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Analytical Methods to Determine Cocaine Contamination of Banknotes from Around the World
Abstract
The presence of cocaine in a significant number of UK pounds (Xxxx), Euros (€) and North American banknotes ($) in general circulation requires appropriate tools to do determinations. This article discusses the-state-of-the-art in the analysis of cocaine on banknotes. We summarize the usual extraction methods of currency samples and compare them, especially with respect to avoiding sample damage. We critically discuss analytical methods, namely gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), immunoassay, thermal desorption tandem mass spectrometry (TD-MS2) and ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS). We also review cocaine levels on banknotes around the world and their possible relationship with drug consumption.
... Chromatographic procedures represent the best validated methods for the quantification of cocaine on banknotes. 17 LC-MS and GC-MS2 provide a sensitive, selective methodology to determine cocaine on banknotes. The major drawback of a method based on GC-MS or LC-MS, is sample preparation and analysis time required, compared with direct methods based on TD-MS2, immunoassay or IMS (17). ...
... 17 LC-MS and GC-MS2 provide a sensitive, selective methodology to determine cocaine on banknotes. The major drawback of a method based on GC-MS or LC-MS, is sample preparation and analysis time required, compared with direct methods based on TD-MS2, immunoassay or IMS (17). Detection with MS2 provides a fingerprint that unequivocally identifies drugs in the analyzed solutions. ...
... Detection with MS2 provides a fingerprint that unequivocally identifies drugs in the analyzed solutions. 17 The high specificity and sensitivity of this technique allows the detection even of few traces of the substance which can also be found in general circulation and are not necessarily related to illicit businesses. For these reasons, it is necessary to perform banknote analysis on a large sample, with statistical studies that can detect money certainly associated with illegal trafficking. ...
Background:
The analysis of drug traces on banknotes with different validated techniques can provide important information about the types of substances that are used in a geographical region. The aim of our review was to investigate banknotes' contamination by cocaine, by its metabolite, but also by other drugs.
Methods:
A systematic literature search (English written literature) was conducted in MEDLINE, and Scopus, collecting studies from 1974 till 2017. The Key search terms included: 'banknote AND drug'; 'banknote AND cocaine'.
Results:
The literature search yielded 88 publications; 9 were included in our review. In six studies that showed banknotes' positivity to cocaine, the percentage ranged from 2.5% to 100%. The concentration of cocaine ranged from 0.09 ng/note to 889 µg/note. Benzoylecgonine was indentified only in three studies with a range from 0.71 to 130 ng/note. Other indentified drugs were: amphetamine derivatives, opiates, benzodiazepines.
Conclusions:
Circulating banknotes could be used to indicate substances used in a population, and those recently introduced in a geographical macro-area. The identification of very high amounts of cocaine can provide important information for the identification of banknotes used in illegal trafficking.
... Banknotes can be contaminated by numerous drugs: cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, morphine, codeine, and others [2,3]. Cocaine contaminates nearly all types of banknotes including US dollars, UK pounds, and Euros [4], where the contamination frequencies reached 100% with UK and US banknotes. An average of 155 [4], 19.9 [5]. ...
... Cocaine contaminates nearly all types of banknotes including US dollars, UK pounds, and Euros [4], where the contamination frequencies reached 100% with UK and US banknotes. An average of 155 [4], 19.9 [5]. and 28.75 [4] µg/note was detected on Spanish, British and American banknotes, respectively. ...
... An average of 155 [4], 19.9 [5]. and 28.75 [4] µg/note was detected on Spanish, British and American banknotes, respectively. ...
This study focused on quantitative detection of cocaine on Euro banknotes in Germany. A sensitive direct competitive immunoassay was developed and optimized with a limit of detection (LOD) of 5.6 ng/L. Exhaustive cocaine extraction by solvent was tested using different methanol concentrations and buffered solutions. Cross-reactivity studies were performed to determine the degree of interference of cocaine metabolites with the immunoassay. Sixty-five Euro banknotes obtained from different districts in Berlin were evaluated. A 100% contamination frequency with cocaine was detected. A comparison between the amount of cocaine extracted by cotton swabbing of one square centimeter of the banknote showed a good correlation for lower contamination levels. This assay showed high sensitivity of detecting pg of cocaine per 1 cm² of one banknote by swabbing 1 cm²: 0, 14, and 21 pg/cm². Moreover, three notes of different denominations revealed high cocaine concentration; 1.1 mg/note, and twice 55 µg/note.
... Analysis of cocaine on paper currency commonly consists of an extraction followed by instrumental analysis using GC-MS and HPLC instruments. 6,7,[11][12][13][14] Cocaine has low solubility in water (0.17 g/100 ml), so most methods employed organic solvents to extract cocaine from banknotes. 7,[12][13][14][15] Components with low polarity (e.g., dyes and fibers) in the organic extracts could interfere with the determination of cocaine. ...
... 6,7,[11][12][13][14] Cocaine has low solubility in water (0.17 g/100 ml), so most methods employed organic solvents to extract cocaine from banknotes. 7,[12][13][14][15] Components with low polarity (e.g., dyes and fibers) in the organic extracts could interfere with the determination of cocaine. The use of organic solvents also causes damage to the holographic marks and loosens the metallic foil used to check against counterfeit money. ...
A method using innovative sample preparation was developed for determination of cocaine on banknotes. Aqueous extraction of cocaine from banknotes was performed using a sonication‐enhanced technique. Quantitation of cocaine was achieved using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection at 230 nm, while identification was accomplished utilizing gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). Multiple calibration techniques, including the external calibration method (ECM), internal standard method (ISM), and standard addition method (SAM) were incorporated into the experimental design to simultaneously determine cocaine contents and assess matrix effects. Statistical paired t tests confirmed that matrix effects were not significant with the sample preparation employed. No damage to the features of the banknotes was observed from the extraction procedure. Extraction efficiency, spike recovery, and detection limit were also determined. The unique experimental design allowed for ECM, ISM, and SAM to concurrently determine the contents of cocaine on banknotes collected around Metro‐Detroit. The concentration range of cocaine was from 1.58 to 14.7 mg per note, with an average of 6.96 mg per note. The method is simple and suitable for drug analysis and forensic science applications.
... There is plenty of speculation on the contamination of current money with cocaine. According to Armenta and de la Guardia [19], drug dealers and users inhale the drug with the aid of paper currency, using rolled banknotes like a straw. The contaminated banknote is then mixed with other "clean" banknotes inside the wallet and in money-counting machines, spreading cocaine residues to them. ...
... In this document, it was reported that the country with the highest contamination rate of its current money was the United States of America. Armenta and de la Guardia [19] reviewed the literature regarding the determination of cocaine in banknotes worldwide and concluded that the percentage of contamination is higher for banknotes with lower values. Subsequently, Almeida et al. [26] verified a similar behavior in Real banknotes circulating in Brazil. ...
Cocaine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from coca leaves, a common bush found in Andean regions of South America. Many medicines are added to the final product to increase the profits, keeping similar or higher effects than cocaine alone. Stimulants, anesthetics, and sedatives are the most found adulterants. The goal of this work was to propose a novel analytical methodology to determine cocaine and the main medicines found in street cocaine in Real banknotes using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). Under optimized conditions, the target substances were extracted with acetonitrile, and the cleanup of the obtained extracts was carried out by separating the fatty layer at low temperature (–20 oC). The volume of extract was reduced under nitrogen flow and adjusted to 2.5 mL with a solution containing 95% (v/v) of phosphate buffer (10 mmol L⁻¹, pH = 2.5) and 5% (v/v) of acetonitrile. Under these conditions, it was possible to identify and quantify cocaine and its adulterants in the samples, with limits of quantification of 0.29, 0.012, 0.16, 0.22, 0.026, 0.078, and 0.14 µg per banknote for acetaminophen, levamisole, caffeine, lidocaine, cocaine, diltiazem, and phenacetin, respectively. We analyzed 158 samples, and only one did not present any of the tested substances. Higher amounts of the tested substances were verified in banknotes of lower value.
... Firstly, the use of gas and liquid chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometry, which has enabled the development of highly sensitive, selective, and reproducible methodologies [1, 4, 6, 8-10, 14, 15]. Secondly, the application of screening techniques such as ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) [15][16][17] or thermal desorption coupled with mass spectrometry (TD-MS) 2 [3,15,[18][19][20][21], which have contributed greatly to reducing the total analysis time and the sample preparation. ...
... Firstly, the use of gas and liquid chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometry, which has enabled the development of highly sensitive, selective, and reproducible methodologies [1, 4, 6, 8-10, 14, 15]. Secondly, the application of screening techniques such as ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) [15][16][17] or thermal desorption coupled with mass spectrometry (TD-MS) 2 [3,15,[18][19][20][21], which have contributed greatly to reducing the total analysis time and the sample preparation. ...
A new methodology employing capillary electrophoresis with UV detection (CE-UV) was developed, validated, and applied to determine the presence of cocaine on Brazilian banknotes. Some of the banknotes analyzed were obtained directly from general circulation (well used) while others were collected from Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) (relatively new). The background electrolyte optimized using Peakmaster 5.1 software was composed of 60 mmol L −1 TRIS(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane and 20 mmol L −1 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, at pH 8.4. The separation time achieved for cocaine was only 2.5 minutes. The figures of merit obtained in the evaluation of the proposed method were good linearity (r > 0.999) in the concentration range of 0.8– 8.0 mg L −1 and acceptable limits of detection and quantification (0.2 mg L −1 and 0.8 mg L −1 , resp.). The relative standard deviations of the instrumental precision, repeatability (intraday), and intermediate precision (interday) were less than 4.5% (peak area). The accuracy evaluated through comparing the cocaine results for the banknotes determined by the proposed CE-UV method and using an LC-MS/MS method showed no significant difference between the methods (95% confidence level). In the analysis of the samples cocaine was detected on 93% of the circulating banknotes in amounts ranging from 11.5 í µí¼g to 2761.9 í µí¼g per note.
... 20 Herbal drug cocaine is widespread over the world, as proved by its presence in a significant number of UK pounds, Euros, and North American banknotes. 21 Cocaine is easily detected by different methods, 21 including ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) 22 and mass spectrometry. 23 New designer drugs are conventionally identified by GC/ MS and LC/MS. ...
... 20 Herbal drug cocaine is widespread over the world, as proved by its presence in a significant number of UK pounds, Euros, and North American banknotes. 21 Cocaine is easily detected by different methods, 21 including ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) 22 and mass spectrometry. 23 New designer drugs are conventionally identified by GC/ MS and LC/MS. ...
Characteristic ion mobility mass spectrometry data, reduced mobility, and limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) were determined for six synthetic drugs and cocaine by ion mobility time-of-flight mass spectrometry (IM-TOF-MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI). The studied synthetic illicit drugs recently appeared on the recreational drug market as designer drugs and were methylone, 4-MEC (4'-methylethcathinone), 3,4-MDPV (3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone), JWH-210 [4-ethylnaphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl)methanone], JWH-250 [2-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanone], and JWH-203 [1-pentyl-3-(2'-chlorophenylacetyl) indole]. Absolute reduced mobilities in nitrogen were 1.35, 1.28, 1.41, 1.30, 1.18, 0.98, 1.09, and 1.07 cm2V(-1)s(-1), for methylone [M-H]+, methylone [M+H]+, 4-MEC [M-H]+, 4-MEC [M+H]+, 3,4-MDPV [M+H]+, JWH-210 [M+H]+, JWH-250 [M+H]+, and JWH-203 [M+H]+, respectively. Selected illicit drugs are easily identified by IM-TOF-MS during a 100s analysis. Relative Limits of detection ranged from 4 to 400 nM are demonstrated for these compounds. Such relative limits of detection correspond to 14 pg to 2 ng absolute limits of detection. Better detection limits are obtained in APCI mode for all the illicit drugs except cocaine. ESI mode was found to be preferable for the IM-TOF-MS detection of cocaine at trace levels. A single sample analysis is completed in an order of magnitude less time than that for conventional liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry approach. The application allows one to consider IM-TOF-MS as a good candidate for a method to determine quickly the recently surfaced designer drugs marketed on the internet as "bath salts," "spice," and "herbal blends".
... first report in a journal confirming the presence of an illicit drug (cocaine) on banknotes in general circulation) (objective to distinguish "drug" money from "innocent" money) (Aaron and Lewis 1987) 1998 A perhaps first data on an illicit drug in the ambient environment; non-target analysis revealed cocaine associated with fractions of particulate matter in outdoor air (Los Angeles) (Hannigan et al. 1998) 2000 M first comprehensive overview of drugs on banknotes (Sleeman et al. 2000) 2001 F use of residues in sewage to reconstruct community-wide drug usage first proposed (later to be termed "sewage epidemiology" or "sewage forensics", or sometimes "community drug testing" or "community urinalysis"); first discussion to broaden the topic of drugs as environmental contaminants to include illicit drugs (Daughton 2001b) 2002 WW morphine, methamphetamine, and methadone in sewage (Khan 2002) 2008 WW cocaethylene, LSD (and nor-LSD and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD), heroin, 9-THC (and 11-hydroxy-THC and nor-THC), (R,R)(-)-pseudoephedrine and (1S,2R)(+)-ephedrine hydrochloride in WWTP influents and effluents (Postigo, Lopez de Alda, and Barcelo 2008) 2008 F, mon weekly temporal wastewater fluctuations in various drug classes 2008 F first use of the term "sewage epidemiology" in peer-reviewed literature; perhaps first mentioned in a 2007 interview, by Fanelli (Bohannon 2007) 2008 F creatine in urine first assessed as means of normalizing drug concentrations across WWTPs (and therefore to facilitate drug usage comparisons across communities); creatine first analyzed in sewage. Creatine first proposed as a means for normalizing data by (Daughton 2001b) (Chiaia et al. 2008) 2008 WW, mon first systematic survey of illicit drugs in surface waters 2008 M, R first overview of an illicit drug (cocaine) from banknotes from multiple countries (Armenta and de la Guardia 2008) 2008-9 ...
... R first major overviews of illicit drugs in the environment (Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2009b); (Postigo, Lopez de Alda, and Barceló 2008); ; (Zuccato and Castiglioni 2009) (Bartelt-Hunt et al. 2009;Bijlsma et al. 2009;Boleda et al. 2009Boleda et al. , 2007Bones, Thomas et al. 2007;Castiglioni et al. 2007;Castiglioni et al. 2006;Chiaia et al. 2008;Gheorghe et al. 2008;González-Mariño et al. 2009;Huerta-Fontela, Galceran, Martin-Alonso et al. 2008;Huerta-Fontela et al. 2007;Hummel et al. 2006;Jones-Lepp et al. 2004;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2007;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2008a, 2008bKhan 2002;Loganathan et al. 2009;Mari et al. 2009;Postigo, Lopez de Alda, and Barcelo 2008;Postigo et al. 2010;van Nuijs, Tarcomnicu et al. 2009; surface waters (Bartelt-Hunt et al. 2009;Bijlsma et al. 2009;Boleda et al. 2007Boleda et al. , 2009Bones, Thomas et al. 2007;Gheorghe et al. 2008;Huerta-Fontela et al. 2007;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2007;Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2008a;Postigo et al. 2010; drinking water Boleda et al. 2009) sewage sludge (Kaleta et al. 2006;Khan 2002) biosolids (Jones-Lepp and Stevens 2007) air Cecinato and Balducci 2007;Hannigan et al. 1998;Postigo et al. 2009) banknotes (small sampling of published works) (Aaron and Lewis 1987;Armenta and de la Guardia 2008;Bones, Macka et al. 2007;Carter et al. 2003;Ebejer et al. 2005;Ebejer et al. 2007;Felix et al. 2008;Jenkins 2001;Lavins et al. 2004;Sleeman et al. 2000;Zuo et al. 2008) Page 36 Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the Ebro River basin: Occurrence in sewage and surface water, sewage treatment plants removal efficiency, and collective drug usage estimation ...
Introduction What is an “Illicit” Drug? Differences between Illicit and Licit Drugs as Environmental Contaminants The Core Illicit Drugs and the Environment Large-Scale Exposure or Source Assessments via Dose Reconstruction Illicit Drugs and Environmental Impact The Future Acknowledgment References
... Electrochemical techniques are becoming popular because they are inexpensive, easy to handle, and fast, not to mention that they provide low detection limits and a lot of information that helps to characterize and to describe certain systems. In the field of electroanalytics, sensors built from chemically modified electrodes have been increasingly applied-these electrodes are more selective, thereby minimizing the interference of other substances present in complex samples [31]. ...
The large number of drug seizures has required the development of electrochemical sensors and new analytical techniques involving portable sensors. Here, we have studied cocaine hydrochloride oxy-reduction on the surface of carbon paste electrodes chemically modified with [VIIO(salen)], and we have evaluated these electrodes as voltammetric sensors for forensic purposes. The modified working electrode for cocaine hydrochloride analysis presented the sensitivity was 1.2 µmol.L⁻¹, and the mean limits of detection and quantification were 0.31 and 1.03 µmol.L⁻¹, respectively. As for the possible interferents, the investigated analytes exhibited similar electrochemical activity, with different sensitivities. Supervised classification of the data for the detection of analytes by the SIMCA chemometric method revealed that the voltammetric methodology predicted cocaine in real samples seized by the police more effectively than the other analytes. Thus, the developed voltammetric sensor has potential use in forensic investigations.
... Reviews or other papers covering the detection of drugs, e.g via the testing of hair [3][4][5][6], the use of molecularly imprinted polymers [7,8], aptamers [9], ion mobility spectrometry [10,11], mass spectrometry [12][13][14][15][16], hybrid methods [17], electrochemical methods [18,19], biosensors [9,[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33] and immunoassays [34][35][36] have been published. Quite popular in analytical chemistry was the detection of cocaine on banknotes [37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]. It can be concluded that cocaine detection is still an active field of research and development. ...
The trafficking of illegal drugs by criminal networks at borders, harbors, or airports is an increasing issue in public health as these routes ensure the main supply of illegal drugs. The prevention of drug smuggling, including the installation of scanners and other analytical devices to detect ultra-small traces of drugs within a reasonable time frame, remains a challenge. The presented immunosensor is based on a monolithic affinity column with a large excess of immobilized hapten, which traps fluorescently labeled antibodies as long as the analyte cocaine is absent. In the presence of the drug, some binding sites of the antibody will be blocked, which leads to an immediate breakthrough of the labeled protein, detectable by highly sensitive laser-induced fluorescence with the help of a Peltier-cooled complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) camera. Liquid handling is performed with high-precision syringe pumps and microfluidic chip-based mixing devices and flow cells. The biosensor achieved limits of detection of 23 pM (7 ppt) of cocaine with a response time of 90 seconds and a total assay time below 3 minutes. With surface wipe sampling, the biosensor was able to detect 300 pg of cocaine. This immunosensor belongs to the most sensitive and fastest detectors for cocaine and offers near-continuous analyte measurement.
... As shown in the figure, the original sample was not suitable for growing fungi on its surface because of three reasons; dyes, high crystallinity of cellulose, and usually these types of waste are contaminated by different types of drug (e.g. Cocaine, Bacteria, etc.) during the currency trading (Armenta et al., 2008, Jenkins et al., 2001, which leads to stopped growing of fungi and killing most of them. In case of ELEB1 sample, the fermentation process started slowly, so the contact surface between the fermentation media and substrate was increased and its crystallinity was reduced a little by milling (Bian et al., 2019), but still the dyes and toxic materials remained on the surface. ...
Usually, Euro banknotes are made from cotton substrates and their waste is disposed of in landfill or is incinerated. In order to valorize the end-of-life euro banknotes (ELEBs), the substrates were used in this research for cellulase production via submerged fungal fermentation (SFF), and the resultant fungal cellulase w s used in ELEBs hydrolysis process for extraction of glucose. The experiments were started by exposing the ELEBs to different types of pretreatments, including milling process, alkali (NaOH/urea solution), and acid leaching to remove any contamination (e.g. dyes) and to decrease the crystallinity of cellulose (the main element in cotton substrate) thus increasing the degradation rate during the fermentation process. The effect of pretreatments on the morphology and chemical composition of ELEBs was observed using Scanning Electron Microscope and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry. Afterwards, Trichoderma reesei-DSM76 was used for cellulase production from the treated ELEBs with high cellulase activity (12.97 FPU/g). The resultant cellulase was upscaled in a bioreactor and used in ELEBs hydrolysis. Finally, the results showed that the optimized pretreatment methods (milling followed by leaching process) significantly improved the cellulase activity and glucose recovery, which was estimated by 96%. According to the obtained results, the developed strategy has a great potential for conversion of ELEBs into a glucose product that could be used in biofuels and bioplastics applications.
... A high percentage of circulating banknotes have been shown to be contaminated with illicit drugs [1]. ...
Reports have shown the prevalence of the contamination of banknotes with a number of different drugs. These studies have focused on investigating drug contamination levels on currency which is either nationally or even international distributed. To present there has been no studies undertaken on banknotes circulating in well-defined and limited geographic areas. In this present study we have investigated the presence of drug contamination on the Local Currency, circulating in a known geographic area in and around the city of Bristol, UK; the Bristol Pound (£B). The effect of sample size was investigated and a post-hoc statistical power analysis undertaken. Following liquid extraction with the aid of sonication, levels of cocaine, benzoylecgonine, MDMA, ketamine and methamphetamine were determined by liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Seven samples of each denomination in circulation were investigated. The calculated median values per note were 2030 ng cocaine, 91.9 ng benzoylecgonine, 0.779 ng methamphetamine, 62.8 ng MDMA and 3440 ng ketamine. This study focuses on our preliminary studies and to our knowledge this is the first investigation focused on the drug contamination of a Local Currency.
... However, these processes still have some restrictions regarding yield, fermentation time up to one week, and need for pretreatment to decrease crystallinity of cellulose and to remove dyes and organic components (Dimos et al., 2019;Abo et al., 2019). In addition, some studies showed that most of ELCBs are contaminated by drugs and other materials, what needs special handling during treatment and may affect performance of microorganisms too (Mackuak et al., 2016;Armenta et al., 2008). ...
End-of-life cotton banknotes (ELCBs) is lignocellulosic waste rich in cellulose and usually disposed of by combustion or incineration. In order to change these useless policies and integrate ELCBs into the circular economy strategy, this research aims to convert ELCBs into high value-added energy products that could be used to achieve self-sufficiency from energy in some sectors of the banknote industry. Pyrolysis was used to achieve this goal and the experiments were performed on the basis of the concept of Technology Readiness Levels (fundamentals and pilot level). The fundamental pyrolysis was performed in nitrogen in the different heating scope of 5–30 °C/min using Differential thermal analysis/Thermogravimetric analysis/3D-Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy in order to determine thermal decomposition, chemical decomposition, and pyrolysis reaction kinetics of ELCBs. The kinetic parameters were estimated using model-free methods, including Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS), Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO), and Friedman method. The pilot pyrolysis experiments were implemented in a mini pyrolysis power plant built especially for this purpose under the conditions that achieve maximum activation energy (25 °C/min) up to 500, 600, and 700 °C. The built plant had a capacity of 250 g and consisted of three integrated units: conversion pyrolysis reactor, gas collection and purification, and gas monitoring. XRD, Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and SEM-EDS were used to analyze and examine the feedstock and obtained energy products. The fundamental results showed that the maximum thermal decomposition of ELCBs is located in the range 383–410 °C with mass loss 70 wt% and maximum activation energy 250 kJ/mol at 25 °C/min, while the pilot results under the optimum conditions showed that the suggested strategy can be generated pyrolysis product yield; 40% of bio-oil, 44% of bio-gases, and 17.8% of char from ELCBs with conversion rate 82.2%.
... Studies have been performed to determine the quantity of illicit substance retrieved on the surfaces of banknotes in order to distinguish the general population of banknotes from the ones contaminated with illicit substances, as this is often a question raised in Court [45][46][47][48], due to its "potential evidentiary value in the prosecution of drug-related crimes" [49]. Establishing variations in the quantity of illicit substances retrieved on banknotes provides useful background information to assess such traces to pursue a search warrant, or seizure, or arrest individuals in possession of the contaminated banknotes [50,51] These studies used sensitive techniques as well as field instruments for the detection of minute amounts of illicit substances. ...
The need for law enforcement agencies to obtain results more rapidly has driven the increased use of field-deployable technology in the field. Currently used in a case-by-case approach, the potential of these new technologies, could go beyond the traditional objective of forensic science (i.e. characterisation and identification) and provide timely information about criminal phenomena (i.e. multi-case approach). The use of portable instrumentation could for instance provide rapid information to law enforcement agencies about drug prevalence and drug smuggling if used in a systematic manner.
This paper outlines the potential of using portable instrumentation to gather information related to illicit drugs rapidly. An innovative concept is proposed to screen surfaces of passports for the detection of remnants of illicit substances using rapid equipment already deployed at border controls. An experimental procedure was built to determine if powdered drugs could be detected on the surface of contaminated passports. Various scenarios were tested, including transfer, activity and persistence parameters. Experiments were conducted employing two different instruments, i.e. Ion Mobility spectroscopy (IMS) and Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionisation coupled to an Ion Trap Mass Spectrometer (APCI-ITMS). Promising results were obtained with the proposed method notably with the APCI-ITMS instrument as drugs were detected in minute amounts even after one hour of activity. High rates of false positives were obtained with the IMS contrary to APCI-ITMS. As a result, APCI-ITMS allows for the detection of remnants of illicit substances on passports’ surfaces and the approach employed in this proof of concept can be deployed in a real environment such as in airports.
... Alternative to water analysis, surveys on use patterns may also be conducted by the analysis of bank notes. 13,14 The challenge in detecting small organic molecules like drugs, owing the most diverse chemical properties and appearing in concentrations over a broad range, led to the development of many new analytical techniques, unfortunately often dedicated to only one compound or one family of compounds, difficult to adapt to other targets. 3 Promising analytical systems based on modular chemistry have appeared more recently, in which, for example, the recognition unit can be easily adapted or exchanged depending on the targeted analyte, or in which signaling-recognition tandems for specific analytes are interchangeable, opening multiplexing possibilities. ...
Quick but accurate testing and on the spot monitoring of cocaine in oral fluids and urine continues to be an important toxicological issue. In terms of drug testing, a number of devices were introduced into the market within the last decades, notably for workplace inspection or roadside testing. However, these systems did not always fulfill the requirements in terms of reliability, especially when low cut-off levels are required. With respect to surface water, the presence of anthropogenic small organic molecules such as prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals as well as illicit drugs like cannabinoids, heroin or cocaine have become a challenge for scientists to develop new analytical tools for screening and on-site analysis because many of them serve as markers for anthropogenic input and consumer behaviour. Here, a modular approach for the detection of cocaine is presented, integrating an electrochemical ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) performed on antibody-grafted magnetic beads in a hybrid microfluidic sensor utilizing flexible tubing, static chip and SPE (screen-printed electrode) elements for incubation, recognition and cyclic voltammetry measurements. A linear response of the sensor vs the logarithm of cocaine concentration was obtained with a limit of detection of 0.15 ng/L. Within an overall assay time of 25 minutes, concentrations down to 1 ng/L could be reliably determined in water, oral fluids and urine, the system possessing a dynamic working range up to 1 mg/L.
... The court in R. v. Rashid and others was also concerned about the semi-quantitative nature of the data. The method of thermal desorption combined with tandem mass spectrometry is considered to be semi-quantitative because no method has yet been published to extrapolate the intensities of the ion transitions detected to the absolute quantity of drug present on the banknote [2]. Despite this, it is still possible to use the data obtained in a statistical analysis because comparisons can be made between the intensity of ion transitions detected on different samples of banknotes. ...
A study of the quantities of cocaine on banknotes in general circulation was conducted to investigate regional variations across England and Wales. No meaningful support was found for the proposition that there is regional variation in the quantities of cocaine in banknotes in general circulation in England and Wales.
... [3] Therefore, cocaine serves as a model target for testing novel analytical methods because of the demanding requirements for its quick detection in regulation enforcement and clinical settings. [4] Conventional methods for cocaine detection are mainly chromatography, [5] and immunoassay methods which include the enzyme-linked assay, [6] colourimetric technique, [7,8] chemiluminescence, [9] and fluorescence assays [10,11] as well as electrochemical sensing systems. [12,13] Although these methods have some advantages, each one suffers from certain drawbacks including time consumption and low resolution. ...
The consumption of illicit drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, and amphetamines is still a major health and social problem, creating an abuse in adults especially. Novel techniques which estimate the drug of abuse are needed for the detection of newly revealed psychoactive drugs. Herein, we have constructed a combinatorial platform by using quantum dots (QDs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as well as a functional aptamer which selectively recognizes cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE). We have called it an aptamer folding-based sensory device (AFSD). For the fabrication of AFSD, QDs were initially immobilized onto the poly-L-lysine coated μ-well surfaces. Then, the AuNP-aptamer conjugates were bound to the QDs. The addition of cocaine or BE caused a change in the aptamer structure which induced the close interaction of AuNPs with the QDs. Hence, quenching of the fluorescence of QDs was observed depending on the analyte amount. The linearity of cocaine and BE was 1.0-10 nM and 1.0-25 μM, respectively. Moreover, the limits of detection for cocaine and BE were calculated as 0.138 nM and 1.66 μM. The selectivity was tested by using different interfering substances (methamphetamine, bovine serum albumin, codeine, and 3-acetamidophenol). To investigate the use of AFSD in artificial urine matrix, cocaine/BE spiked samples were applied. Also, confirmatory analyses by using high performance liquid chromatography were performed. It is shown that AFSD has a good potential for testing the cocaine abuse and can be easily adapted for detection of various addictive drugs by changing the aptamer according to desired analytes.
... 5,6 Também são citados na literatura técnicas que analisam de forma direta as notas como espectrometria de massas com dessorção térmica e espectrometria de mobilidade iônica. 4,7 As técnicas analíticas acopladas à espectrometria de massas permitem desenvolver métodos com maior sensibilidade e seletividade, alcançando limites de detecção e quantificação mais baixos. Porém, uma das desvantagens destes métodos é a análise destrutiva do analito, não sendo possível uma nova análise da amostra. ...
Cocaine is one of the most problematic illicit drugs in Brazil, because of its social impact and toxicological data for users and society in general. One form of this drug is used intranasal, when it is in the form of cocaine hydrochloride and can be sniffed using paper money as an artifact. Thus, our study aimed to examine banknotes of R 2 reais in the central region of Belo Horizonte, have a high percentage of contamination by cocaine, which may come from direct contamination of the drug in notes or indirectly between notes contaminated and contaminated surfaces.
... 24,25 Las determinaciones cuantitativas se realizaron en un Cromatógrafo de Gases con Detector de Ionización de Llama (GC/FID), marca Agilent Technologies modelo 6890 N,empleando una columna HP-5 de 0.25 mm de diámetro interno, 0.32 µm de espesor,30 m de largo. 26 Las muestras se confirmaron por Cromatografía Gaseosa con Detector de Masas (GC/MS), marca Agilent Technologies modelo 5973 B con impacto electrónico y en modo Full Scan con una Columna HP-5 MS de 30 m de largo con 0.25 mm de diámetro interno, 0.25µm de espesor. 27 ...
El abuso de drogas es una realidad creciente que afecta la salud de la población.y
de la que Chile no está ajena. En este sentido una de las drogas más consumidas
en nuestro país es la cocaína, ya sea en su forma de sal soluble, conocida
como clorhidrato de cocaína, o como pasta base de cocaína. En el año 2007
el reporte mundial de Naciones Unidas acerca del consumo de drogas estimó
que 14.3 millones de ciudadanos en el mundo usan cocaína (0,3% de ese total
son personas de 15 a 64 años de edad).1 El aumento del consumo de drogas es
un tema que preocupa debido a que las muestras recibidas en el laboratorio
han ido en aumento desde el año 2006en que se recibieron 18.699 muestras,
a 44.858 muestras en 2012. La cocaina altera el comportamiento, provocando
estimulación y excitación mediante la inhibición de la recaptación de dopamina,
desarrollando tolerancia en dosis repetidas.2
Numerosas son las publicaciones que tratan acerca de los efectos nocivos
de la cocaína en el organismo.3
... At present, gas chromatography, liquid chromatography or thermal desorption coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) are most often employed for the detection of cocaine extracted from banknotes [4,5,8,11,21]. Alternative methods include ion-mobility spectrometry [7,22], electrochemiluminescence [23], and Raman microspectroscopy [9]. ...
... In a search of the scientific literature we can find analytical methods, such as infrared spectroscopy [2] and ambient mass spectrometry [3], that have been employed to identify counterfeit banknotes, including Dollars, Euros and Reals. However, most studies found in the literature discuss the contamination of the banknotes with illicit drugs [4][5][6]. Raman spectroscopy has shown a large number of applications in samples of forensic interest, mainly examination of pigments, such as printing material used for producing documents [7], pigments in works of art [8,9] and analysis of car paints [10,11], among others. The use of Raman spectroscopy for identification of drugs [12], explosives [13], and fibers [14] is also widely found in the literature. ...
In the present work, Raman spectroscopy and chemometric tools were explored as an analytical method to discriminate authentic and counterfeit Real banknotes. The analysis was based on the characterization of inks used to confect the banknotes. Multivariate analysis was required for data analysis, since the colors present in the banknotes are a mixture of pigments and the Raman spectra is complex and not totally resolved. Original and counterfeit R 50 banknotes, classifying them with reliability and estimating uncertainty. In the proposed method all fake and not fake banknotes used to validate the analysis were correctly classified. The procedure could be used as a complementary method to classical forensic inspection, offering fast, non-destructive, robust analyses with the possibility of in situ analysis using a portable instrument.
... Los diluyentes a su vez, son compuestos químicos orgánicos o inorgánicos que no presentan propiedades farmacológicas significativas, pero que son agregados para aumentar el peso de la unidad de dosis comercializada. En el año 2007 el reporte mundial de Naciones Unidas acerca del consumo de drogas estimó que 14.3 millones de ciudadanos usan cocaína, (0.3% de ese total son personas de 15 a 64 años de edad) [7]El aumento del consumo de drogas es un tema que preocupa debido a que las muestras han ido en aumento desde el año 2006 (18.699 muestras) a 44858 muestras en 2012. Debido a esto es que se requiere de metodologías analíticas rápidas y confiables que permitan dar una respuesta oportuna a la fiscalía que persigue el tráfico ilícito de sustancias estupefacientes y psicotrópicas. ...
La cocaína es una de las drogas de abuso más consumida en nuestro país, las autoridades realizan permanentemente esfuerzos con el fin de disminuir la oferta y la demanda de drogas, en este contexto se hace necesario, desde el punto de vista de la toxicología y la inteligencia policial establecer métodos confiables que permitan con un bajo costo poder determinar la composición de las incautaciones de cocaína. Para esto el Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile, mediante la sección análisis de drogas, está encargado de analizar todas las incautaciones de cocaína y posteriormente enviar esta información a la Fiscalía quien empleará este informe como prueba en los tribunales. Con el fin de elaborar este estudio acerca de la composición de los decomisos de cocaína se implementaron metodología analíticas por Cromatografía Planar Instrumental (HPTLC), Cromatografía de gases con detector de ionización de llama GC/FID y Espectrofotometría infrarroja con transformada de Fourier (FTIR). Una vez validadas estas metodologías, se compararon las técnicas descritas y posteriormente se analizaron 198 muestras reales. Los resultados revelaron que el 67.7% de las muestras corresponde a cocaína base con un promedio de pureza cercano al 35.0%. Dentro de los principales diluyentes los carbonatos (el 28% de las muestras contenía carbonato), almidón y azúcar. Respecto de los adulterantes el principal fue cafeína y lidocaína, entre la muestras de clorhidrato de cocaína se detectó la presencia de levamisol. Este es el primer estudio que se realiza en Chile acerca de la composición de los decomisos de cocaína y sienta las bases para que se continúen realizando investigaciones que aporten datos en el campo de la toxicología, inteligencia policial y persecución del tráfico de drogas.
... (65) Another example is the use of IMS for the rapid detection of drugs in contraband materials. (66) IMS is appropriate for the determination of these compounds because of the high proton affinity of amide groups present in the drugs. (2) IMS has been used in the pharmaceutical field for quality assurance and process monitoring. ...
Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is known to be a fast technique for the detection of volatile compounds. In IMS, a gas-phase sample is ionized using an ionization source. The ions move in a weak electrical field toward a detector. During the drift they collide with a drift gas flowing in the opposite direction. Therefore, they are slowed down depending on their size, shape, and charge. As a result, different ions reach the detector at different drift times, which is a characteristic of the ions considered. The number of ions reaching the detector is a measure of the concentration of the analyte. Ions with greater mobility reach the collector electrode earlier than heavier ions that have a lower mobility. The current induced in the ion collector is an output signal from IMS detector. Its time dependence is called drift time spectrum. With regard to electric field direction, it is possible to measure spectra of positive or negative ions.
IMS can be manufactured in small, rugged, and portable designs and it has been used in several critical mission circumstances from security screening and military preparedness. Perhaps the most visible are the IMS analyzers that have been deployed in airports around the world to detect traces of explosives in passengers' carry-on luggage.
Keywords:
ion mobility spectrometry;
gas-phase separation;
gas-phase electrophoretic;
sensor;
volatile compounds
... Jones- Lepp and Stevens (2007) 2007 WW Norcodeine, THC, THC-COOH in WWTP influents and effluents and surface water Boleda et al. (2007) 2007 M BZE and heroin on banknotes Bones et al. (2007b) 2007 R First conference devoted to topic of illicit drugs in the environment; led to first published overview of many of the aspects of the topic (including scientific, technical, social, privacy, ethical, and legal concerns) EMCDDA (2007), Frost and Griffiths (2008) 2008 DW First data on the occurrence and stepwise removal of illicit drugs at a municipal drinking water treatment plant Huerta-Fontela et al. (2008a) 2008 WW Methadone, EDDP, and cocaethylene in surface waters Zuccato et al. (2008b) Cocaethylene, LSD (and nor-LSD and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD), heroin, 9-THC (and 11-hydroxy-THC and nor-THC), (R,R)(-)-pseudoephedrine and (1S,2R)(+)-ephedrine hydrochloride in WWTP influents and effluents Postigo et al. (2008b) 2008 F, monit Weekly temporal wastewater fluctuations in various drug classes Zuccato et al. (2008a) 2008 F First use of the term "sewage epidemiology" in peer-reviewed literature; perhaps first mentioned in a 2007 interview by Fanelli (Bohannon 2007) Zuccato et al. (2008a) 2008 F Creatinine in urine first assessed as means of normalizing drug concentrations across WWTPs (and therefore to facilitate drug usage comparisons across communities); creatinine first analyzed in sewage. Creatinine first proposed as a means for normalizing data by Daughton (2001c) Chiaia et al. (2008) 2008 WW, monit First systematic survey of illicit drugs in surface waters Zuccato et al. (2008b) 2008 M, R First overview of an illicit drug (cocaine) from banknotes from multiple countries Armenta and de la Guardia (2008) Any discussion regarding illicit drugs can become confused by the ambiguity as to what exactly defines an illicit drug. Confusion stems from the fact that illicit drugs are not limited exclusively to illegal drugs -that is, drugs with no medical use. ...
The spectrum of chemicals recognized as contributing to widespread contamination of the environment was extended to pharmaceutical ingredients as early as the 1970s. The topic, however, did not begin to attract broader scientific attention until the mid-1990s (Daughton 2009a). Occurring generally at levels below 1∈μg/L (1 part per billion) in ambient waters, recognition of the near-ubiquitous presence of pharmaceuticals in a wide variety of environmental compartments serves as a stunning measure of the advancements in analytical chemistry and of our still-emerging understanding of the scope and complexity of xenobiotic occurrence in the environment.
Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is an analytical technique that has primarily been used as a trace chemical monitor in the field. The benefits of IMS as a field detector are its simplicity, sensitivity, fast analysis times, portability, ruggedness, and its operation at ambient pressures. IMS has successfully been used for many years to detect traces of explosives at airports and other security checkpoints; illicit drugs in prisons, cargo, and in border security. The military have long used IMS for detection of chemical warfare agents. Innovations in drift tubes, nonradioactive ion sources, and hyphenated IMS techniques in recent years have expanded the range of forensic applications. A sample introduced into the IMS undergoes atmospheric pressure chemical ionization and the resulting product ions are separated by their mobilities in the drift tube. Several factors such as temperature, humidity, concentration and presence of interferences can affect the ionization and separation process. This article describes the principles of IMS, developments in technology, and their implications for forensic science. IMS trends in detection of explosives, illicit drugs, and chemical warfare agents are discussed. The article also provides an overview of some unconventional applications and some interesting emerging forensic applications of IMS.
PurposePrevalence measures of sociological interest concerning cocaine presence on banknotes are fraught with (i) the extreme variability of its concentration (seven orders of magnitude); (ii) the high number of banknotes needed for the statistical significance. Banknote dust from counting machines from a large and representative number of banknotes in circulation in a specific area represents the most eligible sample to ascertain cocaine circulation. No chromatographic method is available in this respect. This study aims at developing the first analytical methodology for the determination of cocaine in banknote dust samples.Methods
This novel and straightforward approach consists of a simple methanol extraction followed by analytical determinations via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry.ResultsSatisfactory analytical performance was obtained with a coefficient of determination of 0.996; maximum within-run and between-run precisions were, respectively, 1.85% and 5.20%. Limits of detection and quantification were, respectively, 3 and 9 ng/mL with an overall process efficiency of 93.2%. The method developed was successfully applied to 9 banknote dust samples from local banknote counter machines. The found concentrations ranged from 2.18E + 02 to 2.31E + 03 μg of cocaine per gram of banknote dust and varied only one order of magnitude, much less than cocaine concentration on banknotes.Conclusions
To have an idea of cocaine circulation in a geographical area, the sampling of banknote dust, compared to banknotes, consists of tremendous advantages in terms of statistical significance, higher cocaine concentrations, and lower variability: this is crucial from the sociological point of view.
The trafficking of illegal drugs by criminal networks at borders, harbors, or airports is an increasing issue for public health as these routes ensure the main supply of illegal drugs. The prevention of drug smuggling, including the installation of scanners and other analytical devices to detect small traces of drugs within a reasonable time frame, remains a challenge. The presented immunosensor is based on a monolithic affinity column with a large excess of immobilized hapten, which traps fluorescently labeled antibodies as long as the analyte cocaine is absent. In the presence of the drug, some binding sites of the antibody will be blocked, which leads to an immediate breakthrough of the labeled protein, detectable by highly sensitive laser-induced fluorescence with the help of a Peltier-cooled complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) camera. Liquid handling is performed with high-precision syringe pumps and microfluidic chip-based mixing devices and flow cells. The biosensor achieved limits of detection of 7 ppt (23 pM) of cocaine with a response time of 90 s and a total assay time below 3 min. With surface wipe sampling, the biosensor was able to detect 300 pg of cocaine. This immunosensor belongs to the most sensitive and fastest detectors for cocaine and offers near-continuous analyte measurement.
Flexible Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) substrates based on silver nanoparticles (AgNP) immobilized in agar gels have been developed to detect cocaine in 100 Argentinian banknotes. Finally, the analysis of 10 banknotes in circulation (one of which was intentionally contaminated as a blind test) resulted in the detection of cocaine in two of the banknotes analysed.
A b s t r a c t
The presence of traces of narcotics, particularly cocaine, on banknotes in circulation is a known and widespread fact in all countries. While linked to consumption and trafficking (primary contamination), their spread is due to direct contact with other banknotes during machine counting and cash financial transactions. The mere detection of traces of cocaine on a sample of banknotes is therefore not sufficient evidence to establish the banknote's illegal origin. Increasing levels of contamination are recorded close to (in terms of both place and time) the first direct contact with the substance. The analysis must thus be able to demonstrate that the concentration of narcotics on the banknotes is significantly higher (statistically) in terms of value and frequency than would be expected from background noise alone. Even in that event, however, this evidence has to be substantiated with additional confirmations linking banknotes to the person and this latter to drug trafficking and/or dealing. In general, an in-depth and systematic analysis of all seized banknotes to search for traces of narcotics is not only prohibitive in terms of cost, but also unnecessary. If the sampling procedure is respected, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court actually recognizes IMS (ion mobility spectrometry) as a lawful method for checking the degree of banknote contamination, as well as all the statistical conclusions that can be drawn from it. In special cases, the prosecutor may require confirmation of IMS results by a laboratory test (liquid/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). Using a non-destructive sampling procedure (suction on swabs) we determined the presence of cocaine on 978 circulating euro banknotes, randomly collected at 5 swiss customs offices, with IMS and LC-MS/MS in order to establish a normal (background) contamination level. A significant proportion (46.4%) of the euro banknotes analysed by LC-MS/MS had cocaine concentrations above the quantification limit (1 nanogram/swab). However, the extent of contamination is a determining factor: 94.6% of the banknotes in circulation have cocaine concentrations equal to or less than 10 ng/swab and only 3.4% have cocaine concentrations above 20 ng/swab. By comparison, only 27.3% and 13.4% respectively of the seized banknotes (2 real cases) had cocaine concentrations equal to or less than 10 ng/swab, but 63.5% and 86.7% respectively had cocaine concentrations above 20 ng/swab. We also describe a Komolgorov-Smirnov test model used to determine the presence of an "abnormal" level of contamination relative to the reference banknotes (banknotes in circulation or background noise) effectively and within realistic practical and theoretical frameworks. This model provides a quantifiable and statistically significant result that not only simplifies data interpretation, but also facilitates admissibility as forensic evidence in proceedings. When applied to the sized banknotes using both IMS and LC-MS/MS data, we obtain fully consistent and sounding conclusions.
Pharmaceuticals are indispensable for human and animal health. After use, the active agents and their metabolites are excreted and impact on the environment via different pathways. They have been found in e.g. surface water, groundwater, drinking water, sediment, sewage sludge, and manure. Monitoring in the environment is still underway, but an impact on living organisms has already been detected.
Their primary sources are healthcare wastewaters, household wastewater, sludge, and leakages from landfills. Since WWTPs are unable to effectively degrade modern pharmaceuticals, drugs and their metabolites, and remove antibiotic-resistant microorganisms they are found in WWTP effluent and/or are absorbed in the sludge, composted and subsequently applied in the agriculture.
There is still a lack of knowledge concerning: quantities of pharmaceuticals entering the environment, the origin of the pharmaceutical active agents, metabolism and transformation pathways, the effects of the active substances, metabolites and transformation products on aquatic organisms, as well as their persistence or degradability in the environment.
This short review summarizes the recent findings of studies dealing with the impact of pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, and resistant microorganisms present in wastewater on the environment and health of the population.
A wide range of analytical techniques are currently applied for the detection of cocaine on banknotes. The most challenging aspect of establishing sound circumstantial forensic evidence via the analysis of cocaine on banknotes remains the differentiation of potential drugmoney from notes that have become contaminated with cocaine in general circulation. The application of accurate quantitative methods such as gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-MS (LC-MS), or competitive enzyme immunoassay (cEIA) to establish potential cut-off concentrations may provide a solution to this problem. MS2-based methodology, which enables differentiation of drug money from general circulation based on the intensity of the signal obtained from cocaine, could also provide the solution. Finally, the continued development of novel detection techniques such as the localized staining of cocaine by immunodetection can be used to provide additional information on the nature of cocaine contamination on banknotes for the basis of more accurate sampling techniques.
The cars we drive, the homes we live in, the restaurants we visit, and the labs and offices we work in are all a part of the modern human habitat. Remarkably, little is known about the diversity of chemicals present in these environments and to what degree molecules from our bodies influence the built environment that surrounds us and vice versa. We therefore set out to visualize the chemical diversity of five built human habitats together with their occupants, to provide a snapshot of the various molecules to which humans are exposed on a daily basis. The molecular inventory was obtained through untargeted LC-MS/MS analysis of samples from each human habitat and from the people that occupy those habitats. Mapping MS-derived data onto 3D models of the environments showed that frequently touched surfaces, such as handles (e.g. door, bicycle), resemble the molecular fingerprint of the human skin more closely than other surfaces that are less frequently in direct contact with humans (e.g. wall, bicycle frame). Approximately 50% of the MS/MS spectra detected were shared between people and the environment. Personal care products, plasticizers, cleaning supplies, food, food additives and even medications that were found to be a part of the human habitat. The annotations indicate that significant transfer of chemicals takes place between us and our built environment. The workflows applied here will lay the foundation for future studies of molecular distributions in medical, forensic, architectural, space exploration and environmental applications. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03456
This article examines the case law on expert evidence of drug traces. It suggests that evidence of questionable relevance is being adduced by the prosecution and that unsuccessful challenges to its reliability inflate its probative value. It reveals troubling synergies between adverse inferences from an accused's "failure to account" and the adduction of arguably irrelevant scientific evidence. It provides an exposition of the legislative background to s.36 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 and suggests the provision fails to comply with art.6ofthe European Convention on Human Rights.
«Money and illicit drugs trafficking, illicit drugs trafficking and money»: this is a well known association present in every mind. The production, transport and sale of illicit drugs constitute one of the major international illicit traffic that, through money laundering, funds many illegal activities. Regarding these activities there is a clear interest from the part of the judicial system to demonstrate that certain amounts of money have been in contact with illicit drugs and then linking this money with illicit drugs trafficking. The analysis of illicit drugs in traces present on banknote is one interesting approach that allows providing this information to the judicial system. The aim consists in demonstrating that banknotes seized in relation with illicit drugs trafficking present a greater contamination in illicit substances that banknote coming from a general population. The results of this research proved that this differentiation is possible for Swiss Francs and Euros. The proposed methodology is then validated and constitutes a new tool to confiscate money related to illicit drugs trafficking.
In this study the illicit drug contamination (24 selected psychoactive compounds) of
banknotes collected in the Slovakia, Czech Republic and Austria, and during music
festivals, was studied using methanol extraction followed by LC-MS/MS technique. Our
results show that banknotes commonly used in the Czech Republic and Slovakia are
contaminated mainly by methamphetamine (940 ng/note and 760 ng/note,
respectively), and also by cocaine in the case of Slovak euro banknotes (max 1940
ng/note). The increase in the contamination by methamphetamine was observed
during music festivals in Slovakia (max 4660 ng/note) and the Czech Republic (max
6400 ng/note). In case of cocaine, the highest average value was detected during
Austrian music festival (2700 ng/note).
The determination of analytes included in different types of samples by capillary electrophoresis (CE) requires their prior extraction from the sample matrix. The extraction steps are the bottleneck of many analytical processes, which should ideally involve as few operations as possible in order to minimize potential errors and shorten analysis times. In addition, there is a growing search for more environmental‐friendly approaches capable of using smaller amounts of solvents and sample sizes.
Sample treatment in CE is of great practical relevance by virtue of its inherent shortcomings, which include low sensitivity, small sample volume, and a marked influence of matrix components. The main types of coupling (on‐line, in‐line, and at‐line) are systematically dealt with and compared to manually implemented approaches in order to derive practical conclusions with a view to facilitate the use of CE for the determination of analytes present in complex samples.
The more suitable approaches for sample treatment before CE analysis are presented in this article. Although solid‐phase extraction (SPE) continues to be the most widely used extraction technique, some other clean‐up/concentration methodologies involving the use of membranes, microdialysis (MD), solid‐phase microextraction (SPME), hollow fibers (HFs), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and among others have proved effective alternatives for extraction, clean‐up, and sometimes preconcentration purposes.
Probe electrospray ionization (PESI) uses a sharp solid needle as electrospray emitter. This method was found to be applicable to the analysis of real-world samples with high concentrations of salts and detergents without sample pretreatment. Since PESI is only applicable to wet samples but not to dry samples, sheath-flow PESI (SF-PESI) has been developed. The metal needle was inserted into the fine plastic capillary with a protrusion of 0.1-0.2 mm from the capillary terminus. The solvent was supplied continuously through the capillary. At the lowest position of the probe, solvent flowing out from the capillary makes the sample wet and extracts the analytes from the surface. The extracted analytes were electrosprayed at the highest position of the needle. SF-PESI was successfully applied to samples such as narcotics, tablets, bill, fruits, potatoes, etc. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We describe a handheld, wireless low-temperature plasma (LTP) ambient ionization source and its performance on a benchtop and a miniature mass spectrometer. The source, which is inexpensive to build and operate, is battery-powered and utilizes miniature helium cylinders or air as the discharge gas. Comparison of a conventional, large-scale LTP source against the handheld LTP source, which uses less helium and power than the large-scale version, revealed that the handheld source had similar or slightly better analytical performance. Another advantage of the handheld LTP source is the ability to quickly interrogate a gaseous, liquid or solid sample without requiring any setup time. A small, 7.4-V Li-polymer battery is able to sustain plasma for two hours continuously, while the miniature helium cylinder supplies gas flow for approximately eight continuous hours. Long-distance ion transfer was achieved for distances up to one meter.
The most relevant human urinary metabolites of cocaine (nine metabolites) were measured in urban wastewater in Italy and USA. A novel analytical method based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry allowed the identification of ecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester and the pyrolytic derivatives of cocaine in untreated wastewater. The aim of this study was to verify whether the pattern of cocaine metabolites in wastewater reflected the human excretion profile in urine. The performance of the method was good, with recoveries higher than 60% and limits of quantifications in the low ng/L range. The stability in untreated wastewater was assessed for all metabolites and the best storage condition resulted freezing samples immediately after collection and keep them frozen until analysis. All the selected compounds were measured in wastewater at concentrations up to 1.5 μg/L and their weekly loads were calculated during a five weeks monitoring campaign in Milan (Italy). The profiles of cocaine metabolites in wastewater matched with those in human urine reported in the literature, suggesting that measures in wastewater reflect the real human excretion and that wastewater analysis is suitable for assessing drug consumption. Benzoylecgonine was confirmed as the best target for estimating cocaine use by wastewater analysis, while cocaine itself should not be considered because its amount in wastewater is affected by other environmental sources such as transport, handling and consumption. Results suggested that the measurement of other metabolites in combination with benzoylecgonine might reflect 60% of an administered dose of cocaine providing also information on different patterns of use.
A novel electrochemiluminescence (ECL) “sandwich” biosensor has been developed to detect cocaine. The sandwich biosensor was fabricated on the basis of the fact that a single aptamer could be split into two fragments and the two dissociated parts could form a folded, associated complex in the presence of targets. One of these (capture probe), which had hexane–thiol at its 5′-terminus, was immobilized on a gold electrode via thiol–gold binding. The other one (detection probe) was labeled with the ECL reagent tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II)-doped silica nanoparticles (RuSiNPs) at its 3′-terminus. Owing to the weak interaction between the two fragments, the sensor exhibited a low ECL signal in the absence of cocaine. After the target cocaine had been added to the solution, it induced association of the two fragments and stabilized the associated complexes, leading to immobilization of RuSiNPs on the electrode surface, and the ECL detected on the electrode surface was enhanced. The enhanced ECL intensity was directly proportional to the logarithm of the cocaine concentration in the range from 1.0 × 10−9 to1.0 × 10−11 mol/L, with a detection limit of 3.7 × 10−12 mol/L. The biosensor was applied to detect trace amounts of cocaine on banknotes with satisfactory results.
Figure
Scheme of the ECL aptasensor for cocaine detection in a sandwich manner. Note: each part is not according to the proportion
A method for the simultaneous quantification of illicit drugs on Euro banknotes, using an ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, was developed and validated. The method included cocaine, benzoylecgonine, MDMA, MDEA, MDA, methamphetamine, diacetylmorphine, 6-MAM, morphine and Δ(9)-THC. Drug residues were monitored and quantified via positive ESI mode using multiple reaction monitoring. Banknotes were extracted with methanol by vigorous shaking. Recovery rates were in the range of 60-80%. Calibration was performed with spiked banknotes in the range of 10-100 ng/note (R(2) 0.98-0.99). Intra-day analysis showed fair precision and accuracy (≤ 15%). Matrix effects were in the range from 27% to 235%. 7-15 samples of each denomination were analyzed. The calculated median values per note were 106 ng cocaine, 43 ng benzoylecgonine, 41 ng heroin, 15.5 ng 6-MAM, 16.5 ng morphine, 9 ng MDMA and 7 ng methamphetamine. Δ(9)-THC was detected on 4 banknotes. MDEA and MDA were not detected on any note. A widespread background contamination for cocaine and opiates was demonstrated.
Using two desorption/ionization techniques (DESI and EASI) and Brazilian real, US$ dollar, and euro bills as proof-of-principle techniques and samples, direct analysis by ambient mass spectrometry is shown to function as an instantaneous, reproducible, and non-destructive method for chemical analysis of banknotes. Characteristic chemical profiles were observed for the authentic bills and for the counterfeit bills made using different printing processes (inkjet, laserjet, phaser and off-set printers). Detection of real-world counterfeit bills and identification of the counterfeiting method has also been demonstrated. Chemically selective 2D imaging of banknotes has also been used to confirm counterfeiting. The nature of some key diagnostic ions has also been investigated via high accuracy FTMS measurements. The general applicability of ambient MS analysis for anti-counterfeiting strategies particularly via the use of "invisible ink" markers is discussed.
Tropane alkaloids like atropine are antidotes applied against organophosphorus intoxications. Atropine is toxic itself and should be closely monitored during treatment. Hence, simple, fast, and sensitive determination methods for tropane alkaloids in serum are desirable. Mostly adopted methods of analysis are gas chromatography (GC); high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE). Various liquid and solid capillary fillings used in micellar electrokinetic chromatography, microemulsion electrokinetic chromatography, capillary electrochromatography, and enantioseparation provide high versatility to CE applications. In HPLC, specialised columns enhance separation efficacy. Ultraviolet light detection is common practise, but recently sensitivity and analyte identification were enhanced by coupling GC, HPLC, and CE to mass spectrometry. Apart from medical treatment, tropane alkaloids, cocaine in particular, are abused with various intentions. Forensic analysis of tropane alkaloids and their metabolites comprises the additional difficulty of unequivocal drug identification. Because of severe legal consequences, sophisticated analytical methods were developed and may provide additional techniques for therapeutic drug monitoring. Examples from forensic cocaine analysis and from doping analysis are included in this review.
The ability to thermally desorb directly particulate matter, trapped on filter meshes, into the atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation source of a tandem mass spectrometer allowed the simultaneous detection of a range of controlled substances within complex matrices with a high degree of confidence. Dust samples were collected from bundles of banknotes using simple apparatus attached to a portable vacuum cleaner. This technique was employed without additional clean-up procedures, rendering the overall method extremely rapid. The intensities recorded for characteristic gas phase ion transitions allow the determination of the amounts of contaminants present. It has been reported that a significant proportion of bundles of banknotes are contaminated with cocaine. This study found that cocaine and heroin (and two related opiates) were present above the detection threshold on UK banknotes from general circulation. Differences in both the frequency and degree of contamination were apparent between bundles of banknotes from general circulation and those suspected of being associated with the trafficking of drugs. In addition, a significant number of bundles of banknotes, confiscated by H.M. Customs and Excise, were found to be contaminated with detectable levels of tetrahydrocannabinol and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine.
In the Section 'Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology' of the Swiss Society of Legal Medicine the group 'Forensic Chemistry' deals with the analysis of drugs of abuse. Some of the toxicology laboratories of the Swiss Institutes of Forensic Medicine also work in this field. The group organizes
its own proficiency tests for heroin, cocaine, THC, and amphetamine/designer drugs. Statistics about the percentages of heroin and cocaine in all drugs of abuse seizures analyzed in the Swiss laboratories are published on a yearly basis as an aid to the police or the public prosecutor service.
Members of the Group have prepared, by order and together with the Swiss Accreditation Service (metas), Guidelines for the accreditation of the laboratories performing drug of abuse testing. Laboratories which are equipped with an ion mobility spectrometer perform the analysis of trace
amounts of heroin and cocaine on hands, hair, nails, clothes and other materials (e.g. bank notes).
The exchange of illicit cocaine for money by drug dealers is an everyday occurrence in cities in the United States. There is ample opportunity during the exchange, storage, and use of cocaine for paper currency to become contaminated. Because currency is exchanged frequently, it is likely that contaminated currency would be found in common use. We examined ten single dollar bills from several cities in the United States for the presence of cocaine. Individual bills were extracted with methanol (10 mL). Cocaine was purified from the methanol extract by solid-phase extraction (SPE). The SPE extract was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Standard curves were constructed with new, uncirculated currency. Cocaine was identified qualitatively by full scan and quantitated by selected ion monitoring. Cocaine was present in 79% of the currency samples analyzed in amounts above 0.1 micrograms and in 54% of the currency in amounts above 1.0 micrograms. Contamination was widespread and was found in currency from all sites examined. Cocaine amounts were highly variable and ranged from nanogram to milligram amounts. The highest amount of cocaine detected on a single one-dollar bill was 1327 micrograms. These results indicated that cocaine contamination of currency is widespread throughout the United States and is likely to be primarily a result of cross-contamination from other contaminated currency and from contaminated money-counting machines.
A surprising number of banknotes in general circulation in North America and the United Kingdom carry traces of cocaine and other illicit drugs. Can analytical chemists differentiate 'drug money' from innocent money? Richard Sleeman and Fletcher Burton of Mass Spec Analytical; Jim Carter and Dave Roberts of the University of Bristol; and Peter Hulmston of the Nottinghamshire Constabulary (all in the United Kingdom) discuss methods for analyzing illegal drugs on money, showing that concentration levels do vary as they get closer to the 'source'.
The presence of cocaine on U.S. paper currency collected in many cities in the United States has previously been reported. Currency becomes contaminated during the exchange, storage and use of cocaine. Different currency denominations are also rolled by drug users and used to snort cocaine. Illicit cocaine is widely abused and therefore the contaminated paper currency can be easily found in common use. A total of 18 bills were analyzed in our laboratory for cocaine. Ten 1 bills in Chicago. An additional four uncirculated 20 bills were contaminated with cocaine and the amount of drug varied from 0.14 to 10.02 μg of cocaine per bill (x̄ = 2.86 μg). Only one 1 bill), only traces (below quantitation limit) of cocaine were found. All four uncirculated $1 bills were cocaine-free.
Currency is often seized in drug investigations and increasingly under Section 312 of the Criminal Code, Possession of Property Obtained By Crime. Analysis for cocaine on seized currency could provide important evidence when compared to representative or background currency samples from the offence area. In this study samples obtained from the Bank of Canada in Regina, Saskatchewan, were analyzed quantitatively by gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection or gas chromatography/mass frag- mentography (GC/MF). Cocaine was present at background levels of less than 10 nanograms per note. In comparison, case samples were grossly contaminated with cocaine in the range from 50 to over 1000 times the background levels determined for Sasktachewan.
The determination of a trace amount of cocaine on a bank note is helpful to convict cases of drug abuse. An extremely sensitive gas chromatographic (GC)-positive-ion chemical ionization (PCI) mass spectrometric (MS) method has been developed to identify and quantitatively determine amounts of cocaine particles as low as 1 ng on a U.S. bank note. The detection limit for identification with GC-PCI scan mass spectrometry was found to be 50 ng/ml. With quantitative analysis by GC-PCI selective-ion monitoring at mlz 304 a detection limit of 0.5 ng/ml can be reached with a signal-to-noise ratio >5. The quantitation limit is set at 1 ng/ml. Halazepam is used as internal standard for quantitative analysis.
The forensic analysis of cocaine on currencies was optimized using a fractional, two-level experimental design that compared methanol and HCl extraction, SPE versus heptane pre-concentration, and extracted versus total ion chromatography. Subsequent student-initiated questions about levels of cocaine on U.S. and world currencies helped make connections to societal issues while teaching method optimization and chromatography. A significant correlation was found between the levels of cocaine and the age of the bills. Levels of cocaine on various world currencies followed expected drug-trafficking patterns with the highest levels found in the most developed countries. Keywords (Audience): Second-Year Undergraduate
In the war on illegal drugs, it is important to distinguish “drug” money from “innocent” money
Tandem mass spectrometry is used to monitor the contamination of banknotes by cocaine. By introducing a series of banknotes into an instrument a distribution of contamination can be obtained. The distribution of samples arising from defendants where the banknotes have been in close proximity to cocaine should differ from the distribution from the general background population. Peak picking and integration is used to produce a series of intensity readings for a batch of banknotes. By visually inspecting these distribution, and applying a variety of chemometric methods (principal components analysis, cluster analysis and class modelling via Mahalanobis distance) it is possible to discriminate effectively between the two classes of distribution (7157 background notes and 4826 case notes alleged to be from drug dealers). By calculating the Mahalonobis distance over 100 bootstrap iterations, background samples were correctly classified 96.48% of the time, while case samples were correctly classified 89.37% of the time.
La recherche et l'identification de traces de stupéfiants sur des billets de banque peut être réalisée de manière rapide et efficace. Les billets à analyser sont lavés par 500 µL d'éthanol absolu, qui permet l'extraction des drogues éventuellement présentes. L'analyse est réalisée en chromatographie en phase gazeuse (CPG) couplée à un spectromètre de masse (SM). Généralement, l'ion moléculaire est recherché ainsi que trois ions de confirmation pour chaque molécule, si nécessaire par extraction d'ions spécifiques. L'étalon interne utilisé est le tétracosane. Les blancs échantillons ont montré l'absence de traces sur le matériel et les solvants. Cette technique a été appliquée à la recherche de traces de stupéfiants sur des billets en circulation générale, ainsi que sur des billets de banque issus de saisies. Pour les billets issus de la circulation générale, les analyses de 62 échantillons ont montré la présence d'ultra traces (extraction d'ion spécifique nécessaire) de cocaïne sur 19 cas (soit 31 %), et aucune trace ou ultra-trace d'autres substances stupéfiantes. Pour les billets issus de saisies de stupéfiants, 90 % d'entre eux présentaient des traces significatives (extraction d'ions non nécessaire) de stupéfiants. Parmi cette proportion, 27,5 % présentaient des traces d'héroïne, 20 % des traces de Δ-9tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), et 75 % des traces de cocaïne, plusieurs substances pouvant être présentes simultanément. On relève donc effectivement la présence d'un seul et unique stupéfiant : la cocaïne, sur les billets de banque en circulation courante, mais en concentrations bien moins importantes (ultra traces) que sur les billets de saisie. La présence de traces significatives de cocaïne ou de traces d'autres stupéfiants, tels l'héroïne ou le delta 9 tétrahydrocannabinol, ou de plusieurs stupéfiants différents, sur des billets de saisie signe leur utilisation dans le cadre d'un réseau de trafic de stupéfiants. Tests to detect and identify drugs on banknotes can be carried out quickly and efficiently. Banknotes are washed with 500 µL of ethanol, allowing an efficient drug extraction. Analysis is conducted by a gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer. The molecular ion and three confirmation ions are looked for, with the use of single ion monitoring if necessary. Internal standard is tetracosane. Blanks have shown the absence of drugs of abuse in solvents and equipments. This technique has been carried out on banknotes taken from the general circulation, and on banknotes seized within trafficking drugs of abuse. In one hand, analysis of 62 general circulation banknotes have shown ultra traces (single ion monitoring was necessary) of cocaine on 19 notes (31 %), but no traces or ultra traces of other drugs. On the other hand, 90 % of seizure banknotes shown significant drug amount (single ion monitoring was not necessary). Over this proportion, 27,5 % were contaminated with heroin, 20 % with Δ-9tetrahydrocannabinol, and 75 % with cocaine (several drugs were sometimes simultaneously present). General circulation banknotes are contaminated with only one drug : cocaine, but quantities were lower (ultra traces) than for seizure notes. The detection on notes of significant traces of drugs must be regarded as being involved in drug traffic network.
It is known that US paper currency in the general circulation is contaminated with cocaine. Several mechanisms have been offered to explain this finding, including contamination due to handling during drug deals and the use of rolled up bills for snorting. Drug is then transferred from one contaminated bill to others during counting in financial institutions. The possibility of contamination of currency with other drugs has not been reported. In this study, the author reports the analysis of 10 randomly collected US 1 bills analyzed. This study demonstrated that although paper currency was most often contaminated with cocaine, other drugs of abuse may be detected in bills.
Bundles of paper, similar to sterling banknotes, were counted in banks in England and Wales. Subsequent analysis showed that the counting process, both by machine and by hand, transferred nanogram amounts of cocaine to the paper. Crystalline material, similar to cocaine hydrochloride, could be observed on the surface of the paper following counting. The geographical distribution of contamination broadly followed Government statistics for cocaine usage within the UK. Diacetylmorphine, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA) were not detected during this study.
A non-destructive, fast and environmentally friendly procedure has been developed for cocaine determination in euro bank notes. Cocaine was extracted with 15 ml methanol by vortex agitation during 5 min. The extract was evaporated and reconstituted in 0.5 ml methanol. GC-MS-MS analysis was performed using as precursor ion m/z 182.2, with an excitation energy voltage of 1.60 eV, being the product ions measured m/z 150.2 and 82.0. A limit of detection of 0.15 ng per note and a repeatability of 6%, established from the relative standard deviation, of a 1 ng ml(-1) level, were achieved. Recoveries of 101+/-2 and 98+/-3% were obtained for samples spiked with 100 and 10 microg respectively. Results show that all the euro bank notes measured (16 samples) were contaminated with cocaine in the range between 1.25 and 889 microg. Two different contamination levels, high level (150-889 microg) and low one (1.25-77 microg) were found and it could be related with the direct or indirect contact with the drug.
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) with Ru(bpy)3(2+) electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection system was established to the determination of contamination of banknotes with controlled drugs and a high efficiency on-column field-amplified sample stacking (FASS) technique was also optimized to increase the ECL intensity. The method was illustrated using heroin and cocaine, which are two typical and popular illicit drugs. Highest sample stacking was obtained when 0.01 mM acetic acid was chosen for sample dissolution with electrokinetical injection for 6 s at 17 kV. Under the optimized conditions: ECL detection at 1.2 V, separation voltage 10.0 kV, 20 mM phosphate-acetate (pH 7.2) as running buffer, 5 mM Ru(bpy)3(2+) with 50 mM phosphate-acetate (pH 7.2) in the detection cell, the standard curves were linear in the range of 7.50x10(-8) to 1.00x10(-5) M for heroin and 2.50x10(-7) to 1.00x10(-4) M for cocaine and detection limits of 50 nM for heroin and 60 nM for cocaine were achieved (S/N = 3), respectively. Relative standard derivations of the ECL intensity and the migration time were 3.50 and 0.51% for heroin and 4.44 and 0.12% for cocaine, respectively. The developed method was successfully applied to the determination of heroin and cocaine on illicit drug contaminated banknotes without any damage of the paper currency. A baseline resolution for heroin and cocaine was achieved within 6 min.
Bank of England banknotes sampled from different locations in the UK have been analysed for the presence of cocaine, diamorphine (DAM), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). A database of the contamination detected is routinely used as a benchmark against which the contamination detected on seized banknotes can be compared. Evidence presented at court details how banknotes seized from a suspect may differ from banknotes in general circulation in terms of their contamination with controlled drugs. A question arising from such evidence is whether seized banknotes could have become contaminated through being in circulation in drug “hot spots”. In order to address this issue, a Plackett–Burman experimental design was used to investigate the influence of source location and other factors on banknote contamination with drugs of abuse.
The first coupling of atmospheric pressure ionization methods, electrospray ionization (ESI) and desorption electrospray ionization (DESI), to a miniature hand-held mass spectrometer is reported. The instrument employs a rectilinear ion trap (RIT) mass analyzer and is battery-operated, hand-portable, and rugged (total system: 10 kg, 0.014 m(3), 75 W power consumption). The mass spectrometer was fitted with an atmospheric inlet, consisting of a 10 cm x 127 microm inner diameter stainless steel capillary tube which was used to introduce gas into the vacuum chamber at 13 mL/min. The operating pressure was 15 mTorr. Ions, generated by the atmospheric pressure ion source, were directed by the inlet along the axis of the ion trap, entering through an aperture in the dc-biased end plate, which was also operated as an ion gate. ESI and DESI sources were used to generate ions; ESI-MS analysis of an aqueous mixture of drugs yielded detection limits in the low parts-per-billion range. Signal response was linear over more than 3 orders of magnitude. Tandem mass spectrometry experiments were used to identify components of this mixture. ESI was also applied to the analysis of peptides and in this case multiply charged species were observed for compounds of molecular weight up to 1200 Da. Cocaine samples deposited or already present on different surfaces, including currency, were rapidly analyzed in situ by DESI. A geometry-independent version of the DESI ion source was also coupled to the miniature mass spectrometer. These results demonstrate that atmospheric pressure ionization can be implemented on simple portable mass spectrometry systems.
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