mere presence of in-store music leads to more positive moods compared to its absence. Similarly, the influence of scent on customers' moods has been evidenced by Michon et al. (2005) [54], Chebat & Michon (2003) [55], and Smeets et al. (2008) [44]. ...
... Ndengane et al.'s (2021) [43] work demonstrates that the mere presence of in-store music leads to more positive moods compared to its absence. Similarly, the influence of scent on customers' moods has been evidenced by Michon et al. (2005) [54], Chebat & Michon (2003) [55], and Smeets et al. (2008) [44]. ...
The rapid growth of the retail market, coupled with increased consumer income, has led to a surge in impulsive and unplanned shopping. This study aims to examine the relationships between multi-sensory marketing, customers' moods, impulsive buying traits, and impulsive buying behavior, using the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model. Customers' mood acts as a mediator and impulsive buying traits as a moderator. The researchers surveyed 450 consumers in Vietnam using the method of non-probability sampling and analyzed the data using SPSS and Smart PLS 4.0. The results show that customers' moods and impulsive buying traits positively influence impulsive buying behavior, with impulsive buying traits also significantly moderating the relationship between mood and impulsive buying. Additionally, customers' moods mediate the relationship between multi-sensory marketing and impulsive buying behavior. This research fills gaps in previous research by incorporating multi-sensory marketing and impulsive buying traits as variables and provides managerial implications for businesses and retailers to develop effective marketing strategies to encourage impulsive purchases and increase sales. Academically, the research reaffirms the relevance of the S-O-R model in the retail context and paves the way for future investigations into consumers' impulsive buying behavior.
... They can do this be strategically tapping into consumers' minds, employing subconscious cues that entice them with offers they find difficult to resist (Hornikx & le Pair, 2017;Garci-Madariaga, 2020;Brierley et al., 2020). For example, Chebat and Michon (2003) investigated the impact of scents in shopping malls on consumer behavior. During the experiment, a diffuser emitted a citrus scent for three seconds every six minutes. ...
... Afterwards, consumers perceptions of the shopping environment were measured, and it was shown that diffusing the citrus scent did, in fact, subconsciously shape consumers perceptions of the shopping environment. Other similar studies showed that scents not only enhanced shoppers' moods, but also contributed to positive perceptions of individual stores, increasing consumer spending (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Rimkute et al., 2015). Leveraging subconscious cues, such as scent, work by establishing an association between the pleasurable smell and certain products. ...
In the twenty-first century, highly refined marketing processes and procedures are the primary catalysts driving corporate sales. The process can be improved, however, by using consumer behavior and psychological knowledge to create more targeted and effective advertisements. While there is a broad scope of literature discussing the effects of modern marketing campaigns, this article specifically examines the positive effects of consumer psychology on marketing in contemporary businesses environments. This study focused on three core aspects: how subconscious advertising impacts businesses, the power of persuasive techniques, and the psychological tactics used to create pricing strategies. The authors curated data from narrative literature using qualitative thematic analysis, providing an in-depth and comprehensive review of the topic. The findings show how the use of smell, sublimation, and color appeals are used to influence consumer preferences. In addition, the strategy of encouraging emotional attachments to products using emotional triggers was also analyzed and explained. Finally, the process of applying psychological principals to create pricing strategies that affect purchase intention was explored. The conclusion of these findings suggest that consumer psychology has the power to positively affect marketing campaigns and elevate brand strength.
... Based on prior research [48][49][50], we suggest that two emotions (i.e., pleasure-feeling and arousal) influence individuals' perceived dietary quality, which in turn is expected to influence their willingness to eat a delicious but unhealthy food product. While the exposure to a food product may affect perceived dietary quality and/or willingness to eat, previous research suggests that temping food cues may be more likely to affect beliefs and behavior through mediating variables such as emotions [16,51,52]. This view is also consistent with the affect-as-information theory [53,54], which suggests that emotional responses may be seen as valuable judgmental and behavioral information to individuals. ...
... However, some effects may be more likely to occur. Prior studies suggest that when individuals encounter tempting cues, they frequently form affective responses [55,56], which in turn may induce other responses such as judgment [51,52] and approach-avoidance behavior [57]. Affect-as-information theory [53,54] suggests that affective responses contain valuable judgmental and behavioral information to individuals. ...
Individuals frequently encounter alluring food temptations that can disrupt their efforts to follow a healthy diet. These temptations may trigger pleasurable thoughts and sensations, potentially leading to unhealthy eating habits and obesity, which misalign with the goals of sustainable food systems to promote overall well-being. However, there is limited knowledge regarding how individual differences such as gender and motivation for healthy eating might impact individuals’ responses to unhealthy food temptations. In an experimental investigation, 245 participants were exposed to a tasty but low-nutrient food product (potato crisps). The results provide several new insights: (a) when individuals’ motivation for healthy eating is low, pleasurable experiences have a positive impact on perceived dietary quality; (b) pleasurable feelings also directly reduce willingness to consume potato crisps; (c) gender influences the relationship between pleasure-feeling and willingness to eat, with a negative relationship for women and a non-significant relationship for men; and (d) among women, there is a positive relationship between arousal and willingness to eat, while this relationship is non-significant for men. This study adds to the body of knowledge already available on food temptations, nutrition, and sustainable eating.
... Music is the most studied sound stimuli, and sales, time in a store, and consumer behavior are the most studied dependent variables in experimental studies [68]. Some studies have evaluated how music can contribute to positive evaluation of the store, product, and advertising, and even in the mood of customers or moderation role of days and the influence on shopping in supermarkets [17,37,56,62]. However, there is little research on other types of sounds (e.g., productassociated with a product, voice, sound effects, noise, etc.) [15], despite the use of sound stimuli such as voice, music, and sounds related to a certain product or context. ...
... Jingles, music, and catchy slogans have been the main marketing tools used to attract the ear, and research on the influence of sound stimuli on advertising is mainly composed of behavioral responses. These responses measure purchase intention, brand attitude, ease of recall [17], evaluation of the product or advertisement, and perception of the environment in a restaurant, hotel, retail store, etc. [37]. Other behavioral responses may include approaching or avoidance. ...
The objectives of this research are as follows: (i) to study whether the presence of sound stimuli influences customer engagement; (ii) to assess this effect on different dimensions of customer engagement (sensory experience, approach-avoidance response, and emotional response); and (iii) to study whether product type and customer involvement moderate the effect of sound on customer engagement. This research analyzes the effect of two different sound stimuli for two different product types on two digital channels. The experimental design for Study 1 is a 2 sound (sound associated with the product vs. no sound) × 2 product type (hedonic vs. utilitarian) displayed in a social network (Instagram) environment. The experimental design for Study 2 is a 2 sound (voiceover vs. no sound) × 2 product type (hedonic vs. utilitarian) displayed in a blog. Both studies additionally incorporate measured variables, with a particular focus on customer involvement (low and high). A total of 512 participants interacted with a condition and then completed a questionnaire. The presence of sound increases customer engagement in the sensory experience and approaching response. The interaction of sound (voice-over) and the hedonic product positively influences the emotional response, and customer involvement negatively moderates the influence of sound on the sensory experience.
... Many studies investigating the impact of music have utilized the PAD approach (Bae et al., 2018;Chebat & Michon, 2003;Haußmann, 2015;Hui & Dube, 1997;Mattila & Wirtz, 2001;Sa´daba & Lenzi, 2016;Vida et al., 2007;Yang et al., 2020). Many studies found evidence linking customer behavior to customer's emotional pleasure and emotional arousal. ...
... It can be said that ambient music in a retail environment drives customer's pleasure or displeasure, resulting in the positive (negative) reinforcement of customer's evaluation of the store's offering and sales personnel. Many studies found that longer the customer stays in store, the more money he/ she will tend to spend (e.g., Baker et al., 2002;Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002;Chebat & Michon, 2003;Greenland & McGoldrick, 2005;Herrington, 1996;Loureiro et al., 2021;Michon & Chebat, 2004;Sherman et al., 1997;Soh et al., 2015). Impulse purchase is triggered by some environmental clues such as aroma (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001), music (Milliman, 1986), and servicescape (Bitner, 1992). ...
This study evaluated the effect of ambient music on customers’ emotional cognitive responses and impulse buying behavior. A conceptual model was developed using the existing body of knowledge. The model was used to examine the influence of ambient music and whether gender moderates this impact. The hypothesized relationships were examined via path analysis. Implications of the results for the management of shopping malls/superstores are discussed.
... Since Kotler (1973) introduced the term 'atmospheric', extensive efforts have been made to investigate the effect of ambient elements on consumers' perceived store image (Baker et al., 1994;Hu & Jasper, 2006), satisfaction (Sulek & Hensley, 2004), purchase behaviour (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Mattila & Wirtz, 2000) and postpurchase behavioural intentions (Ryu & Jang, 2007). The retail environment has been found to influence both shoppers and personnel's behaviours (Milliman, 1986;Stanley & Sewall, 1976). ...
... The debate over the interplay between affect and cognition has culminated in different approaches (Bigné et al., 2008;Chebat & Michon, 2003). In this study, we follow Petty and Cacioppo's (1986) elaboration likelihood perspective, according to which 'evaluations can be based on a variety of behavioral, affective, and cognitive experiences, and are capable of influencing or guiding behavioral, affective, and cognitive processes (p. ...
Beliefs play a prominent role in consumer attitudes toward technology. Hence, the interplay between affective and cognitive perceptions results in approach or avoidance behaviours. This study examines how phygital interactive in‐store technologies are perceived in the specific context of luxury retail by providing a holistic picture of the characteristics consumers link to technological applications. Employing correspondence analysis, we highlight the contribution of the affective and cognitive dimensions of beliefs to technology evaluation, both in positive and negative terms. By differentiating between respondents who had already tried the technology and those who had not, the findings reveal how negative bias, derived from a lack of experience, results in negative evaluations; while previous usage of the technology positively impacts technology assessment. The results provide an outline of a valuable customer in‐store experience enriched by phygital devices, showing how technology's distinct features attract consumers, and how these perceptions can be leveraged by the retailer to enhance the retail experience.
... It can work synergistically with other sensory elements in the physical environment, such as vision and hearing, to influence the user's emotions, perceptions, habitual behaviors and even activity performance. The study of olfactory perception and mechanism has been discussed in various fields, such as neuroscience, psychology and architectural design (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Morquecho-Campos et al., 2022;Haviland-Jones et al., 2013). ...
... Additionally, the relationship between spatial olfactory design and users' bodily perception follows an inverted U-shaped pattern, with consumers perceiving optimal emotional experiences in moderate retail densities (Michon, Chebat, & Turley, 2005). Models DTS 3,2 of emotional cognition can demonstrate the influence of shopping space odors on users' perception (Chebat & Michon, 2003). Therefore, a library olfactory space should focus on meeting the goals of library services and fulfilling users' emotional and cognitive needs during their activities in order to stimulate user interest in library olfactory space and enhance satisfaction with the olfactory service in libraries (Sl atten, Mehmetoglu, Svensson, & Svaeri, 2009;Errajaa et al., 2021). ...
Purpose
This article explores the scientific construction of library olfactory space, based on the case of the olfactory space in the Jiangsu University library. It specifically focuses on understanding the interaction between the physical architectural space of the library and users’ olfactory perception and behavioral activities, with the ultimate goal of creating a deeply integrated olfactory experience in the Jiangsu University Library.
Design/methodology/approach
In this article, an empirical research method was used to gather perceptions from 30 university student users regarding the library olfactory space and to understand their olfactory preferences and requirements for its construction. Through qualitative analysis of the interview texts, the study identified correlations between user perceptions and elements of the library olfactory space.
Findings
The qualitative analysis of user interview texts and results from the library olfactory space design experiment contributed to the design proposal for the Jiangsu University Library olfactory space. The design proposal for the Jiangsu University Library olfactory space is provided and includes library architecture, activity context, functional services, olfactory experience design and technological applications.
Research limitations/implications
This case study takes the environment, development strategy and user needs of the Jiangsu University Library as its unique research background and as such is not universal or generalizable to other libraries.
Originality/value
This article differs from others by advocating for the innovative architectural spatial design of libraries through olfactory experience, breaking the traditional perception of libraries as solely through visual and auditory senses.
... Unfortunately, 26-28 • C is probably the suitable range for both comfort and energy saving [46,47] based on numerous previous findings. In addition, the overall satisfaction of customers in shopping malls is also determined by many other indoor factors, such as air quality, light intensity, ambient odor, and noise [48][49][50][51]. ...
Local data about indoor thermal comfort are in short supply, which are always different from the predicted results produced by models shown in previous studies. Shopping malls that consume substantial energy need to save energy, provided that thermal comfort is maintained. Therefore, this research investigated indoor thermal comfort using field measurements and questionnaires in a typical shopping mall in Danyang, China, with a hot summer and cold winter climate in order to explore local demands and energy-saving potential. The findings are as follows: (1) The average air temperature (Ta) and operative temperature (Top) are 26.7 °C and 26.4 °C, which implies a minor influence from radiation and other factors on Ta. Women are more sensitive to changes in outdoor temperature since clothing insulation (Icl) varies by gender: 0.31 clo and 0.36 clo for male and female individuals, respectively. (2) The thermal neutral temperature (TNT) derived from the thermal sensation vote (TSV) is 25.26 °C, which is significantly higher than the 21.77 °C obtained from the predicted mean vote (PMV) model. (3) There is a wide range of acceptable temperatures for thermal comfort because the highest temperature was identified by the thermal comfort vote (TCV) at 27.55 °C, followed closely by 27.48 °C, 26.78 °C, and 25.32 °C, which were separately derived from the thermal acceptance vote (TAV), TSV, and predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) people; these were based on an upper limit of the acceptable 80% range. (4) In total, 94.85% of respondents accepted the indoor air quality, although the median concentration of CO2 was 772 ppm, and the neutral relative humidity level was 70.60%. Meanwhile, there is an important relationship between air quality satisfaction and operative temperature; thus, the temperature (26.93 °C) with peak satisfaction can enhance air quality perception and thermal comfort. (5) The energy savings that can be achieved are 25.77% and 9.12% at most based on acceptable thermal comfort compared with baseline energy consumption at 23 °C and 26 °C, respectively.
... Customer mood was measured at the time of the interaction using a brief mood scale to capture participants' positive or negative emotional state. Mood can significantly impact customer experiences and service evaluations, making it a necessary control variable to differentiate between situational emotions and core attitudes (Chebat & Michon, 2003). Perceived complexity of the service environment was measured to control for how the overall environment (e.g. ...
... K. Lee et al., 2005). The first school adopts the cognitiveaffective causal relationship, stating people's cognitive responses can stimulate their affective mechanism (Chebat & Michon, 2003). As such, people tend to recognize an object first before they acknowledge their feeling (C. ...
A conceptual framework was proposed to examine the inter-relationships among non-behavioral destination familiarity (self-described, educational, and informational familiarity), destination image, and travel intention in the context of US tourists visiting Singapore. A total of 313 usable online survey responses were collected via Qualtrics; the data were analyzed through Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA). The results confirmed that informational familiarity and self-described familiarity all positively influenced prospective US tourists’ destination image perceptions and travel intentions. The findings concluded that destination familiarity, specifically non-behavioral aspects played important roles in shaping tourists’ perceptions and decision-making. Moreover, the cognitive destination image can be influenced by affective destination image, and the former was key to influence tourists’ travel intention. The joint analysis of PLS-SEM and fsQCA provided a fine-graiend insights into the variable relationships. Managerial implications are proposed for tourism organizations to understand tourists’ behaviors better.
... In consumer studies, behavioral science, and psychology, the SOR model introduced by Woodworth, 1928 is widely recognized for its ability to describe the interrelatedness between "environmental stimuli (S)," "organism (O)," and "behavioral response (R)" (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). The S-O-R theoretical model has been applied in various retail settings to explain consumer decision-making processes (Chebat and Michon, 2003). It provides a framework for understanding how external environmental factors, such as market conditions, regulatory measures, or marketing cues, interact with the internal cognitive and emotional states of individuals, ultimately leading to specific behavioral outcomes (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974;Jacoby, 2002). ...
This study aims to examine the impact of investor protection measures on generation Z (GenZ) investors behavioral intentions under the mediation of cognitive bias and perceived risk, using S-O-R model and theory of behavioral finance. Employing a quantitative approach, data was collected through survey responses from 402 GenZ investors. The data was analysed using SmartPLS4 for PLS-SEM. The study evaluates the effectiveness of investor protection measures and contrasts modern finance theories, which assume market efficiency with behavioral finance theories highlighting the influence of psychological factors on behavioral intentions. The findings reveal that investor protection measures which include financial literacy, regulatory effectiveness, and surveillance deterrence, significantly influence behavioral intentions of GenZ investors. These factors have both direct and indirect effects with cognitive biases and perceived risk serving as mediators. This study is among the first to uniquely integrate investor protection measures with theory of behavioral finance. It empirically demonstrates that internal cognitive factors and external regulatory factors are crucial in shaping behavioral intentions of genZ investors.
... The importance of physiological health within the larger framework of QoL becomes apparent when we consider its direct influence on many domains. One such domain, feelings, encompassing both positive and negative states, are fundamental to well-being and QoL [54]. Recent advancements in wearable technology have significantly improved the ability to identify emotions by monitoring physiological signals such as heart rate variability, skin conductance, and facial expressions [55]. ...
Quality of Life (QoL) assessment has evolved over time, encompassing diverse aspects of human existence beyond just health. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the integration of Deep Learning (DL) techniques in QoL assessment, focusing on the analysis of wearable data. QoL, as defined by the World Health Organisation, encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being, making it a multifaceted concept. Traditional QoL assessment methods, often reliant on subjective reports or informal questioning, face challenges in quantification and standardization. To address these challenges, DL, a branch of machine learning inspired by the human brain, has emerged as a promising tool. DL models can analyze vast and complex datasets, including patient-reported outcomes, medical images, and physiological signals, enabling a deeper understanding of factors influencing an individual's QoL. Notably, wearable sensory devices have gained prominence, offering real-time data on vital signs and enabling remote healthcare monitoring. This review critically examines DL's role in QoL assessment through the use of wearable data, with particular emphasis on the subdomains of physical and psychological well-being. By synthesizing current research and identifying knowledge gaps, this review provides valuable insights for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers aiming to enhance QoL assessment with DL. Ultimately, the paper contributes to the adoption of advanced technologies to improve the well-being and QoL of individuals from diverse backgrounds.
... The sense of smell, although generally underestimated, is crucial for many aspects of everyday life: affecting nutrition and food enjoyment, alerting of potential danger (i.e., poisoned or rotten food, gas leaks; Croy et al., 2014;Stevenson, 2010), and affecting social relationships (Dal Bò et al., 2020;Semin et al., 2019), mood (Delplanque et al., 2017;Kadohisa, 2013), behavior (Cecchetto et al., 2017;Chebat and Michon, 2003), and memory (Herz, 2016;Larsson et al., 2017), all aspects that contribute to the general well-being (Boesveldt and Parma, 2021;Mai et al., 2022). Olfactory deficits have been associated with several mental conditions (Marin et al., 2023), including schizophrenia (Good and Sullivan, 2015). ...
... Human attention capacity is restricted, as explained by the restricted Capacity Model of Attention (LCM) theory. Many tasks compete for our attention while we process information, with primary tasks frequently taking precedence over secondary tasks, causing us to pay less attention to secondary tasks (Chebat & Michon, 2003). The researchers believe that viewers are overly preoccupied with the drama tale and are not paying particular attention to placement prominence, classifying it as a secondary activity. ...
The product placement strategy is increasingly favored in global marketing, especially through Korean drama streaming services, which are typically produced in series format. Kopiko candy leverages the popularity of Korean dramas by employing product placement in the Korean drama Doctor Slump. This study aims to examine the influence of product involvement, placement prominence, and celebrity endorsement on brand memory and brand attitude. The research involved 157 respondents who are fans of Korean dramas residing in Indonesia, aged 18 and above, who have watched the Doctor Slump series from episodes 1-16 and are aware of the presence of Kopiko candy in the scenes of the drama. The results of this study indicate a positive and significant relationship between the variables of product involvement, placement prominence, and celebrity endorsement on brand memory. Additionally, product involvement and celebrity endorsement also have a positive and significant effect on brand attitude.
... Additionally, odors are closely associated with memories, evoking happy or melancholic feelings based on past experiences. The interplay between mood and cognition in the context of store atmospherics remains an intriguing area for research, with potential managerial implications for retailers aiming to enhance the shopping experience (Chebat and Michon, 2003). ...
... Buna göre uyarılma tüketicinin alıĢveriĢten elde ettiği zevk üzerinde olumlu bir etkiye sahiptir. Bu sonuç literatürdeki benzer çalıĢmalar tarafından da desteklenmektedir (Bigné vd., 2005;Chebat ve Michon, 2003;Hall vd., 2017;Jang ve Lee, 2019;Liu vd., 2020;Miniero vd., 2014). Dahası çalıĢma zevk ile dürtüsel satın alma arasında anlamlı bir iliĢki tespit edilmiĢtir. ...
Dürtüsel alışveriş, tüketicinin mantıklı düşünme ve planlama süreçlerini göz ardı ederek, anlık tatmin arayışı içinde, içgüdülerinin hâkimiyetiyle kontrolsüz olarak gerçekleştirdiği bir alışveriş eylemidir. Dürtüsel satın alma davranışı çevresel, durumsal ve içsel tetikleyiciler aracılıyla gerçekleşmektedir. Mobil ortam ve özellikle mobil alışveriş uygulamalarının, mekân ve zaman sınırını ortadan kaldırarak sağladığı alıveriş kolaylığı günümüz tüketicisini dürtüsel alışverişe karşı daha savunmasız hale getirmektedir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, mobil alışveriş uygulamalarının dürtüsel satın alma davranışı üzerindeki etkisini S-O-R ve P-A-D modelleri çerçevesinde yapılandırılmış kapsamlı bir model önerisi ile açıklamaktır. Araştırma evreni mobil uygulamalar ile alışveriş deneyimine sahip 18 yaş ve üzeri tüketicilerden oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma bulgularına göre; zevk ve uyarılma duyguları dürtüsel alışveriş davranışı üzerinde önemli etkiye sahiptir. Alışverişten alınan zevk üzerinde algılanan mobilite, satış geliştirme çabaları, hedonik alışveriş değeri etkilidir. Kıtlık mesajları, zaman uygunluğu, hedonik alışveriş değeri ve normatif sosyal etki değişkenleri algılanan uyarılma üzerinde etkilidir. Bulgular ayrıca, tüketicinin alışverişten hissettiği uyarılmanın algıladığı zevk üzerinde etkili olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
... Based off Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) S-O-R model (stimulus-organism-response) previous research in the retail context has exhibited the impact of the sensory environment on consumer emotions and behavior including satisfaction, amount of time spent in an environment, purchase behavior, and loyalty (Clarke et al., 2012;Torabi et al., 2021). Across settings, specific sensory cues including lighting, music, and scent are shown to positively impact a consumer's emotional and behavioral outcomes (Chebat & Michon, 2003). ...
The current study assessed the causal effect fans’ sensory traditions have on co-creation. Data were collected by intercepting Portuguese and Spanish soccer attendees outside of the stadium prior to the match’s start. A total of 282 useable surveys were retrieved from fans during the 2022–23 seasons. Path modeling results indicate that traditions relating to aesthetics, sound, and beverage provided the greatest means to co-create experiences for attendees. The study’s results align with previous research within retail and sport exhibiting the positive impact of the sensory experience on social, psychological, and behavioral outcome. Furthermore, the findings provide support that sensory experiences wielding heightened levels of co-creation for fans contribute positively to merchandise spending and arrival time. This is meaningful as sport organizations continue to seek marketing strategies that will overcome the widespread media platforms that have made consuming sport remotely so accessible.
... Müşterilerin duygusallık düzeyleri kapsamında fiziksel kanıtlara vermiş oldukları davranışsal tepkiler de araştırmacılar tarafından araştırılan konulardan biridir. Memnuniyet ve duygusal uyarılmanın; daha çok para harcama (Chebat ve Michon, 2003;Morrin ve Chebat, 2005), kaçınma ve yaklaşma davranışı (Wu vd., 2008;Manganari vd., 2009;Vilnai-Yavetz ve Gilboa, 2010), yeniden satın alma (Jeong vd., 2009), işletme içinde harcanan para ve zaman miktarı (Morrison vd., 2011) üzerinde etkili olduğu çeşitli araştırmalarda tespit edilmiştir. Yiyecek-içecek işletmeleri müşterilerinde meydana gelen memnuniyet duygusunun ise yeniden satın alma (Oh, 2000;Han vd., 2009;Kim vd., 2009), fiyata karşı duyarlılık (Homburg vd., 2005), tavsiyede bulunma (Oh, 2000;Babin vd., 2005;Ladhari vd., 2008;Kim vd., 2009) ve davranışsal sadakat (Namkung ve Jang, 2007;Ladhari vd., 2008;Ryu vd., 2008;Kang ve Wang, 2009;Ha ve Jang, 2010;Ryu vd., 2010) üzerinde olumlu etkide bulunduğu saptanmıştır. ...
Bu bölümde, her iki ülkenin yerel yönetim yapıları ve sundukları rekreasyon hizmetleri detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. İspanya, 1978 Anayasası ile iller ve belediyeler olmak üzere iki kademeli bir yerel yönetim sistemi kurmuş, ancak esas reformları bölgesel yönetimler gerçekleştirmiştir. İspanya'da yerel yönetimler geniş bir yerinden yönetim sistemi uygulamakta olup, belediyeler, il yönetimleri ve bölgesel yönetimler gibi üç ana sınıfa ayrılmaktadır. Rekreasyon hizmetleri kapsamında, sosyal uyumu sağlamak ve toplumun tüm bireylerinin entegrasyonunu teşvik etmek amacıyla çeşitli programlar ve projeler uygulanmaktadır. Portekiz'de ise yerel yönetimlerin gelişimi 1974'teki diktatörlüğün yıkılmasıyla başlamış ve 1999 yılında belediyelerin sorumluluklarını artırmak amacıyla çeşitli kanunlar çıkarılmıştır. Portekiz'de yerel yönetimler asimetrik bölgeselleşmiş bir yapıdadır ve rekreasyon merkezleri ile bireylerin sosyal uyumunu ve psiko-sosyal refahını iyileştirmeye yönelik hizmetler sunmaktadır. Her iki ülke de rekreasyon hizmetleri aracılığıyla toplumsal kalkınmayı ve bireylerin yaşam kalitesini artırmayı hedeflemektedir.
... Negative emotions can act as deterrents, reducing consumers' motivation and willingness to shop. Chebat and Michon [65] have proposed that negative emotions can arise when consumers are in a crowded store environment, which can increase the likelihood of consumers leaving the store without making a purchase. Van der Maelen et al. [66] have noted that browsing store shelves may result in conflicts or obstacles, contributing to augmented shopping expenses for consumers. ...
Live-streaming e-commerce has become one of the mainstream marketing scenarios, attracting the attention of consumers and the academic community. In live-streaming e-commerce, retailers often use limited-time sales to induce a sense of urgency, prompting consumers to make impromptu purchase decisions. However, existing studies show contradictory results regarding the effectiveness and underlying mechanism of this marketing method. This study empirically investigates the relationship between time pressure and impulsive buying, including affective and cognitive aspects, using the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) and Schachter-Singer (SST) theories. The results suggest that time pressure has a positive relationship with impulsive buying, with an affective rather than cognitive focus. Moreover, the relationship between time pressure and affective (vs. cognitive) impulsive buying is mediated by perceived value. Positive emotions positively moderate, while negative emotions negatively moderate, the relationship between time pressure and affective impulsive buying. This study enhances the understanding of how consumers make purchase decisions under time pressure in live e-commerce scenarios.
... In addition, numerous studies have been carried out to examine how the customers' behavior is influenced by ambient conditions such as music and sound (Morrison, Gan, Dubelaar, & Oppewal, 2011;Lin & Worthley, 2012), smell and scent (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Han & Ryu, 2009;), temperature (Pinto & Leonidas, 1995;Heung & Gu, 2012), and lighting (Areni & Kim, 1994;Summers & Hebert, 2001). For example, Lin and Worthley (2012) analyzed how customer satisfaction and behavior are influenced by music and color which they claim are the two most salient atmospheric elements in servicescapes; they found a significant association. ...
Attractive local businesses can make cities more walkable by providing desirable destinations to walk to. The term servicescape has been used to describe the physical settings and environments that affect customers' inference of the service quality of businesses at that location. This study extends the concept of servicescapes to include walkable streetscapes and examines whether features that make streets more walkable also make local businesses on those streets more attractive. This study measures walkable streetscape features using street view images and computer vision, which are associated with customer satisfaction values derived from Yelp review scores of restaurants in Atlanta, GA, USA. After controlling for various covariates including pedestrian accessibility, restaurant type, and neighborhood-specific characteristics, this study found sidewalk buffers, greenness at eye level, and building-to-street ratio as streetscape features positively associated with customer satisfaction. Planning tools for promoting walkable streetscapes are discussed to improve the street vibrancy and the economic opportunities of local businesses.
... To date, most of the scent-related research in marketing has focused on the effects of pleasant scent on memory [66]. Although some studies have been conducted in realistic (e.g., a casino [67], a mall [68]) or semi-realistic settings [69], most research has been conducted in artificial laboratory conditions [70,71]. ...
All senses elicit emotional responses to goods, services, and the environment. They also play an important role in the process of fashion design and its evaluation. This research is a continuation of several preliminary studies we conducted online to define three attractive and three unattractive colors, textures, smells, sounds, and tastes. In the present study, a sample of textile engineering and fashion design students and experts (N = 54) assessed four groups of 6 fabric samples (sensory evaluators) selected based on the results of the preliminary studies. Each group of fabrics was assessed in one of four sensory modalities (except taste). Two semantic differentials were used to assess each sensory modality: attractive/unattractive and boring/interesting in the case of color, insensitive/sensitive in the case of texture, disturbing/calming in the case of sound, and cheap/luxurious in the case of smell. We found that among the fabrics in six different colors, the pink fabric was the most attractive. Of the six textures presented, the knitted rib texture was found to be the most attractive to touch. The scent of lemon essential oil was perceived as the most attractive among the six scents used, and the friction sound of suede leather was perceived as the most attractive among the six friction sounds of fabrics. Cluster analysis showed that the attractiveness of scents and colors of six fabric samples was highly differentiated and (almost) each sample was perceived as unique, while the attractiveness of the texture and sound of different samples was less differentiated and the samples were divided into only two groups. This suggests that discrimination of fabric attractiveness may be better in some sensory evaluators/modalities than in others. The results of this study will be useful for further research on the integration of different sensory modalities in fabric perception and garment preferences.
... Examples of these scents include: the smell of freshly cut grass, freshly brewed coffee, freshly baked bread, the smell of new books, the scent of a baby, the smell of soil after rain, the scent of the sea, the smells of coal, matches, and smoke, the smells of roses and flowers, the scent of cantaloupe, the smell of gasoline, and the smell of newly made wooden furniture. For example, what makes the smell of freshly cut grass so special is a chemical that the grass secretes to protect itself when it is damaged (Chebat and Michon, 2003;Esencan, 2021). You can close your eyes, plug your ears, not touch it, not want to taste it, but you cannot prevent the smell that mixes with the air you breathe. ...
... Este modelo se ha utilizado para destacar la influencia del entorno o estímulos en la generación de las emociones . A pesar de la controversia existente acerca del impacto que la activación pueda presentar sobre el agrado (Martínez y Martínez, 2007;Wirtz y Bateson, 1999), incorporamos a nuestro modelo tal relación (Chebat y Michon, 2003;, así como la influencia que activación y agrado presentan sobre la satisfacción (Chebat y Michón, 2003;. ...
Diversos modelos han analizado el impacto que la imagen del destino turístico presenta sobre la satisfacción y lealtad del turista, incorporando elementos adicionales como valor, expectativas y emociones. Para establecer la universalidad de tales planteamientos resulta necesario verificar si los mismos permanecen vigentes para diferentes tipos de destinos turísticos, así como para entornos donde se desarrolle una distinta estrategia promocional. Para analizar un posible funcionamiento dispar se ha seleccionado un destino urbano en España y una localidad costera en Colombia.
The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted the retail industry, especially beauty retail stores, as consumer behavior shifted drastically. With the temporary closure of physical stores and a surge in e-commerce, offline beauty stores saw a substantial drop in sales. As the world transitions to the post-pandemic era, beauty retailers need new strategies to boost in-store sales. Impulse buying behavior is one potential strategy which has been identified as a significant driver of retail sales in offline beauty stores. Therefore, this research aims to analyze the key factors influencing impulse purchases at offline beauty stores in Indonesia and also analyze which variables can positively influence impulse purchases at offline beauty stores in Indonesia. This research used quantitative research using questionnaires with non-probability and purposive sampling is used, so the respondents must have purchased at least once purchased in offline beauty stores, be 18-65 years old, and living in Indonesia. Using a survey method with 250 respondents, data were analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that sales promotions, store environment, and store employees significantly impact impulse buying behavior. These findings can help beauty retail business or similar businesses in the beauty industry in developing strategies to enhance customer experience and increase in-store sales by leveraging the identified influential factors.
Providing nutrition or health labels on product packaging can be an effective strategy to promote a conscious and healthier diet. However, such labels also have the potential to be counterproductive by creating obstructive expectations about the flavor of the food and influencing odor perception. Conversely, olfaction could significantly influence label perception, whereby negative expectations could be mitigated by pleasant odors. This study explored the neural processing of the interplay between odors and nutrition labels using fMRI in 63 participants of either sex, to whom we presented beverage labels with different nutrition-related statements either with or without a congruent odor. On a behavioral level, the products for which the label was presented together with the odor were in general perceived as more positive than the same labels without an odor. Neuroimaging results revealed that added odors significantly altered activity in brain regions associated with flavor and label processing as well as decision-making, with higher activations in the right amygdala/piriform cortex (Amy/pirC) and orbitofrontal cortex. The presentation of odors induced pattern-based encoding in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the left ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens, and the right Amy/pirC when accounting for behavioral differences. This suggests that odors influence the effects of labels both on a neural and behavioral level and may offer the possibility of compensating for obstructive associations. The detailed mechanisms of odor and statement interactions within the relevant brain areas should be further investigated, especially for labels that evoke negative expectations.
Purpose
Increased urbanization has resulted in physical environments, including servicescapes, dominated by functional designs, with nature’s presence becoming scarcer. While “biophilia” designs have received attention in fields like environmental psychology and architecture, studies on biophilia in servicescapes remain scant, fragmented and often contextual. The purpose of this study is to do a semi-systematic review of studies on biophilia in physical servicescape designs (interior and exterior), identify prevailing critical gaps and develop a comprehensive framework for theory advancements in biophilic servicescapes.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing from a critical review of 56 servicescape studies over 33 years and incorporating theoretical frameworks from environmental psychology, this paper introduces a typology of biophilia in physical servicescapes that includes direct, indirect and human–nature relationships. Furthermore, this study develops a conceptual framework using the Stimulus-Organism-Response model to systematically synthesize biophilia’s overall applicability in servicescapes for consumers and service employees, incorporating moderating factors related to service, servicescape and user types.
Findings
This review investigates the emergence and definition of biophilia in servicescapes, examines the benefits of biophilic design for consumers and service employees and highlights key design strategies. In the absence of robust frameworks to assess biophilia’s impact on consumer and employee responses, this paper presents a comprehensive framework and offers guidelines for future research in retail environments and servicescapes.
Originality/value
Drawing from the synthesis of research on biophilia in servicescapes, this study introduces a framework that demonstrates how antecedent variables, including both direct and indirect biophilic elements, foster human–nature relationships that lead to affective, cognitive and behavioral responses. These effects are moderated by situational factors (e.g. service and servicescape types) and individual differences (e.g. personality, values and nature-relatedness). Ultimately, these responses influence approach or avoidance behaviors in consumers and employees, with a taxonomy detailing responses aligned with biophilia.
Retail store atmospherics has grabbed the attention of both researchers and professionals due to its synergistic potential with digital media and its influence on consumer behavior. In the current study, bibliometric analysis was employed to quantify the conceptual framework of the retail store atmospherics literature to improve information transmission for researchers and professionals. The study examines 265 articles from the Scopus database and discovers that the existing research is highly diverse. The influence of authors, papers, and journals on literature and its conceptual foundations and notions is investigated. The results illustrate the following three themes as an outcome of keyword co-occurrence analysis in the store atmospherics research: internal elements, consequences of using store atmospherics as an instrument to achieve marketing objectives, and psychological influences of store atmospherics.
Purpose
This study aims to explore the connection between travel content consumption in social networks and social comparison, envy as well as travel intention. It analyzes whether tourists’ travel intention is affected by travel content consumption in social networks, and more importantly, whether social comparison and envy play a mediating role in this process.
Design/methodology/approach
Data was collected through intercept in four popular tourist spots in Guangzhou and Zhuhai in South China. A self-administered questionnaire was used. A total of 400 participants were recruited, and 291 valid questionnaires were obtained. Bias-corrected nonparametric percentile bootstrap mediation variable test method was used to test hypotheses.
Findings
The study yielded three results. First, travel content consumption in the social networks positively influences travel intention. Second, travel content consumption in social networks indirectly affects travel intention through social comparison and envy. Third, the control variables, such as gender, age, education and income, mainly affect envy.
Originality/value
This study constructs a theoretical framework of stimulus–cognitive appraisal–emotion–behavioral responses. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, it is the first study to reveal that the internal psychological mechanism of travel content consumption affects travel intention. It also discloses that envy of seemingly negative emotions can encourage positive behaviors in certain situations.
Purpose
Despite the popularity of leveraging cause-related marketing (CRM) to make societal contributions and bolster business profits, sellers face a profound dilemma when conducting CRM due to consumers’ ambivalent understanding of sellers’ motivation for the initiative. Therefore, it is imperative to unravel consumers’ ambivalent understanding of CRM and determine how sellers can effectively employ CRM to elicit positive evaluations from consumers.
Design/methodology/approach
This study gathered survey data from 217 participants and applied a polynomial regression model and response surface analysis for disentangling ambivalent perception of CRM by investigating the influence of (in)congruence between perceived egoistic and altruistic motivation.
Findings
The incongruence between perceived egoistic and altruistic motivation can positively influence consumers’ evaluations of sellers. Moreover, when perceived egoistic and altruistic motivations are congruent, increasing their absolute level also enhances consumers’ evaluation of sellers. Moreover, sellers’ platform function usage behavior can amplify the positive effect of incongruence but has no salient moderating role on the congruence effect.
Originality/value
Differing from prior literature that predominantly focused on either the positive or negative interpretation of CRM, this study reveals the coexistence of both positive and negative viewpoints and disentangles the congruence and incongruence effect between the two motivational understandings.
Highlights-The curvature in the street makes it more exciting, and greater variety in curvature causes more arousal and pleasure.-Streets with medium enclosure (1:2 and 1:1) exhibit the most desirable values of size and enclosure.-The presence of a square or a prominent building, the permeability of the street, and the variation in its landscape increase the pleasantness and arousal.-The three-dimensional rhythms of the street walls exhibit greater pleasure and arousal than the two-dimensional rhythms.-The portable EEG devices (MindWave MW001 headset) are suitable for evaluation of environmental design interventions in the field of architecture and urban development. Extended abstract Introduction The environment can cause positive and negative emotions in citizens. Emotions are important due to their impacts on people's behaviors, because emotions make up a main component of social behavior, and extraction of emotional responses is one of the best ways to understand different fields of experience and perception. Nowadays, mental health problems and the emphasis on increasing social interactions have led to more and more concern for the subject of emotions, but the impact of physical-spatial factors has received less attention from the conducted studies. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the physical-spatial measures of urban streets on pedestrians' emotional responses by placing the individual in a pseudo-real environment. Moreover, this study makes possible the use of a new neural measurement tool in urban studies and evaluates its accuracy. Theoretical Framework The review of previous studies demonstrated that the environmental parameters that can affect emotion include non-physical human factors on the one hand and physical ones on the other. The physical factors that make up the subject of this research can be divided into two categories: 1-non-artificial factors, i.e. green space, and 2-artificial factors, which include the size and enclosure of the space, the shape and form of the space, the characteristics of the surfaces including architectural style, the color and texture of materials, and the variation in spatial sequences. Given the number of studies conducted on the effect of natural factors and certain characteristics of surfaces in the field of architecture, the present research examined four physical parameters. 1 Responsible author: pourja_m@modares.ac.ir doi J MS Paikan, et al Methodology Ten of the most important physical-spatial variables that make up different states and types of the spatial structure of an urban street, which can affect the individual emotions of pedestrians, were selected for investigation and used to design 18 tests. The research was conducted with a combined method consisting of: 1-a self-report method of Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) images and 2-a neurological method using electroencephalography. In the EEG method, the single-channel MindWave MW001 headset, produced by Neurosky, was used as the instrument. The research population included 50 students of Tarbiat Modares University. The research was conducted with the help of controlled experiments using the mobile digital 3D modeling technique, which makes it possible for people to navigate the virtual street in the city. After the data extracted by the health and Stroop tests were confirmed, the data analysis was made using a quantitative-statistical method. Results and Discussion The findings regarding the shape and form of the space demonstrated that people feel more pleased in curved streets than in straight streets, and there is greater arousal in streets of the former than the latter shape. However, the level of control in a straight street is higher than that in a curved or spiral street. As for the size and enclosure of the urban space, the results indicated that there is greater pleasure in a street with medium enclosure (1:2 and 1:1) than in one with low or high enclosure (1:4 and 1:1.2), but streets with medium enclosure exhibit less arousal. Spaces with less enclosure cause people to have more control over the space. The results also demonstrated that the pleasure and arousal experienced by people is increased by the existence of the square as a spatial element and a landmark building as a physical element, permeability in the spatial structure of the street and brokenness in the path, and variation in the landscape of the street. It was only in the street with physical retraction and protrusion that no effect on arousal was observed, although the level of pleasure should increase. Moreover, the results indicated that the pleasure in the street with the curved corner was greater than that with the other forms. However, the shape of the street corner exhibits no effect on the arousal. Furthermore, the walls that are completely three-dimensional exhibit greater pleasure and arousal than those featuring walls with two-dimensional and three-dimensional rhythms. Finally, the walls that are completely two-dimensional have the least pleasantness and arousal. There is a higher level of control in the street with 2D rhythms than in that with 3D rhythms. The results also showed that visual permeability in the physical structure of the street increases the arousal and control of the space, but it has no effect on the pleasure. Another result of this research is that there is 75% conformity in the results obtained from the two methods of SAM and EEG, which demonstrates that the data (EEG) extracted from the device can extract people's emotions well. Conclusion In general, the current research confirms the results of previous studies, but it precisely demonstrated by measuring the extracted neural data that the levels of emotional pleasure, arousal, and control are affected by the shape and form of the street, the size and enclosure of the street space, the presence of a spatial and physical element that creates attention and emphasis in the street, permeability in the spatial structure of the street, rotation along the street and perspective change along the path, two and three-dimensional wall street rhythms, and the shape and form of the corners of the street intersection. However, physical indentations and protrusions exhibit no effect on arousal, and visual permeability has no effect on pleasure. In addition, the results showed that the EEG data extracted from the headset (MindWave MW001) used in this study could well capture the emotions of individuals, thus making up a proper potential tool for evaluation of environmental design interventions in the field of architecture and urban planning. The results of the present study, which indicate the psychological effects of urban design of a street, help to select and design the appropriate elements and physical characteristics of the space, increase positive emotions and reduce negative emotions, and ultimately improve the mental health of citizens. Acknowledgment This article is taken from the doctoral thesis of urban planning with the title "Explaining the effects of the physical-spatial components of an urban street on the emotional stimulation of pedestrians with an emphasis on the use of neuroscience" which was defended by the first author with the guidance of the second author and the advice of the third author in the Tarbiat Modares University.
In recent years, India's retail industry has undergone a remarkable transformation characterized by the coexistence of organized and unorganized retail businesses. This shift is not limited to Tier 1 cities but extends to Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities, where the proliferation of supermarkets and hypermarkets has been particularly noteworthy. Despite this evolution, traditional Kirana stores have managed to maintain their market share. Concurrently, the competition between malls and Kirana stores has intensified, driven by the rapid expansion of e-commerce and changing consumer preferences. Malls have emerged as comprehensive retail destinations, offering a wide array of products, services, and entertainment options. However, their urban-centric focus may impede accessibility for rural populations and potentially result in higher costs for consumers. On the other hand, kirana outlets strategically situated in residential areas provide a personalized shopping experience, along with essential items at competitive prices. This study aims to investigate the purchasing patterns of local Barasat shoppers within the context of the "Malls vs. Kirana Stores" debate. Through an in-depth analysis of customer preferences, we seek to identify the key factors influencing purchasing decisions. The insights garnered from this research will be invaluable for retailers and policymakers, enabling them to formulate effective strategies that align with consumer demands and enhance the overall shopping experience. As India's retail landscape continues to evolve, understanding these dynamics becomes essential for the industry's sustainable growth and development.
In recent years, sensory marketing, particularly in the context of atmospheric and ambient environments, has witnessed substantial growth in research activities. However, despite this proliferation of studies, there has been a lack of comprehensive scientific mapping in this domain. To address this gap, this study employs bibliometric analysis to examine the body of research in sensory marketing. Data were extracted from the Scopus database using article classification, a journal coverage criterion. The analysis used the Biblioshiny application within the bibliometric package developed in R-Studio and VOS Viewer. The findings indicate an exponential growth in research within this field, with most publications originating from the United States of America and China. Key topics that emerged prominently in this research include ‘sensory marketing’, ‘sensory brand experience’, ‘customer satisfaction’, ‘five senses’, and ‘aesthetics’. In this article, the core elements of sensory marketing are defined as ‘background music’, ‘advertising’, and ‘sensory brand experience’, offering valuable insights for marketers seeking to leverage sensory marketing for long-term benefits. The study makes a variety of contributions. It details the development of sensory marketing during the last few decades. In conclusion, sensory marketing is a complex strategy that harnesses the power of the human senses to provide memorable brand experiences. The study shows the scope of assisting future digital sensory marketing in shaping consumer perceptions and preferences and understanding cross-cultural marketing in the increasing landscape of digital sensory marketing.
Youngsters who contribute a largest part in society are surprisingly neglected in the area of research related to shopping mall. As we know Pune is known as 'Oxford' of the east and it is a biggest educational hub, students from all over the country right from J & K to Kanyakumari comes to Pune for education. The shopping mall is considered as an ideal space for youngsters to whom the access to other public space for socialization is having limited scope. These group of consumers have few places to go to without the botheration of elders, the shopping mall represents such a place where the youngsters have the safe access by public transport means, protected from unfavorable changes in environmental weather. They have created a true micro culture through the combination of the personalities, locations and events that they share in the mall environment. The data is collected through the observation method and semi-structured interview. This research paper is focused on youngsters and their leisure time activities for socializing in malls. The main motive of this research is aboutyoungster's use of micro-space in the shopping mall. It also explores how youngsters socialize themselves and how they form their social identity with different practices in shopping mall. The main actors in the study are youngster's age between 18 years to 25 years who are hanging out in shopping mall during their leisure time.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, mobilya sektöründe gerçekleştirilen bir vaka çalışması ile mağaza iç mekân tasarımının ve mağazada yaratılan atmosferin müşteri alışveriş davranışlarına ve müşteri memnuniyetine etkilerini ortaya koymaktır. Mağaza atmosferinin müşterilerin ruh hallerini ve duygu durumlarını etkilediğinden yola çıkılarak mağaza ortamını oluşturan unsurlar belirlenmiş, nitel ve nicel yöntemler kullanılarak müşteri memnuniyeti sorgulanmıştır. Bu unsurlar, görsel sunuş ve görsel iletişimi sağlayan unsurlar özelinde araştırmaya konu olmuştur. Çalışma bir mobilya markası özelinde, eski ve yeni konsept mağaza tasarımlarını karşılaştırıldığı bir vaka analizini içermektedir. Bu bağlamda, gözlem, fotoğraf çekimleri, anket çalışmaları ve yüz yüze görüşmeler kullanılmıştır. Çıkan sonuç doğrultusunda, yeni konsept mağazalarda uygulanan görsel sunuş ve görsel iletişim unsurları ile ilgili oluşturulan tasarımsal değişikliklerin müşteriler üzerinde literatürü destekler nitelikte fiziksel ve psikolojik etkiler yarattığı söylemek mümkündür. Alan çalışması kapsamında incelenen konsept değişikliğinin mekânsal memnuniyet yarattığı saptanmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, çalışma sonucunda mağaza atmosferi ve atmosferi oluşturan bileşenlerin tüketicilerin alışveriş deneyimini pozitif hale getirdiği ve alışveriş davranışlarını olumlu şekilde etkilediği ortaya çıkmıştır.
Purpose
This meta-analysis aims to examine and compare the pleasant ambient scent effects on consumers’ affective, cognitive and behavioural responses in the retail and hospitality sectors.
Design/methodology/approach
55 articles, including 102 effect sizes, are collected from electronic databases and search engines. The effect of pleasant ambient scents on consumer responses is examined using meta-regression analysis.
Findings
The results show a positive effect of pleasant ambient scent on all responses in both sectors, while the effects on cognitive and behavioural responses are stronger in hospitality than retailing. Moreover, the scent effects in hospitality research vary with method aspects, including sampling frame, research design, setting and location.
Research limitations/implications
The findings provide theoretical insights on the sensory tangibilization of experience and methodological insights on designing scent research.
Originality/value
The stronger effect of pleasant ambient scents on cognitive and behavioural responses in a hospitality environment signals that contextual differences should not be neglected. Moreover, hospitality researchers need to stay vigilant to the methodological influence on the findings about scent effects. These findings enrich the sensory marketing literature, in which contextual comparison is scarce.
Refreshing perception, in the context of foods and beverages, refers to the sensation of revitalization or renewal that occurs upon the consumption of certain products. Beyond quenching thirst, refreshment is a multi-sensory experience shaped by color, flavor, texture, and temperature. It is closely linked to the sensory experience of consumption and the physiological response it elicits, while it is also driven by the psychophysiological state of the consumer. This chapter delves into the psychological well-being associated with refreshing foods and beverages, revealing how sensory cues play a vital role in enhancing mood and providing stress relief and relaxation. Understanding the science behind these sensory cues enhances our understanding of their impact on preferences for refreshing products. This chapter focuses specifically on the concept of refreshing and sensory properties related to its perception, the use of the refreshing concept in product design and its potential health benefits, and major challenges and future perspectives.
Purpose
This study examines the effects of scent arousal on consumers' time perception in retail service environments and further explores how the effect is moderated by consumer-perceived stress.
Design/methodology/approach
A laboratory experiment (Study 1) and a field experiment (Study 2) were conducted to examine the relationship between scent arousal and time perception and the mediating effect between scent arousal and consumers' store evaluations. Another laboratory experiment (Study 3) was conducted to explore how consumers' stress modifies the scent arousal effect.
Findings
Consumers in a low-arousal scent condition perceived a shorter duration of time than those in a high-arousal scent condition. This finding was verified in a field experiment, whereas scent arousal affects consumers' store evaluations through the mediating effects of time perception. However, the impact of scent arousal on time perception was attenuated in high-stress conditions.
Originality/value
Time duration perception is an important indicator in the retail service marketing process. Evidence shows that underestimating time duration in the shopping process represents positive responses. This study extends prior research by examining how scent arousal influences time perception and how consumers' stress moderates scent arousal’s effect.
This study "An Assessment of the Influence of Ambient Advertising on Patronage of Goods and Services in Benue State" is a survey research carried out with the general objective of determining the implications of ambient advertising on marketing of goods and services in Benue State. Three major towns (Adikpo, Makurdi, and Otukpo) were selected across the state as population of study using a multi-stage sampling procedure involving stratified, purposive, and simple random sampling techniques. The study used questionnaire to gather data from a sample size of 400 respondents, determined statistically using Taro Yamane formula, and in-depth interview with nine organizations. Questionnaire was analysed using tables and simple percentages while in-depth interview was analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Chi-Square was used for the test of hypothesis. Findings revealed (inter alia), that ambient advertising has significantly influenced consumers in patronising goods and services in Benue State. Findings also revealed that vehicle wraps, street furniture, ambient lights, clothes/ hand-held materials, walkway messages, and pictorial slabs are some of the appeals/ techniques used in ambient advertising in Benue State. The study concludes that ambient advertising is an effective and affordable tool for marketing goods and services, and its strategies are being fast adopted in Benue State with significant influence on patronage of goods and services. The study recommended amongst other things, that organisations that have adopted ambient advertising in Benue State should promote research into it in order to harness its full potentials and economic relevance; and that advertising practitioners in the State should raise sectorial bodies in ambient advertising just like we have Outdoor Advertising Association of Nigeria, in order to encourage professionalism in the subsector.
This paper discusses four examples which indicate that preference is a multiattribute concept. Measures of similarity of liking among tastes and odorants can be used to arrange the stimuli in a multidimensional map which reveals the attributes of liking or preference. Subject weights indicate the relative importance individual subjects place on each of the dimensions of the resultant space or map. The amount or degree of preference a subject has for various stimuli can be related to a multidimensional attribute space as either a multidimensional or unidimensional concept.
The popular press has recently reported that managers of retail and service outlets are diffusing scents into their stores to create more positive environments and develop a competitive advantage. These efforts are occurring despite there being no scholarly research supporting the use of scent in store environments. The authors present a review of theoretically relevant work from environmental psychology and olfaction research and a study examining the effects of ambient scent in a simulated retail environment. In the reported study, the authors find a difference between evaluations of and behaviors in a scented store environment and those in an unscented store environment. Their findings provide guidelines for managers of retail and service outlets concerning the benefits of scenting store environments.
Despite the limited empirical evidence about the effectiveness of olfactory cues in advertising, firms are increasingly using such cues in their advertisements. The authors examine the effects of olfactory cues that are used as a novelty, as opposed to a product sample, on consumer attitudes. The results show that the addition of a more congruent scratch-and-sniff panel to an advertisement improves neither attitude toward the ad nor attitude toward the brand. Further, the addition of a poorer-fitting scent actually lowers attitudes among individuals who are more motivated to process. Those results appear to be a function of the mood evoked by the scented advertisement and of the scent's perceived pleasantness in the advertising context.
This study tests the Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model in retail settings. The results suggest that store atmosphere engendered by the usual myriad of in-store variables, is represented psychologically by consumers in terms of two major emotional states - pleasure and arousal - and that these two emotional states are significant mediators of intended shopping behaviors within the store. The practical value of this approach is that retailers may be better able to explain and predict the effects of in-store changes on shopping behavior.
It was hypothesized that relevant situation-specific variables may act along with objective physical conditions to determine environmental perception, and that the exclusive use of the physical level of an environmental stimulus to predict behavior may, therefore, be inadequate. A 2 × 4 between-subjects design was employed in which an attitudinally similar or dissimilar confederate interacted with a subject at one of four distances. As hypothesized, subjects who interacted with a similar confederate judged the environment to be of higher aesthetic quality, perceived themselves to be less crowded, and felt affectively more positive than subjects who interacted with a dissimilar other. The results were also interpreted as supporting the utility of the Byrne-Clore (1970) reinforcementaffect model of evaluative responses as a means of predicting environmental perception and the behavioral response to environmental stimuli.
Describes an experiment conducted comparing the effects of
background and foreground music on clothing store shoppers. Concludes
that choosing to play store music solely to satisfy customers'
preferences may not be the optimal approach; instead music should be
varied across areas of a store that appeal to different-aged customers.
This study examines how two psychological shopping motives (product related and hedonic or experiential) affect pleasure and arousal in the marketplace. We are particularly interested in consumers who visit a marketplace for the mere pleasure of looking around and enjoying the environment.
The meaning that persons attribute to environments is divided into perceptual cognitive meaning and affective meaning. Affective meaning is then conceptualized as a 2-dimensional bipolar space that can be defined by 8 variables falling in the following circular order around the perimeter: pleasant (arbitrarily set at 0°), exciting (45°), arousing (90°), distressing (135°), unpleasant (180°), gloomy (225°), sleepy (270°), and relaxing (315°, which is thus 45° from pleasant). Alternatively, the same space can be defined by 2 orthogonal bipolar dimensions of pleasant-unpleasant and arousing-sleepy, or equally well by exciting-gloomy and distressing-relaxing. Reliable verbal scales (based on data from 241 Ss) for these 8 variables were developed and shown to approximate the proposed theoretical structure. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The study reported here examines how combinations of specific elements in the retail store environment influence consumers’
inferences about merchandise and service quality and discusses the extent to which these inferences mediate the influence
of the store environment on store image. Results show that ambient and social elements in the store environment provide cues
that consumers use for their quality inferences. In addition, store environment, merchandise quality, and service quality
were posited to be antecedents of store image—with the latter two serving as mediators—rather than components of store image
(as they are typically treated in the store image literature). Theoretical and managerial implications of the findings are
discussed, and future research directions are proposed.
Despite frequent mention, we know relatively little about the effect of ambient environmental factors on consumer behavior. This paper discusses one important aspect of the environment, ambient scent. Based on research from several disciplines, a model describing the effect of ambient scent on consumers is propossed. Ambient scent is portrayed as an environmental cue that is compared with scent preferences to influence affective responses and ultimately approach-avoidance reactions. Moderators of these presumed relationships are also described. Suggestions for empirical research are provided and implications for marketing management are presented.
Despite the limited empirical evidence about the effectiveness of olfactory cues in advertising, firms are increasingly using such cues in their advertisements. The authors examine the effects of olfactory cues that are used as a novelty, as opposed to a product sample, on consumer attitudes. The results show that the addition of a more congruent scratch-and-sniff panel to an advertisement improves neither attitude toward the ad nor attitude toward the brand. Further, the addition of a poorer-fitting scent actually lowers attitudes among individuals who are more motivated to process. Those results appear to be a function of the mood evoked by the scented advertisement and of the scent's perceived pleasantness in the advertising context.
By use of path analysis on data from 600 shoppers, the authors explore the sequential relationships among several variables pertinent to retail crowding. Results furnish evidence that perceived crowding systematically affects shopping behavior and consumers' feelings about retail outlets and shopping trips.
This paper critically reviews the literature available and presents an empirical study that examines the effects of background music on in-store shopping behavior. It finds that music tempo variations can significantly affect the pace of in-store traffic flow and dollar sales volume.
The authors develop and test a theory of how public service advertisements function to induce helping responses. Building on Lazarus's general theory of emotion and adaptation, they hypothesize that public service ads designed to reduce the incidence of child abuse stimulate negative emotions; these, in turn, lead to empathic reactions and end with the decision to help. Two field experiments are conducted to test the theory.
Perceived quality appears to be associated consistently with high prestige stores, high prices, and physical attributes of products such as color. Consumer income and educational level also affect perceptions of quality. These consumer demographic characteristics interact with each other and with the marketing mix in a complex manner.
New procedures are developed and illustrated for the analysis of experimental data with particular emphasis on MANOVA and MANCOVA designs. The authors begin with one-way designs, including overall tests of significance, step-down analyses, and the use of latent variables. Next they describe a general test of homogeneity and consider a procedure that is applicable even under conditions of heterogeneity. Two-way designs then are derived as special cases of the more general n-way case. Finally, advantages and disadvantages of the new methods are considered.
This paper will critically review the limited literature available on the topic and present an empirical study that examines the effect of background music on the behavior of restaurant customers. It was found that music tempo variations can significantly affect purchases, length of stay, and other variables examined.
The effect of music-induced pleasure and arousal on consumers' desire to affiliate in buyer-seller interactions were investigated in the context of bank services. Background music was manipulated using classical music extracts pretested to vary in pleasure (low, moderate, and high) and arousal (low, moderate, and high) according to the Affect Grid (Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn, 1989). Independent and interactive effects of music-induced pleasure and arousal on consumers' desire to affiliate were found. Higher desire to affiliate was associated with more pleasure and more arousal; pleasure had a stronger positive impact under low and high arousal than under a moderate level, and arousal had a stronger effect under low and high pleasure compared to moderate level. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are provided. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
For consumers, evaluation of a service firm often depends on evaluation of the "service encounter" or the period of time when the customer interacts directly with the firm. Knowledge of the factors that influence customer evaluations in service encounters is therefore critical, particularly at a time when general perceptions of service quality are declining. The author presents a model for understanding service encounter evaluation that synthesizes consumer satisfaction, services marketing, and attribution theories. A portion of the model is tested experimentally to assess the effects of physical surroundings and employee responses (explanations and offers to compensate) on attributions and satisfaction in a service failure context.
It is dangerous to take the marketing concepts that apply to products, and try to transfer them to services. Products are tangible; services are not-and that makes a lot of difference in how you market them.
Emotions are mental states of readiness that arise from appraisals of events or one’s own thoughts. In this article, the authors
discuss the differentiation of emotions from affect, moods, and attitudes, and outline an appraisal theory of emotions. Next,
various measurement issues are considered. This is followed by an analysis of the role of arousal in emotions. Emotions as
markers, mediators, and moderators of consumer responses are then analyzed. The authors turn next to the influence of emotions
on cognitive processes, which is followed by a study of the implications of emotions for volitions, goal-directed behavior,
and decisions to help. Emotions and customer satisfaction are briefly explored, too. The article closes with a number of questions
for future research.
The importance of retail store design and merchandising policies rests in the ability of the physical retail environment to alter shopper reactions and behavior. Previous research documents relationships between physical store environments, shopper emotions, and subsequent shopping behavior. Research presented in this paper extends this research by considering the role of consumer self-regulation as a moderator of relationships between shopping emotions and consumer evaluations of the shopping experience. Structural equations analyses support this assertion and suggest disparate outcomes depending upon one's self-regulatory tendency. Results also show that feelings of dominance, previously dismissed as unimportant, significantly alter shopping behavior among those low in self-regulation.
A test set of four pairs of identical women's silk hose, packed in identical boxes, but with each of three pairs of them given a very faint scent of about the same intensity (but of different qual ty) as the natural slightly rancid scent of the pair which were not re-odorized, were shown to housewives by Colgate students. These housewives, encountered in a house-to-house survey, were requested to judge which of the hose were of the best quality. Each of the three scented pairs was chosen more often than the natural pair. There was a definite and consistent order of preferences of the three scented pairs as judged by number of choices of each. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the antecedents and consequences of retail on consumers via 4 focused 2-hr group interviews involving shoppers segmented by age and socioeconomic diversity, with 10 Ss in each group: 1 group included husbands and wives, and 3 groups included women. The interviews and a literature review showed consistent patterns adding to a general model of retail crowding in which environmental cues, shoppers' motives, constraints, and expectations influence the perception of the nature and number of environmental cues. These selected cues then lead to the perceived density of the shopping environment, which leads to affective density. When density supports shopping motives, functional density occurs; when it does not, crowding results. Shoppers use adaptive strategies, which may be influenced by their task orientation. The outcomes of the experience include shoppers' evaluation of the retail establishment and their repatronage intentions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Identifies and measures relevant variables (e.g., color, heat, light, and sound) involved in environmental psychology and fits them into a systematic framework. It is proposed that environmental stimuli are linked to behavioral responses by the primary emotional responses of arousal, pleasure, and dominance. (31 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments examined the relationship between time domain patterns of EEG activity and self-reports for individuals exposed to different odorants. In Exp 1, 3 odorants produced different patterns of EEG theta activity and self reports from 9 adults, suggesting that odor administration is a reliable variable in manipulating neurophysiological response systems and may influence performance and mood. In Exp 2, EEG activity was recorded while 10 adults smelled 5 similar commercial odorous chemicals and an unscented base. Ss also completed questionnaires on odor character and mood. Results indicate that few perceptual or mood differences were produced by the odors. EEG alpha and theta activity in the left and right hemispheres, however, differed depending upon the odor presented and was dissociated from self-reports. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Measures of emotional state, physical well-being, performance, and room odor were obtained from subjects given the suggestion of a pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral ambient odor (n= 30 per condition). The hedonic quality of the feigned odor altered self-reports of pleasure, but not dominance or arousal. Subjects given the pleasant suggestion reported a more positive mood. The number of reported physical health symptoms differed as a function of the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The category corresponding to the fewest number of physical symptoms was predominated by subjects in the pleasant condition, while subjects in the unpleasant condition predominated the category with the greatest number of symptoms. Subjects predicted higher task performance in the unpleasant condition, but no differences were found among conditions in actual performance. Room odor ratings differed in directions consistent with the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The effects of olfactory suggestion may be relevant to the psychosomatic component of sick building syndrome and to the perception and marketing of fragrance.
Prior research has typically grouped color effects into a single class of effects and has ignored situational aspects of consumer responses to color. In the present study, color effects are shown to exhibit different patterns depending on the type of response examined. Further, these effects are described as a function of color wavelength. Evaluative effects are most positive at the short wavelength (blue) end of the visible spectrum, while the activation response engendered by color exhibits a U-shaped pattern across wavelengths. Results of the study support the existence of these two distinct dimensions, and potential applications of the findings are discussed.