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Development of equations for estimating energy requirements in palm-kernel oil processing operations
Abstract
A study was conducted to determine the energy consumption in palm-kernel oil (PKO) processing operations as carried out in nine PKO mills in Nigeria. The mills were equally stratified into three categories to represent different mechanization levels and production capacities. Mathematical expressions were developed to evaluate the energy requirement for each of the seven readily defined unit operations, namely: palm-nut drying, palm-nut cracking, palm-kernel crushing, palm-kernel roasting, PKO expression, PKO sifting and PKO bottling/pumping. The equations were exploited to compute energy expenditure by the mills using measured input data. Empirical equation was developed for each unit operation to relate energy requirement to palm-nut/kernel input. The application test of the equations indicated that about 352 MJ, 232 MJ and 177 MJ was averagely needed to process 1000 kg of palm-nut in the small, medium and large-scale mill, respectively, while energy requirement for each unit operation in each mill category was also estimated.
... The results of the experiments showed that the highest energy consuming operation in paddy production was for weeding followed by tillage and threshing. Other similar works reported in literature and consulted in the course of this study include those for vegetable canneries [14], food wastes [15], rice processing [16], beverage production in Nigeria [17], tea production in India [18,19], PKO processing operations [20,21], Cashew nut processing operations [22,23], poultry processing [24], cassava-based food [25], sugar beet production in Morocco [26], energy consumption pattern in rural Haryana [27], mechanised farms in Nigeria [28], vegetable oil production [29,30], crop production in Nigeria [31,32], energy input-output analyses [33,34]. In all these related studies, energy ratio (energy use efficiency) and energy productivity were measured. ...
... where C is the % of carbon; H, % of hydrogen; O, % of oxygen; and S, % of sulphur. For all estimations involving fuel-to-electricity conversion in each mill when stand-alone generator was used, a conversion efficiency of 80% was assumed [14,20,21]. ...
... This is as a result of increase in the mechanisation level of the different mill categories from small mills to medium mills to large mills in that order. Similar results have been reported for cashew-nut processing in Nigeria [21], rice processing in Nigeria [15] and other agro-processing centres in Nigeria [42]. Although the average ER value in the small mills is high, this does not imply that the EC/P value will be low. ...
Energy use patterns and utilisation efficiencies in 40 factories producing palm kernel oil (PKO) in southwestern part of Nigeria were studied. The factories were stratified into small, medium and large scale categories based on the mode of operations and production capacities. Questionnaires were administered on the factories to obtain historical data on petrol, diesel and electricity consumption and PKO production outputs for seven years (1998–2004). Energy use efficiency indicators employed include: energy intensity (EI), energy cost per unit product (EC/P), energy ratio (ER), food energy ratio (FER) and percentage oil yield by weight. Results of the study indicated that averagely, 0.58, 0.53 and 0.74 GJ/103 l of PKO were needed in the small, medium and large PKO factories, respectively. The average food energy ratios in the small, medium and large mills are 2.48, 2.53 and 2.14, respectively. The corresponding values of PKO conversion ratio are 0.43, 0.50 and 0.35. Electrical energy consumption in medium and large mills was lower than thermal energy due to irregularity and decline in electricity supply from the national grid. The results of the study has provided required baseline information needed for budgeting, comparison of yearly energy consumption, forecasting energy requirements and planning expansion in PKO factories.
... Energy input needs in food production increase with the population as food demand increases (Jekayinfa et al., 2013a). The success of any large scale agricultural production largely depends on how efficient energy is used for all unit operations (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007). ...
... These had enabled improvements and enhanced policy making on such systems for optimization, waste minimization and inputs maximization. Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2007) developed equations for estimating the required energy for seven main operations during the processing of palm kernels into oil in small, medium and large scale mills. This study reported decreased energy requirements as the mills' size increased. ...
Energy audit and mass flow studies of commercial agricultural systems are increasingly becoming of utmost importance, due to high operation costs and dependence on energy. This research was designed to study energy input, output and efficiency for daily table egg production from commercially managed poultry birds. Three commercially operated poultry farms in Ibadan, Nigeria were visited for assessment of management procedures, data collection, equipment observation and personnel interview. The energy required for each management procedure was calculated from standard methods. Each farm housed average of 25,000 actively laying birds and had average daily egg production of 21,250 egg pieces. This amounted to 1169 kg egg and 3000 kg faecal materials production per day from the average energy input of 122,461.12 MJ/day. The highest energy consumption was biological energy which resulted from daily feed consumption of 3000 kg at the rate of 120 g per bird per day. This made up 83.81% of the total energy consumed. These resulted in an energy consumption ratio of 1.05, energy productivity of 0.034 kg/MJ, specific energy of 29.29 MJ/kg and net energy of 6,569.09 MJ/day, respectively. Faecal materials constituted the bulk of the output from the system. Making use of the faecal material in its treated form for the production of feed components would reduce energy costs, increase farmers’ net income and also encourage environmentally efficient processes.
... It therefore follows that citrus production in Nigeria is very sensitive to possible changes in the price of fossil fuels and their supply availability. Earlier researchers on the subject matter have observed similar energy use trends in various crop production systems (Ram et al. 1980;Dutt, 1982;Pathak and Binning, 1985;Farsaie and Singh, 1985;Yadav et al. 1991;Singh and Singh, 1992;Hacıseferogulları et al. 2003;Thakur and Mishra, 1993;Stephen and Jackson, 1994;Baruah and Bhattacharya, 1995;Franzluebbers and Francis, 1995;Singh et al. 1997;Uhlin, 1998;CAEEDAC, 2000;Kennedy, 2000;Dincer, 2001;Singh et al. 2002;Mandal et al. 2002;Pretty et al. 2002;Gezer et al. 2003;Demirbaş, 2003;De Jonge, 2004;Ozkan et al. 2004a;Ozkan et al. 2004b;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2004;Yilmaz et al. 2005;Canakci et al. 2005;Sartori et al. 2005;Demircan et al. 2006;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2006;Jekayinfa, 2007;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007;Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007;Esengun et al. 2007;Erdal et al. 2007;Streimikiene et al. 2007;Shahan et al. 2008;Uzunoz et al. 2008;Kizilaslan, 2009;Jekayinfa et al. 2018) ...
... ;De Jonge, 2004;Ozkan et al. 2004a;Ozkan et al. 2004b;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2004; Yilmaz et al. 2005; Canakci et al. 2005;Sartori et al. 2005; Demircan et al. 2006;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2006;Jekayinfa, 2007;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007;Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007; Esengun et al. 2007; Erdal et al. 2007;Streimikiene et al. 2007;Shahan et al. 2008; Uzunoz et al. 2008;Kizilaslan, 2009; Jekayinfa et al. 2018; Fadara et al. 2019), as presented in Equations 1-4. The input energy was also classified into direct and indirect, renewable and non-renewable forms; the direct energy included human labor, diesel, electricity; Indirect included seeds, fertilizers, manure, chemicals, machinery; ...
The study was undertaken to investigate the energy input and output of a group of citrus research farms in Nigeria. Data used in this study were collected in-situ on yearly basis; therefore the analysed and discussed energy values were averages of data collected over the years. The research results indicated that total energy inputs were 46.64 GJ ha-1. About 35% was generated by human labour, 38% from diesel oil and machinery, while other inputs contributed 29% of the total energy input. About 87% of the total energy inputs used in sweet orange production was from direct sources (seeds, fertilizers, manure, chemicals, machinery) and 13% was from indirect sources (human labor, diesel). Mean orange yield was about 41000 kg ha-1. The net energy and energy productivity value was estimated to be 31.3 GJ ha-1 and 0.88 kg MJ-1 , respectively. The ratio of energy outputs to inputs was found to be 1.67. This indicated an intensive use of inputs in sweet orange production not accompanied by increase in the final product. The gross farm income realised by the farmer is #150,000 (416.67 USD) per hectare and the gross margin computation shows a value of #116,500 (323.61 USD) per hectare; this shows that citrus production is profitable to the tune of #116,500 per hectare; The return to naira invested of 3.48 implies that for every #1 invested in citrus production, the farmer gets a profit of #3.48. Benefit-cost ratio was calculated as 2.2. A methodological shift from the use of energy from non-renewable sources to renewable ones could bring about an improvement in the energy use pattern of the research citrus farms in Nigeria.
... This accounts for the extensive work that has been done on energy auditing system of many manufacturing operations with the aim of improving the design and performance of energy transfer systems. Although, extensive literature exists concerning energy audit of many manufacturing processes such as rice processing [4], sunflower oil expression [5], palm-kernel oil processing [6], [7], cashew nut processing [8], poultry processing [9], cassava-based foods [10], milk processing [11], and sugar production [12], limited work has been reported on energy audit of fertilizer processing operations. ...
... According to him, at the maximum continuous energy consumption rate of 0.30 kW and conversion efficiency of 25%, the physical power output of a normal human labourer in tropical climates is approximately 0.075 kW sustained for an 8-10 h workday. This was calculated mathematically as [3,7,8]: ...
Energy study was conducted in an organic fertilizer production plant in Nigeria, to determine the energy consumption patterns and the associated costs for the production of both powdered and pelletised fertilizer. Analysis was conducted for a daily production of 9000kg of the finished products. Eight and nine defined unit operations were required for production of powder and pellets, respectively. The electrical and manual energy required for the production of powder were 94.5 and 5.6% of the total energy, respectively, with corresponding 93.9 and 5.1% for the production of pellets. The respective average energy intensities were estimated as 0.28 and 0.35MJ/kg for powder and pellets. The most energy intensive operation was identified as the pulverizing unit with energy intensity of 0.09MJ/kg, accounting for respective proportions of 33.4 and 27.0% of the total energy for production of powder and pellets. The energy cost per unit production for powdered and pelletised fertilizer using generator were evaluated as ₦2.92 ($0.021) and ₦3.87 ($0.028), respectively, with corresponding values of ₦1.65 ($0.012) and ₦2.00 ($0.014) when electrical energy from the national grid was used. The energy intensities for the production of organic fertilizers were significantly lower than that of inorganic fertilizers.
... High economic dependence on fossil fuels and the devastating effects on climate and environment have made current research turn to the search for new sources of clean and renewable energies ( Limayem & Ricke, 2012). Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2007) has observed that energy is an indispensable commodity for the economic growth and development of any nation. Nigeria has abundant energy resources, which play a dual role in the country.The energy resources generate foreign exchange reserves, which the government uses for the various development programmes. ...
... In the past decade, with increase in energy inputs in agriculture, an equivalent increase in crop yield occurred. Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2007) suggested that the energy use efficiency of over traditional cropping systems have been sharply going down ward in recent years due to energy inputs increasing faster than energy output as a result of the growing dependency on inorganic fertilizers and fossil fuels. Energy use analysis from the literature have shown that different researchers who used different methods for evaluating human energy reported several values of the energy content for manual labour. ...
The energy cost of producing major food crops in Enugu State of Nigeria were determined and evaluated. Energy analysis of producing yam, cassava, maize, coco yam, rice, groundnut, black beans and Bambara nut were carried out based on field operation, fertilizer application and harvesting. Operational energy used in form of direct and indirect energy and energy sources involved in the production process were computed. The major issue of concern is that farmers use more energy to increase output but they do not have enough knowledge on most efficient energy inputs to use. The research study was planned on the basis of investigative survey research approach which involving the use of questionnaire and personal interview with the major produce of the selected crops during the field trips. In carrying out this investigative survey, the author visited thirty-two (32) farmers from each of the nine LGA selected within the stipulated time. The results showed that land preparation operation activities consumed the highest percentage of energy for producing maize, coco yam, rice, groundnut, black beans and Bambara nut (34.76 %, 32.50 %, 38.35 %, 31.18 %, 28.81 % and 28.42 %) except on cassava and yam that recorded highest production energy at harvesting (21.65 %) and planting (76.03 %) respectively. It was gathered also that direct, renewable and non-commercial energy used were higher than indirect, non-renewable and commercial energy used in producing those selected crops in the area. The low proportion of non-renewable energy indicated that farmers in the study area depend on manual labour in producing the selected food crops.
... The development of small-scale or even portable mills would allow communities and companies to plant and process oil palm fruit in remote areas. At present, large mills processing at least 30 tonnes of fruit per hour are more profitable and require less energy per unit of oil produced than the current generation of small mills (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye 2007). Thus, small mills are not considered viable and centralisation (de facto local monopolies) means that buyers control fruit prices. ...
... It is suggested that government intervention to attract active participation of major developers into the industry would accelerate the future growth of the market. Jekayinfa and Bamgboye [7] reported a study on determination of energy consumption in palm -kernel oil (PKO) processing operations by using data from nine PKO mils in Nigeria. Mathematical models of energy consumption in seven readily defined unit operations of the mill were developed. ...
Indonesia is known as the biggest crude palm oil (CPO) producer in the world. The fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are processed in the mill to produce CPO and Palm Kernel as the main products. The process consumes significant amount of energy, water and raw materials and also produces many wastes and emissions. In this study the potency of implementation cleaner production to a Palm Oil Mill is explored. The objectives are to increase efficiency and to reduce risks to humans and environment. As a case study, a Palm Oil Mill with capacity of 30 ton per hour is used. The results show that many potencies of improvement are found. Some of the potential improvements such as electricity intensity reduction from 20.56 to 17 kWh/ton FFB, and the reuse of turbine cooling water. It is shown that implementation of cleaner production to the Palm Oil Mill will improve the efficiency of the mill significantly.
... Energy in agriculture is typically evaluated based on consumption rate (direct and indirect) and efficiency (Ziesemer, 2007;Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007;Jekayinfa, 2007;Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007;Jekayinfa et al., 2018). Direct energy consumption refers to the basic data on farm input energy expenditure related to crop production processes such as land preparation, irrigation, intercultural operation, threshing, harvesting and transportation of agricultural inputs and farm production (Singh, 2000) which is measured as the total energy used per unit of land over unit of time for every operation. ...
The efficient use of human labour has received little or no attention in the past, the main aim of this study was to audit the consumption and efficiency of manual labour input in the production and processing of some selected crops in Southwestern part of Nigeria. Five farms of about one hectare each were considered and the crops grown were cassava, cowpea, yam, rice and maize, which were later processed to Garri, cowpea flour, yam flour, parboiled rice respectively. All farms used manual labour throughout the production and processing stages and the farm operations were grouped into pre planting, planting, post planting, auxiliary and other operations. In evaluating manual energy input, energy input of an adult male was taken to be 0.75 MJh-1 (and 10% less for a female adult). Results showed 1004.10, 657, 625.25, 304 and 177.6 MJ/ha manual energy input for planting, auxiliary, post planting, other farm operations and pre-planting operations respectively. the total manual labour input was obtained as 2990.5, 2756.75, 2665.5, 2668 and 1088.50 MJ/ha for Garri, cowpea flour, yam flour, parboiled rice and maize respectively while total energy content of 4452, 6020, 5030.40, 8347, 7379.40 was obtained for Garri, cowpea flour, yam flour, parboiled rice and maize respectively. The manual labour efficiency for cassava, yam, rice and maize production were 1.51, 2.20, 1.91, 3.13, and 6.81 MJ respectively. Planting operation requires most labour input in crop production and processing while pre-planting other farm post harvest operations like packaging and distribution has the least labour input. Manual labour efficiency can be maximized if manual labour input is critically analyzed. Manual labour can be more effectively used in post planting and auxiliary operations such as threshing and processing of crops.
... To reduce operating cost to a minimum, the cost of energy consumption which is prime factor under operating cost must be well monitored (Wang, 2009). Some reports on energy audit and survey have been published on processing of palm oil (Akinoso & Omolola, 2011), sugar beet production (Mrini, Senhaji, & Pimentel, 2002), cashew nut processing (Jekayinfa & Bamgboye, 2006) and palm kernel processing (Jekayinfa & Bamgboye, 2007), cowpea flour production (Akinoso, Olapade, & Akande, 2013) and condiment from locust beans (Akinoso & Adedayo, 2012), bambara nut (Anjorin, Sanusi, & Hussein, 2015) and ogiri (Anjorin et al., 2015) among others. However, energy quantification and data were not evident on condiments produced from soybean despite several researches on the legume. ...
Energy being one of the largest operating expenses in most organizations especially manufacturing and processing industries leading to considerable scope for energy conservation and hence cost. Information on energy utilization and conservation pattern were obtained based on time taken, number of person involved and sources of energy using standard energy equations. A total of 445.40 ± 17.32MJkg-1 where thermal energy (420MJ ≈ 94%) and manual energy (25.40MJ ≈ 6%) were the only forms of energy used during production process. Conservation approach I resulted in mean energy of 72.08 ± 1.73MJkg-1 where electrical energy, manual energy and thermal energy accounted for 1.75MJ (3%) 7.34MJ (10%) and 62.99MJ (87%) respectively. Conservation approach II reduced the energy further to 57.24 ± 1.73MJkg-1 as the operation was thermal energy dependent, followed by manual and electrical energy with energy values of 48.13, 7.33 and 1.78MJ equivalent to 84.10%, 12.80% and 3.10% accordingly. Conclusively, traditional method of processing utilized highest energy (445.40MJ) followed by conservation approach I (72.08MJ) and conservation approach II (57.24MJ) was least in energy demand. Conservation approach II permits energy conservation to be 87% as compared with traditional method.
... According to Jekanyinfa and Bamgboye [4]; Ohimain and Izah [5], energy is a vital resource required by human for the survival of the economy. Energy is used in different forms including heat, electrical, mechanical and human energy [5]. ...
... To reduce operating cost to a minimum, the cost of energy consumption which is prime factor under operating cost must be well monitored (Wang, 2009). Some reports on energy audit and survey have been published on processing of palm oil (Akinoso & Omolola, 2011), sugar beet production (Mrini, Senhaji, & Pimentel, 2002), cashew nut processing (Jekayinfa & Bamgboye, 2006) and palm kernel processing (Jekayinfa & Bamgboye, 2007), cowpea flour production (Akinoso, Olapade, & Akande, 2013) and condiment from locust beans (Akinoso & Adedayo, 2012), bambara nut (Anjorin, Sanusi, & Hussein, 2015) and ogiri (Anjorin et al., 2015) among others. However, energy quantification and data were not evident on condiments produced from soybean despite several researches on the legume. ...
Energy being one of the largest operating expenses in most organizations especially manufactur- ing and processing industries leading to considerable scope for energy conservation and hence cost. Information on energy utilization and conservation pattern were obtained based on time taken, num- ber of person involved and sources of energy using standard energy equations. A total of 445.40 ±17.32MJkg⁻¹ where thermal energy (420MJ ∼ 94%) and manual energy (25.40MJ ∼ 6%) were the only forms of energy used during production process. Conservation approach I resulted in mean energy of 72.08 ± 1.73MJkg⁻¹ where electrical energy, manual energy and thermal energy accounted for 1.75MJ (3%) 7.34MJ (10%) and 62.99MJ (87%) respectively. Conservation approach II reduced the energy further to 57.24 ± 1.73MJkg⁻¹ as the operation was thermal energy dependent, followed by manual and electrical energy with energy values of 48.13, 7.33 and 1.78MJ equivalent to 84.10%, 12.80% and 3.10% accordingly. Conclusively, traditional method of processing utilized highest energy (445.40MJ) followed by conservation approach I (72.08MJ) and conservation approach II (57.24MJ) was least in energy demand. Conservation approach II permits energy conservation to be 87% as compared with traditional method.
... Regardless of the type of model and the system, the model must define the system boundaries and ensure the conservation of mass and energy [17]. Thermodynamic analysis has been successfully done for several non-food production industries [12,14,15] and some food production/crop processing industries like; orange juice production [3], commercial banking industry [18], confectionery plant [19], cowpea milling [20], corn wet milling [21], flour Mill [22], soybean oil extraction [23], palm kennel oil extraction [16], etc. In breakfast cereal production, researchers have covered areas like water mobility characteristics [24], state transition and quality [25], energy requirements [26], etc. but, the thermodynamic analysis of a breakfast cereal production industry is scarce in literature. ...
... However, only few industries in downstream of the food supply chain have energy consumption data for their operations (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007). Some food crops and products for which such data were found in literature include palm kernel oil (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007), cashew nut (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2006), sugar (Abubakar et al., 2010), bread (Akinoso and Ganiyu, 2011), gari (Akinoso and Kasali, 2012) and some grain cereals but none was found on cocoa. ...
Direct energy utilization in the processing of cocoa beans into powder in some cocoa processing factories located in South-western Nigeria was investigated. Energy utilization was evaluated for the eight major unit operations that cocoa processing entails, considering energy supply from the national grid and diesel. The data obtained were imputed into existing energy equations to estimate the energy utilized during each unit operation. The results show that the total energy requirements for the processing of raw cocoa bean into powder are 2.23 and 2.38 MJ kg⁻¹ using energy from the national grid and diesel, respectively. The most energy-intensive operation identified are pressing and milling; which account for 58% and 26.3% of the total energy utilized. For all the unit operations involved in the processing of cocoa bean into powder, diesel engine generator as a power source consumed more energy than that of the national grid. From material balance, an average of 7.2 metric tonnes of cocoa beans yields 2825 kg of cocoa powder and 2925 kg of cocoa butter with about 20.14% weight loss along processing line. This work provides important data for energy generation, planning, utilization and cost in the processing of cocoa beans into powder. © 2017, Int. Comm. of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering. All rights reserved.
... For agricultural activities such as land preparation, planting, weeding, irrigation, harvesting and among others energy is mainly utilized [1]. Similarly, energy is used for oil separation from vegetable oilseeds or kernels such as oil palm, sunflower, rape, flax and others by either mechanical expression or solvent method [2]. ...
This paper aimed at the determination of the deformation energy of some bulk oilseeds or kernels namely oil palm, sunflower, rape and flax in linear pressing applying the trapezoidal rule which is characterized by the area under the force and deformation curve.The bulk samples were measured at the initial pressing height of 60 mm with the vessel diameter of 60 mm where they were compressed under the universal compression machine at a maximum force of 200 kN and speed of 5 mm/min.Based on the compression test, the optimal deformation energy for recovering the oil was observed at a force of 163 kN where there was no seed/kernel cake ejection in comparison to the initial maximum force used particularly for rape and flax bulk oilseeds.This information is needed for analyzing the energy efficiency of the non-linear compression process involving a mechanical screw press or expeller.
... Procedural and behavioural changes that include avoiding wastages can save about 30% energy without capital investment (Fischer et al., 2007). Some reported work on energy utilization in food industry are sugar-beet production (Mrini et al., 2002), bread baking (Jekayinfa, 2007), cassava products processing operations (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007), palm-kernel oil processing operations (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007), bread making processes (Le-bail et al., 2010), sugar production factory (Abubakar et al., 2010), and cashew nut processing mills (Atul et al., 2010). ...
Traditionally, method of producing pounded yam by pounding cooked yam using pestle and mortar is time and labour consuming, thus discouraging consumption of the food among urban elite. Conversion of yam tubers to instant-pounded yam flour requires quantifiable magnitudes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine energy conservation potentials of the established three instant-pounded yam flour methods of production. Data were collected from nine instant-pounded yam flour producing factory using structured questionnaires, oral interview, and direct measurement of processing parameters. The data were fit into standard equations to estimate energy demand. Energy required for processing 1000 kg of yam to instant-pounded yam flour using cooking method, steaming method and wet-milling methods were 6720.15MJ, 6934.48MJ and 4296.56MJ respectively, equivalent to 6.7 MJ/kg, 6.9 MJ/kg and 4.3 MJ/kg respectively. Energy intensity for peeling, washing, slicing and packaging were 0.0055 MJ, 0.003 MJ, 0.0076 MJ and 0.2 MJ respectively, and are the same for all the methods studied. Drying consumed more than half of the total energy requirements in each method; cooking (66.26%), steaming (79.04%) and wet-milling methods (76.57%). Using energy demand as criterion, wet-milling method is recommended.
... on the pressure given by the pump itself. The foot valve develops certain problems as follows: and Aniki (2002) recommended a special modified drying machine that will prevent cracking in drying palm kernel seeds Fapetu and Oke (2000) developed regression equation that can be employed in predicting flake thickness for given operational parameters. Jekayinfa (2006) developed empirical equation for estimating energy requirement in palm kernel oil processing. Akinoso, et al. (2006) developed a model equation to effectively predict palm kernel oil yield at any yield moisture content, roasting temperature, roasting duration and roasting temperature. Oyilola, et al. (2004) developed a laboratory model ...
... This account for the extensive work that has been done on energy auditing system of many manufacturing operations with the aim of improving the design and performance of energy transfer systems. Although extensive literature exists concerning the energy audit of many manufacturing processes such as fertilizer production [2], rice processing [4], sunflower oil expression [5], palm-kernel oil processing [6,7], cashew nut processing [8], poultry processing [1], cassava-based foods [9], milk processing [10], sugar production [11], and facility design of flour mill [12] limited work has been reported on energy audit of wheat processing operations. ...
Energy study was conducted in a wheat processing plant in Nigeria, to determine the energy consumption pattern for the production of flour. Process analysis method of energy was adopted to evaluate the energy requirement for each of the operations involved in the processing of wheat. The analysis revealed that eight defined unit operations were required for the production of wheat flour. The types of energy used in the processing of wheat flour were electrical and manual with the respective proportions of 99.87 and 0.13% of the total energy. Average energy intensity was estimated to be 0.101 MJ/Kg for the production of wheat flour. The most energy intensive operation was identified as the milling unit with energy intensity of 0.073 MJ/kg (72.20%) followed by the packaging unit using 0.015 MJ/kg (14.39%). Optimization of the milling process is suggested to make the system energy efficient.
... Procedural and behavioural changes, which include avoiding wastages, can save about 30% energy without capital investment (Fischer et al., 2007). Available literature on estimation of energy input in food processing include sugar-beet production (Mrini et al., 2002), bread baking (Jekayinfa, 2007), cassava products processing operations (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007), palm-kernel oil processing operations (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007), bread making processes (Le-bail et al., 2010), sugar production factory (Abubakar et al., 2010) and cashew nut processing mills (Atul et al., 2010). ...
Pounded yam is a highly valued staple food in many African countries. However, the traditional method of processing the food using pestle and mortar is discouraging consumption among elite. Instant-pounded yam flour is a developed product to solve the problem. Therefore, this study quantified energy utilization in the preparation of yam flour for the production of instant-pounded yam and developed energy conservation processing method.. Data were collected from six instant-pounded yam producing factory using structured questionnaires, oral interview, and direct data recording of processing parameters. Data obtained were used to energy requirements and distribution pattern. Energy input for peeling, washing, slicing, cooking, drying, milling and packaging were quantified using standard equations. In attempt to conserve energy, thickness and shape of the yam to be dried were varied, and energy input estimated. Estimated energy inputs for processing 1000 kg of yam into instant-yam flour were 55.36MJ, 3.06MJ, 6.89MJ, 1490.13MJ, 4313.50MJ, 406.02MJ and 200.11MJ for peeling, washing, slicing, cooking, drying, milling, and packaging operations, respectively. Total energy expended in converting raw yam into instant-pounded yam flour was 6.4MJ/kg. Variation in thickness and shape of sliced yam did not affect magnitude of energy required for peeling, washing, and packaging. However, reducing yam thickness by 5 mm and changing shape from cylindrical to diagonal, reduced energy requirements for cooking, drying, and milling by 4.59%, 18.42%, and 2.60% respectively. The conservation approach reduced total energy utilization from 6425.07 to 4779.42 MJ. Finding of the work revealed that it is possible to conserve energy during production of instant-pounded yam using procedural and behaviour approach.
... The optimum energy used in farming is one of the conditions for sustainable development, because it offers financial savings, fossil resource conservation and pollution reduction [9]. Many researchers have studied energy and economic analysis to determine the energy efficiency of many industrial-processing such as beverage industry [10], sunflower oil expression [11], palm-kernel oil processing [12,13], cashew nut processing [14] and cassava-based foods [15]. Accordingly, energy and economic analysis is commonly used to investigate crop production efficiency, but there is no a comprehensive study in analyzing the whole production process of spearmint essential oil. ...
This paper presents the energy and economic analysis of spearmint essential oil production by using the operational data as a case study of Golkaran agro-industrial CO, Iran. The spearmint essential oil production is conducted in three stages, including farming, essential oil production in the factory and refining-composting processes (post production processes). Fresh spearmint, its essential oil and compost are the main materials of the production system. The results indicate that spearmint essential oil production consumes a total energy of 161250.3 MJ ha-1.The input energy used in the process are electrical (33.40%), diesel (29.86%), natural gas (10.74%), fertilizers (13.53%), chemicals (0.41%), manure (3.12%), machinery (5.7%) and human labor (0.71%). Energy use efficiency, energy productivity, specific energy and net energy of spearmint essential oil production are 17.29, 0.29 kg MJ-1, 3.46 MJ ha-1 and 2626697.7 MJ ha-1, respectively. The benefit to cost ratio, net return and productivity from spearmint essential oil production are 1.53, 72.8537 $ ha-1 and 0.005 kg $-1, respectively.
... The kernel of this crop is used to extract oil with about 50% palm kernel oil recovery. It contains 3.8 mt oil, found mostly in Malaysia, Indonesia and Africa (Jekayinfa, 2006). While considerable works have appeared in print on biodiesel production from vegetable oils, limited studies were found for vegetable oils common in Nigeria. ...
... [3] From the total weight of fresh fruit bunch (FFB), the amounts of CPO and PKO that can be clarified are about 20 and 2%, respectively. [4] Total production amounts of CPO and PKO in Indonesia are predicted to reach about 31 and 3.7 million tons in 2014. [5] Unfortunately, an increase in palm oil production also brings an increase in abundant production of waste, including empty fruit bunch (EFB), shells, and fibers. ...
Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the solid wastes from crude palm oil mills having the lowest value for its utilization compared to other solid wastes. To achieve an efficient utilization of EFB, drying is considered as the first crucial process due to high moisture content of EFB. In this study, EFB drying based on exergy recovery is proposed to achieve high energy efficiency. Fluidized bed is adopted as the main dryer. The proposed model is evaluated in term of energy efficiency, especially regarding the influences of target moisture content and fluidization velocity. As the results, up to 92% of the energy involved in the drying process can be recirculated. The total energy consumption for drying decreases as the target moisture content decreases, while no significant impact of fluidization velocity to total energy consumption. In addition, the required total length of the heat transfer tubes immersed inside fluidized bed dryer is also calculated because it relates to fluidization performance and economic issue. Lower target moisture content results in longer heat transfer tube, while higher fluidization velocity leads to shorter heat transfer tube.
... Human energy expenditure was quantified by multiplying the number of persons engaged in an operation by the man-hour requirement and energy equivalent for human power. According to Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2004, 2006a, 2006b and Jekayinfa and Olajide (2007), at the maximum continuous energy consumption rate of 0.30 kW and conversion efficiency of 25%, the physical power output of a normal human labour in tropical climates is approximately 0.075 kW sustained for an 8-10 h workday. ...
This study applied a simple methodology to evaluate energy contribution of selected crop residues to the possible replacement of conventional sources of energy and their specific technologies based on Nigerian situations. Using this methodology, energy content, replacement energy value, energy cost and energy return of crop residue (kJ per kg dry matter) were considered. The cost estimates of these residues using 2008 crops production data vary from US$6.45/tonne to US$23.12/tonne, depending on the type of crop residue and the transportation distance. Estimation of values of energy from maize stover, cassava peels, millet stover and sorghum straw showed that about 30 million tonnes are energetically available in Nigeria in 2010 and could replace 1.05 PJ/year if they were used exclusively for heat generation by direct combustion, or 0.58 PJ/year if used in gasification processes to generate electricity and replace the energy currently supplied by the national grid.
... The kernel of this crop is used to extract oil with about 50% palm kernel oil recovery. It contains 3.8 mt oil, found mostly in Malaysia, Indonesia and Africa (Jekayinfa, 2006). While considerable works have appeared in print on biodiesel production from vegetable oils, limited studies were found for vegetable oils common in Nigeria. ...
Global concerns about the depletion of the world’s non-renewable energy sources and the
associated environmental impact of fossil fuel provided the incentives to seek alternatives to
petroleum-based fuels. Nigeria is no exception in the fears for crude oil production going into
extinction as recently stated by the Energy Commission of Nigeria. Alternative renewable fuel,
found in vegetable oils such as Palm kernel oil (PKO), which abound in Nigerian forest, is
characterized with high viscosities thus limiting their applications as fuel. The use of
transesterified vegetable oils as fuel has been yielding successful results besides being a
domestic, renewable resource that provides environmental benefits with lower emissions. In this
work, laboratory scale quantities of ethyl ester of PKO (EEPKO) were produced and
characterized as diesel fuel. KOH was selected to catalyze the transesterification process of PKO
with ethanol using 100g PKO, 20.0g ethanol, 1.0% KOH at 60OC reaction temperature and 100
minutes reaction time. The process was triplicated and average results evaluated. The biodiesel
produced was characterized as alternative diesel fuel through tests for specific gravity, viscosity,
cloud point, and pour point following ASTM standard test procedures. The transesterification
process yielded 92g PKO biodiesel. At 15.56OC, specific gravity is higher (1.033958 times) than
that of commercial grade petroleum diesel (D2). At 40OC, EEPKO had 85.06% reduction of
viscosity over its raw vegetable oil, thus enhancing its fluidity in diesel engine. Higher pour
point (2OC) and cloud point (6OC) were obtained for EEPKO compared to -12OC, and -16OC
respectively obtained for D2. Generally, results obtained were found to be in good agreement
with previous works and within limits set by a number of International Standards for biodiesel.
These findings will find useful applications in energy sector of the Nigeria economy.
... Human energy expenditure was quantified by multiplying the number of persons engaged in an operation by the man-hour requirement and energy equivalent for human power. According to Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2004, 2006a, 2006b and Jekayinfa and Olajide (2007), at the maximum continuous energy consumption rate of 0.30 kW and conversion efficiency of 25%, the physical power output of a normal human labour in tropical climates is approximately 0.075 kW sustained for an 8-10 h workday. ...
The energy use and energy use efficiency in a group of pineapples plantations of a research institute in Nigeria was estimated. Total energy expenditure was 6,117.81 MJha –1 and energy output was 21,760 MJ/ha. The output/input energy ratio was 3.56. The different categories of energy input estimated are: direct energy (51.21%), indirect energy (48.79%), renewable energy (14.08%) and non-renewable energy (85.92%). Mean pineapples yield was about 8,000 kg ha –1. The net energy and energy productivity value was 15,642.69 MJha –1 and 1.13 kg MJ –1 , respectively. The total cost of production of pineapples and benefit-cost ratio was $4,050/ha and 1.70 respectively. Estimation of energy from pineapples peelings showed that 1 kg of pineapples peelings can replace between 17.71 and 17.92 MJ for heat generation by combustion of biogas and between 11.72 and 17.53 MJ for replacing electricity generation from the national grid, diesel generating set or gasoline generating set.
... The development of small-scale or even portable mills would allow communities and companies to plant and process oil palm fruit in remote areas. At present, large mills processing at least 30 tonnes of fruit per hour are more profitable and require less energy per unit of oil produced than the current generation of small mills (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye 2007). Thus, small mills are not considered viable and centralisation (de facto local monopolies) means that buyers control fruit prices. ...
A native from western Africa, oil palm is one of the most rapidly expanding and cheap tropical plant species. It produces more oil per unit area than any other vegetable oil crop. Widespread planting has been at the expense of other tropical vegetation, notably including species-rich tropical rain forests. Even though planted oil palm provides habitat to some species, species diversity in oil palm is much lower than in most tropical rain forest and even timber concessions and timber plantations. Although oil-palm plantations have a negative impact on local biodiversity, their ultimate global impact depends on considering the impacts of alternative oil crops with greater land requirements.
... This account for the extensive work that has been done on energy auditing system of many manufacturing operations with the aim of improving the design and performance of energy transfer systems. Although extensive literature exists concerning the energy audit of many manufacturing processes such as rice processing [3], sunflower oil expression [4] , palmkernel oil processing [5,6], cashew nut processing [7], poultry processing [8], cassava-based foods [9], milk processing [10], and sugar production [11], limited work has been reported on energy audit of fertilizer processing operations. The energy requirements for the production, packaging, transportation, and application of inorganic fertilizers have been reported by Helsel [12]. ...
Energy study was conducted in an organic fertilizer plant in Ibadan, Nigeria, to determine the energy requirement for production of both powdered and pelletised organic fertilizer. The energy consumption patterns of the unit operations were evaluated for production of 9,000 kg of the finished products. The analysis revealed that eight and nine defined unit operations were required for the production of powder and pellets, respectively. The electrical and manual energy required for the production of powdered fertilizer were 94.45 and 5.55% of the total energy, respectively, with corresponding 93.9 and 5.07% for the production of pelletised fertilizer. The respective average energy intensities were estimated to be 0.28 and 0.35 MJ/kg for powder and pellets. The most energy intensive operation was identified as the pulverizing unit with energy intensity of 0.09 MJ/kg, accounting for respective proportions of 33.4 and 27.0% of the total energy for production of powder and pellets. Optimisation of the pulverizing process is suggested to make the system energy efficient.
... This account for the extensive work that has been done on energy accounting system of ARTICLE IN PRESS many industrial-processing operations with the aim of improving the design and performance of energy transfer systems. These include beverage industry [2] , rice proces- sing [3], sunflower oil expression [4], palm-kernel oil processing [5,6], cashew nut processing [7] , poultry proces- sing [8], cassava-based foods [9]. Other related works are Miller [10] and Tekin and Bayramoglu [11]. ...
Energy and exergy studies were conducted in an orange juice manufacturing industry in Nigeria to determine the energy consumption pattern and methods of energy optimization in the company. An adaptation of the process analysis method of energy accounting was used to evaluate the energy requirement for each of the eight defined unit operations. The types of energy used in the manufacturing of orange juice were electrical, steam and manual with the respective proportions of 18.51%, 80.91% and 0.58% of the total energy. It was estimated that an average energy intensity of 1.12 MJ/kg was required for the manufacturing of orange juice. The most energy intensive operation was identified as the pasteurizer followed by packaging unit with energy intensities of 0.932 and 0.119 MJ/kg, respectively. The exergy analysis revealed that the pasteurizer was responsible for most of the inefficiency (over 90%) followed by packaging (6.60%). It was suggested that the capacity of the pasteurizer be increased to reduce the level of inefficiency of the plant. The suggestion has been limited to equipment modification rather than process alteration, which constitutes additional investment cost and may not be economical from an energy savings perspective.
An oil palm value chain (OPVC) considers the interconnectivity between each activity within the oil palm industry to allow for a top-down overview of the industry, while capturing the details for more substantial system interactions. However, it is a challenge to deliver the big picture without a proper tool, especially for an extensive value chain network with various processes, the existence of multiple facilities for each process, and supply chain management system. In this respect, a novel systematic approach is developed to synthesise and optimise an integrated OPVC network for higher economic and environmental performance. In this work, an OPVC case study in Johor state is presented and solved to illustrate the proposed approach. Besides, the coalition reliability index is introduced to measure the reliability of the OPVC network formed under different supply chain management. The results demonstrated that the value-added across the entire value chain improves significantly, from 167.0 million US$/y in the conventional design to 220.2 million US$/y. Meanwhile, greenhouse gas emission is reduced substantially from 2,700 to 1,878 kt CO2e/y. To ensure more strategic sourcing of materials, and therefore, improves the likelihood of successful implementation for the value chain network developed, a Pareto-optimal front is plotted to predict the economic performance generated based on the changes in coalition reliability index.
A Compedium of various articles on the subject area
The environmental impacts and energy usage associated with field production
and processing were studied using life cycle impacts assessment tool with a functional unit
of one kilogram (1kg) of rice. Energy productivity, efficiency and specific energy were
computed and descriptive statistics were used for data analysis. The energy use pattern
showed that rice production consumed an average total energy of 13270.99 MJ/ha with
herbicide, insecticide, fertilizer, human labour, seed, diesel and machine hour equivalent
to 52.01, 0.75, 20.19, 0.72, 8.83, 14.21, and 3.29% respectively. The energy productivity,
Specific energy and energy efficiency were 0.3 kg/MJ, 3.7 MJ/kg and 3.9 respectively. A
total of 11289.16 MJ (85.1%) indirect energy, 1981.83 MJ (14.9%) direct form of energy,
12004.1 MJ (90.45%) non-renewable energy and 1266.89 MJ (9.55%) renewable energy
forms were used in rice production. The average total energy used for milling 500kg of rice
was 776.1MJ with diesel, water, human labour, electricity and machine hour equivalent to
58.1, 8.9, 3.0, 15.7, and 14.3%, of the total energy used respectively. The energy
productivity was 0.48 kg/MJ. These finding imply that rice production in the study area is
mostly dependent on non-renewable and indirect energy forms, rice milling was observed
to be dependent on direct and non-renewable energy forms especially diesel energy, also
the high impact score of global warming is due to the high emission of CO2 gas from fuel
and combustion during field operation of rice
:The environmental impacts and energy usage associated with field production
and processing were studied using life cycle impacts assessment tool with a functional unit
of one kilogram (1kg) of rice. Energy productivity, efficiency and specific energy were
computed and descriptive statistics were used for data analysis. The energy use pattern
showed that rice production consumed an average total energy of 13270.99 MJ/ha with
herbicide, insecticide, fertilizer, human labour, seed, diesel and machine hour equivalent
to 52.01, 0.75, 20.19, 0.72, 8.83, 14.21, and 3.29% respectively. The energy productivity,
Specific energy and energy efficiency were 0.3 kg/MJ, 3.7 MJ/kg and 3.9 respectively. A
total of 11289.16 MJ (85.1%) indirect energy, 1981.83 MJ (14.9%) direct form of energy,
12004.1 MJ (90.45%) non-renewable energy and 1266.89 MJ (9.55%) renewable energy
forms were used in rice production. The average total energy used for milling 500kg of rice
was 776.1MJ with diesel, water, human labour, electricity and machine hour equivalent to
58.1, 8.9, 3.0, 15.7, and 14.3%, of the total energy used respectively. The energy
productivity was 0.48 kg/MJ. These finding imply that rice production in the study area is
mostly dependent on non-renewable and indirect energy forms, rice milling was observed
to be dependent on direct and non-renewable energy forms especially diesel energy, also
the high impact score of global warming is due to the high emission of CO2 gas from fuel
and combustion during field operation of rice.
Irrigation water supply in agricultural production can be energy intensive because of large electric motors utilized and the length of time required for such operations. The present study investigates the energy requirement for irrigation water supply in five different schemes in the North Central Nigeria. The use of well-structured questionnaires was employed alongside other study techniques to obtain information about the structural and operational characteristics of the irrigation schemes visited. In this study, important field operations were performed on one hectare of land selected as reference field. The average quantity of fuel used on one hectare of land by the five schemes is 391.2 litres per season while on other hand he quantity of fuel used on the reference field is 360 litres per season. The cost of energy used in irrigation of one hectare of land, when diesel fuel is used as source of power as obtained from the average cost of fuel consumed by the five irrigation schemes, is N39,120 per season and the cost of fuel consumed when diesel fuel is used as source of power on the reference field is N36,000 per season. It is concluded that irrigation farmers should ensure that energy required for irrigation water supply should be properly planned for, and monitored with fairly managing ability, which produces a satisfactory result.
Food processing industries relies on energy to carry out the desired operations and to obtain high processing efficiencies in conversion processes that create new forms of foods. This research work was carried out using OLAM Nigeria Limited in Oyo state, Nigeria as a case study, to examine different unit operations and various patterns of energy consumption in cashew nut processing. The relationship between the energy consumption and production capacity was analyzed to compute installed capacity (P), production (Pr), percentage production capacity utilization (PPCU), energy (En) and energy intensity (EI), using standard equations. Energy wastage was identified and technical measures for improving energy efficiency were suggested. The result obtained from analysis showed that installed capacity and production were 12 million and 6 million per annum respectively. While the percentage production capacity utilization, energy intensity, energy utilized from electricity, thermal energy from either diesel or cashew nut shells (CNS), manual energy supplied by male and female were 50%, 2.08MJ, 3.10MJ (0.15%), 418.36MJ (20.12%), 573.79MJ (27.59%), 74.85MJ (3.59%), and 1009.84MJ (48.56%), respectively. The different between the total energy utilized from comparative analysis before and after conserved energy were 150,155.32MJ and 2,079.67MJ respectively. It was recommended that the locally fabricated brick mud heating mantle with an enclosed chamber over a suitable grate with a proper opening for primary and secondary channel to generate maximum heat transferred to the steam boiler and the trays for drying kernels should be work on to reduce heat loss and conserved energy.
Palm kernel oil (PKO) is obtained from the seeds of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jackqu). In this study, volatiles and aroma-active compounds of PKO were studied by head-space solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/flame ionisation detector (HS-SPME/GC/MS/FID) and solvent-assisted flavour evaporation -gas chromatography/olfactometry/mass spectrometry (SAFE-GC/O/MS), respectively. An optimised HS-SPME sampling method was obtained for extraction at 60 °C for 40 min. With this method, the volatiles of PKO from palm kernels subjected to different roasting times (up to 30 min) at 180 °C were analysed. Totally 73 volatiles were found, including 19 O-heterocyclic compounds (16 furans and 3 pyrans), 15 N-heterocyclic compounds (10 pyrazines and 5 others), 15 carbonyl compounds (5 aldehydes and 10 ketones), 11 acids, 4 alcohols, 3 esters, 3 sulphur and 3 volatile phenols. With the extension of roasting times, peak areas of O-heterocyclic compounds, N-heterocyclic compounds, aldehydes and cyclic ketones increased significantly whereas those of acids, alcohols and esters generally decreased. Results of GC/O/MS showed that 2-nonanone, octanoic acid and methyl octanoate were the most aroma-active compounds in unroasted PKO, while in roasted PKO, the most active volatiles were ethyl pyrazine, 2-nonanone, 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one, maltol, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, benzoic acid ethyl ester, octanoic acid, 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde and isomaltol.
In this paper, energy and exergy analyses are presented for processing of frozen cherry for a factory in Turkey. Data were collected from each of the defined basic unit operations: weighing and loading, pre washing, removing the stalks, separating the seeds, inspection and sorting, IQF freezing and packaging. The average energy intensity for processing a batch of 146 tonnes cherry to 99.28 tonnes of frozen cherry was estimated as 0.4 MJ/kg. The types of energy used in the manufacturing of frozen cherry were electrical and manual with the respective proportion of 99.78 % and 3.22 % of the total energy. The most energy consumed unit was IQF Freezing, followed by inspection & sorting which accounted for about 87.59 % and 5.67 % of the total energy input, respectively. Weighing and loading unit consumed the least energy, which is about 0.03 % of the total energy input. The exergy analysis revealed that the IQF freezing operation was responsible for most of the inefficiency (66.89 %) followed by separating the seeds operation (11.48 %).
The effect of using mechanical equipment for the unit operations involved in gari (cassava flakes) processing on individual and total energy demands were studied. The data used to estimate energy demand were the quantity of cassava processed, time taken for each operation, number and gender of labour, method of processing, quantity, and source of energy. Of the seven unit operations for gari production, one, three and five operations were mechanized in low, medium and high-level, respectively. Garification (simultaneous cooking and dehydrating operation of gari) accounted for 97.38, 97.70 and 47.39% of total energy consumption in low, medium and high levels of mechanization, respectively. Total energy requirements for processing 100 kg of cassava root into gari were found to be 771.0 ± 83.71 MJ for low-level mechanized factory, 684.53 ± 26.98 MJ and 73.97 ± 1.84 MJ for medium and high-level mechanized factories, respectively. Energy demand by all unit operations significantly differed (p<0.05) between low and high levels of mechanization.
Attapulgite (ATP) clay was modified with different silane coupling agents [3-triethoxysilylpropylamine (KH550), γ-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (KH560) and γ-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (KH570)] and used as a decolourizer for bleaching of refined palm oil. The effects of different silane coupling agents on the structure, surface charges and pore structure of ATP were investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, Zeta potential and nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm techniques, and the decolourization efficiency of the modified ATP was evaluated by UV-Vis absorbance and Lovibond colour. The results show that the KH550-modified ATP exhibits the best decolourization performance, which can decrease the red-yellow value of refined palm oil by 31.96% and the phosphorus content by 77.69% after bleaching; while the unmodified ATP can only decrease these values by 17.30% and 62.31%, respectively.
This study deals with an innovative design of integrated crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel oil processes based on process integration technology. Two types of cogeneration systems were introduced in this integrated process to further improve energy efficiency: a conventional boiler based cogeneration system and an internal combustion engine based cogeneration system. The solid wastes, including empty fruit bunches, fibers and nut shells, are used as fuel for boiler based cogeneration. Moreover, in the internal combustion engine based cogeneration, biogas is produced from the palm oil mill effluent exhausted from the CPO milling process. Energy analysis of the proposed integrated system was performed in terms of energy demand and patterns in both milling processes. The results show clearly the significant energy surplus in both milling processes. Furthermore, the huge potential of CPO and palm kernel oil mills in terms of both oil and energy production has the ability to increase national energy security in Indonesia.
A study was conducted to determine and analyze the pattern of energy utilization in all sections of some selected mechanized farms in Southwestern part of Nigeria. In this study, three – year data (2002 – 2004) collected on energy performance of the farms was presented and analyzed indicating the yearly and total consumption of electricity and fuel. Energy performance indicators employed in the study include Normalized Performance Indicator (NPI), Energy Intensity (EI) and Energy Cost (EC). Average energy consumption per year of the 3 audit years was 1022.85GJ with fuel and electricity making up 58% and 42% respectively. The average value of the NPI (GJ/m 2) was 0.17, 0.28, 0.83, 0.0087, 0.015 and 0.082, for feed mill, hatchery, mechanical workshop, piggery, poultry and administrative section respectively. The corresponding average EI (GJ/m 2) and EC (N'000) values are 0.128, 0.187, 0.105, 0.026, 0.011, 0.48 and 146.15, 91.99, 55.17, 34.38, 71.66, 374.7 respectively. The calculated NPI values indicate a good energy consumption and management for all the six sections of the farms studied.
This work considers the use of palm kernel oil (PKO) for the production of alternative renewable and environmental friendly diesel fuel (biodiesel). Laboratory scale quantities of PKO biodiesel were produced through transesterification reaction using 100g PKO, 20.0% ethanol (wt% PKO), 1.0% potassium hydroxide (KOH) catalyst at 60 C reaction temperature and 90 min. reaction time. The experiment was replicated three times and average results evaluated. The biodiesel produced was characterized as alternative diesel fuel through series of ASTM standard fuel tests. The transesterification process yielded 95.4% PKO biodiesel. The PKO biodiesel had 85.06% reduction of viscosity over its raw vegetable oil at 40 C. Higher specific gravity, pour point, and cloud point were obtained compared to that of commercial grade petroleum diesel (D2). Specific gravity values compare favorably with results for other vegetable oil biodiesel. Generally, results obtained were within limits set by various International Standards for biodiesel.
The discovery of crude oil in Nigeria in the 60's presented the country with a strong export-oriented commodity hence attention to the agriculture sector dwindled. With the eventual depletion of reserves, returning to the native agricultural practices is inevitable. In Nigeria, oil palm has been cultivated as a cash crop since before the civil war (1960). However, poor agricultural practices and delay in adoption of the state-of-the-art technological advancements prevented the local industry from competing on a global scale and the country lagged in the utilization of this crop as both a cash and energy crop. The aim of this study is to evaluate the potential of oil palm as an energy crop in the Nigerian conditions and influence policy options that may encourage better practices and increase oil palm production in the country. We collected and characterized samples of the oil palm biomass from a palm oil milling facility in the western part of Nigeria. A palm kernel oil mill in the same region was used as a case study for process flow models of the biomass' thermal and bio-chemical energy conversion processes. The biomass characteristics and the process flow models were used for techno-economic assessment of the bio-energy system. We conclude with a set of policy options to enable a sustainable cultivation of the crop.
The energy use and energy use efficiency in a group of pineapples plantations of a research institute in Nigeria was estimated. Total energy expenditure was 6,117.81 MJha<sup align="right"> −1 </sup> and energy output was 21,760 MJ/ha. The output/input energy ratio was 3.56. The different categories of energy input estimated are: direct energy (51.21%), indirect energy (48.79%), renewable energy (14.08%) and non-renewable energy (85.92%). Mean pineapples yield was about 8,000 kg ha<sup align="right"> −1 </sup>. The net energy and energy productivity value was 15,642.69 MJha<sup align="right"> −1 </sup> and 1.13 kg MJ<sup align="right"> −1 </sup>, respectively. The total cost of production of pineapples and benefit-cost ratio was $4,050/ha and 1.70 respectively. Estimation of energy from pineapples peelings showed that 1 kg of pineapples peelings can replace between 17.71 and 17.92 MJ for heat generation by combustion of biogas and between 11.72 and 17.53 MJ for replacing electricity generation from the national grid, diesel generating set or gasoline generating set.
The aims of this study were to determine direct input energy, indirect energy and other energy use indices in mango production in a group of mango plantation of a research farm in Nigeria. The study also estimated the economic indices of mango production in the study area and energy potentials of mango by-products. The average energy consumption of the plantations investigated in this study is 15,015.16 MJ ha(-1). Out of the total energy, 93% was direct and 7% was indirect. Renewable energy accounted for 21% and energy usage efficiency was found to be 1.3. The total energy input into the production of 1 kg of mango was estimated to be 0.70 MJ. The dominant contribution to input was energy in the form of diesel used in tractor operation and captive power generation (56%), followed by human labor used for land preparation, cultural practices and harvesting (33%), machinery (5%) and chemicals, mainly herbicides (4%). The use of energetically available residues of mango could give an average value addition of 57,067 MJ/ha. The cost of mango production per hectare was found to be 2246 $ ha(-1). As a result of benefit-cost ratio value (1.24), energy use efficiency and the energy value addition from mango residues, mango production was found to be economically efficient in the study area.
An energy analysis of plantain production in a group of plantain plantations of a research institute was made in Nigeria. Data used in this study were collected in-situ on yearly basis; therefore the analyzed and discussed energy values were averages of data collected over the years. Total energy expenditure was 7.60 GJ/ha and energy output was 16.32 GJ/ha. The output/input energy ratio was 2.15. About 24% was generated by human labor, 41% from diesel oil and machinery, 28% from chemicals and fertilizers, while others contributed 7% of the total energy input. The total energy input could be classified as direct energy (about 61%), indirect energy (about 39%) and renewable energy (31%) and non-renewable energy (69%). Mean plantain yield was about 6000 kg/ha. The net energy and energy productivity value were estimated to be 8.72 GJ/ha and 0.79 kg/MJ, respectively. Cost analysis revealed that total cost of production of plantain was $3500/ha. Benefit–cost ratio was calculated as 1.69. Estimates have indicated that the energy potential of plantain residues (peels and trunks) is equivalent to energy of approximately 29 PJ or 0.69 million toe (tons of oil equivalent) of fuel-oil. There is therefore a very high potential of increasing the energy balance of plantain production if these residues are adequately harnessed either as biogas, ethyl alcohol, briquettes or for direct combustion.
A study was conducted for the estimation of energy consumption in eight readily defined unit operations of small-scale cashew nut processing in India. The nine industries were stratified into 60, 30 and 15 kg/batch capacity of steam cooker. Series of equations were developed to easily compute requirements of solar, electricity, fuel and manual energy for each of the unit operations. The results show that the total energy consumption per 1000 kg of raw cashew nuts in three categories of industries was 5321.43, 5540.14 and 6061.34 MJ, respectively, when the steaming operation was carried out by using electricity. The three identified energy-intensive operations in cashew nut processing were cashew nut drying, cashew nut steaming and drying of cashew kernels, altogether accounting for over 90% of the total energy consumption. The developed equations are useful tools for carrying out budgeting, forecasting energy requirements and planning plant expansion.
Palm kernel oil is extracted from palm fruit as well as palm oil and is considered to be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of using biodiesel from palm kernel oil on a direct injection (DI) diesel engine under three different engine speeds and at various gradational engine load conditions. Experimental results demonstrate that the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased as the percentage of palm kernel oil methyl ester (PKOME) fuel in blends increased, producing the same level of engine power as petroleum diesel (PD), because of the decreased lower heating value (LHV). In addition, increasing the percentage of PKOME fuel in blends reduces the exhaust gas temperature (EGT), the amount of smoke and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions, and the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, because of the shorter carbon-chain lengths, more saturated carbon bonds, and higher oxygen content of PKOME fuel when compared with the same percentage of palm oil methyl ester (POME) fuel in blends.
Purpose
– In Nigeria, local fabricators of agro‐processing equipment have designed and manufactured various improvised versions of imported bread‐baking machines without due ergonomic considerations. Also, most of the processes of bread baking in Nigeria largely involve manual materials handling, which continues to represent a major loss source in the work place. The manual operations besides being uncomfortable are characterized by low output and unhygienic products. A study was therefore conducted in three southwestern states of Nigeria with the purpose of evaluating the energy requirements and man‐machine relationships in bread‐baking operations.
Design/methodology/approach
– The study, which lasted over one year, involved the use of three fuel sources namely, firewood, electricity and cooking gas during bread baking operations. Questionnaire and physical measurements were employed for data collection from 50 bakeries randomly selected within the study area. The data points include the environmental and body temperatures, anthropometrical data, bio data, injury data, metabolic and production measurements.
Findings
– The results of the study revealed that bread‐baking with wood as energy source required the highest energy (6.15 kJ/min) compared with 3.37 kJ/min and 1.52 kJ/min obtained with gas and electricity as sources of energy, respectively. The cost of energy per kg of baked bread was 7.58 with cooking gas followed by 6.05 for electricity and 5.05 for wood in that order. The average baking rate (BR) using firewood, gas and electricity as energy sources were, respectively, 11.92, 17.97 and 20.58 kg/h. Analysis of metabolic data showed moderate (not to a lethal level) increase in the subjects' body temperatures, blood pressures and heart rates after bread‐baking operations.
Originality/value
– The study suggests that bread‐baking operations could be categorized as a light grade work and that the use of electricity as energy source is the most appropriate in terms of bread‐BR and unit energy requirement.
This paper deals with a study conducted to determine the energy consumption in post-harvest rice processing operations as carried out in two rice mills in Nigeria, one of which is a modern integrated plant. The experimental design allowed the energy consumed in each unit operation to be measured. Areas of waste were identified and remedial measures recommended. The results indicated that about 1286 kWh/t and 1250 kWh/t of milled rice was needed in the semi-mechanized and integrated mills, respectively. The food energy ratio (FER) was greater than 2. 8 in both industries while the energy ratio, considering the by-products, was 4. 0. These indices indicate favourable energetics in rice production in the two mills.
Experiments were conducted to study the energy input for growing rainfed paddy by traditional and improved methods under bullock farming condition. Soil parameters such as moisture content bulk density, clod mean weight diameter and soil inversion were compared. The crop parameters such as germination, number of plants per sq. m, tillering, plant height and yield were also studies. The energy inflow comprised of the direct energy for seedbed preparation, fertilizer and sowing application, harvesting, threshing and indirect energy of seed, fertilizer and chemical. The highest energy consuming operation in paddy production were for weeding followed by tillage and threshing. The energy inflow were 1830.12, 1108 and 165.25 MJ/ha for, weeding tillage and threshing, respectively. The corresponding values under improved method were 1069.56, 1028.8 and 576.8 MJ/ha respectively. On the basis of output/input ratio, the improved method was more an energy-efficient system than traditional system. The yield on improved method was 3.425 ton/ha, which was significantly higher than traditional method (2.509 ton/ha).
Effects of expression and pre-processing conditions on sunflower oil production in a static press were studied. Models to predict input energy for sunflower oil expression were developed for four seed types. Input energy was found to be the lowest for whole seed at low seed moisture content, whereas, at higher moisture content, coarsely ground seed required the lowest input energy. Maximum net energy was required in the case of ground seeds. In the case of whole seed, maximum net energy was required at the lowest moisture level. 9 references.
In this paper, the Strategic Grain Reserve Storage Programme in Nigeria is discussed. The programme was designed to provide relief in time of national disasters, drought and war both locally and internationally, to provide a ready and accessible market for locally produced items through Buyers of Last Resort (BLR), to maintain price stability and ensure food security. Ten years after its commencement the objectives of the SGRSP are yet to be achieved due to the problems highlighted in this paper. Great improvement in the levels of grain production, adequate and regular funding of the programme, commercialisation of research findings on grain production and reorganisation of the management of the programme are some of the policy measures prescribed for full realisation of the objectives of the SGRSP in Nigeria.
The equipment and methods used to monitor the electrical and thermal energy consumed in various unit operations in a spinach processing plant are described and the results of a processing plant energy audit are presented. It is concluded that it requires 6.5 MJ of natural gas and fuel oil and 0.072 MJ of electric power to process one kg of new spinach; the energy intensive operations in spinach processing are associated with exhaust boxes, blanchers, and retorts; uniform product flow through the canning line is essential to energy conservation; and design improvements are needed for the blancher, exhaust box, and retort. (LCL)
Direct energy utilization in nine palm-kernel oil (PKO) mills located in Southwestern Nigeria was analyzed. The mills were stratified into small, medium and large-scale categories, based on their modes of operations and production capacities. Evaluation of energy usage was carried out in the seven readily defined unit operations namely: palm-nut drying, palm-nut cracking, palm-kernel roasting, palm-kernel crushing, PKO expression, PKO sifting and PKO bottling/pumping. PKO extraction rates in the three mill categories were evaluated. The average PKO extraction rate for small, medium and large mills were 48.45 percent, 42.68 percent and 36.24 percent, respectively. The total energy expenditure in small, medium and large-scale PKO mills were 350.89MJ/tonne, 230.70MJ/tone and 181.74MJ/tonne, respectively. This suggests that the unit
energy requirement for PKO output decreases as mill capacity increases. The four most highly energy-intensive operations identified were palm-nut cracking, palm-kernel roasting, palmkernel crushing and PKO expression, altogether accounting for 95.29, 92.14 and 93.65 percent of total energy used in small, medium and large-scale mills, respectively
Outlines the programme of presentations made at the Symposium on Dietitians and Dietary Treatments for Obesity: A Move towards Evidence-based Practice, held on 25 November 1997 at St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London. Provides brief details as to the extent of obesity in the UK and to current practices to deal with the problem.
This work deals with a study on estimation of energy consumption in eight readily defined unit operations of cashew nut processing. Data for analysis were collected from nine cashew nut mills stratified into small, medium and large categories to represent different mechanization levels. Series of equations were developed to easily compute requirements of electricity, fuel and labour for each of the unit operations. The computation of energy use was done using spreadsheet program on Microsoft Excel. The results of application test of the equations show that the total energy intensity in the cashew nut mills varied between 0.21 and 1.161 MJ/kg. Electrical energy intensity varied between 0.0052 and 0.029 MJ/kg, while thermal energy intensity varied from 0.085 to 1.064 MJ/kg. The two identified energy intensive operations in cashew nut processing are cashew nut drying and cashew nut roasting, altogether accounting for over 85% of the total energy consumption in all the three mill categories. Thermal energy, obtained from diesel fuel, represented about 90% of the unit energy cost for cashew nut processing. The developed equations have therefore proven to be a useful tool for carrying out budgeting, forecasting energy requirements and planning plant expansion.
The objective of this study is to determine the energy use in the Turkish agricultural sector for the period of 1975–2000. In the study, the inputs in the calculation of energy use in agriculture include both human and animal labor, machinery, electricity, diesel oil, fertilizers, seeds, and 36 agricultural commodities were included in the output total. Energy values were calculated by multiplying the amounts of inputs and outputs by their energy equivalents with the use of related conversion factors. The output–input ratio is determined by dividing the output value by the input value. The results indicated that total energy input increased from 17.4 GJ/ha in 1975 to 47.4 GJ/ha in the year 2000. Similarly, total output energy rose from 38.8 to 55.8 GJ/ha in the same period. As a consequence, the output–input ratio was estimated to be 2.23 in 1975 and 1.18 in 2000. This result shows that there was a decrease in the output–input energy ratio. It indicates that the use of inputs in Turkish agricultural production was not accompanied by the same result in the final product. This can lead to problems associated with these inputs, such as global warming, nutrient loading and pesticide pollution. Therefore, there is a need to pursue a new policy to force producers to undertake energy efficient practices to establish sustainable production systems.
Industrial energy is a major component of the total energy use in a nation. However, energy is not without a cost in its production, availability, use and even its environmental impact on society. In addition, most of the energy resources are depletable, thereby necessitating their sustainable use through energy efficiency improvement programs. In this investigation, an attempt was made to study the energy consumption pattern and management in a beverage plant in Nigeria. The plot of energy intensity and productivity for the period of 1989-1996 showed an increase in growth in energy intensity coupled with a simultaneous productivity declining trend which portrayed inefficiency in the plant's energy use. A combustion analysis of the boilers in the plant also revealed that it was possible to obtain a fuel saving of about 12% by improving boiler efficiency alone. This would reduce the total energy cost of the plant by at least 1.1% per annum and also cut down CO 2 emissions into the atmosphere by at least 1071 tons every year. Based on these revelations, the paper presents other direct benefits of energy efficiency improvements to the industry. Strategies and policies for institutionalising energy efficiency improvements both at the micro (firm) and macro (national) levels for energy conservation in the country are also recommended.
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