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The persuasive effect of graphics in computer-mediated communication
Abstract
This study, an investigation of the persuasive effect of presentation graphics, provides a conceptual and empirical link between persuasive effect and computer-generated graphics as a form of computer-mediated communication. Testing of four hypotheses that examine differences in persuasive effect among three treatments (written text, static graphics, and dynamic graphics) provides the empirical link between graphics as a decision support tool and persuasive effect. Implications of these differences are discussed.
... Other aspects of gaze do influence others' various behaviors (such as turn taking), but little else is known about attitude change or its antecedents as far as facial expressions are concerned. In research on the effect of graphics on persuasion in CMC, altogether aside from facial affect, some evidence exists that even simple graphics accompanying a verbal message achieve greater social influence than a verbal message alone (King, Dent, & Miles, 1991). ...
Emoticons are graphic representations of facial expressions that many e-mail users embed in their messages. These symbols are widely known and commonly recognized among computer-mediated communication (CMC) users, and they are described by most observers as substituting for the nonverbal cues that are missing from CMC in comparison to face-to-face communication. Their empirical impacts, however, are undocumented. An experiment sought to determine the effects of three common emoticons on message interpretations. Hypotheses drawn from literature on nonverbal communication reflect several plausible relationships between emoticons and verbal messages. The results indicate that emoticons' contributions were outweighed by verbal content, but a negativity effect appeared such that any negative message aspect-verbal or graphic-shifts message interpretation in the direction of the negative element.
... A couple of studies have reported the positive effects of dynamic computer-generated graphics presentation (vs. text-only treatment) on persuasion (King, Dent, & Miles, 1991) and on participation in computer-mediated small-group discussion (Ahern, 1993). Nevertheless, neither study addressed how the representation of communicator, as opposed to the message itself, alters a recipient's reaction to persuasive attempts. ...
Two experiments addressed the questions of if and how normative social influence operates in anonymous computer-mediated communication (CMC) and human-computer interaction (HCI). In Experiment 1, a 2 (public response vs. private response) × 2 (one interactant vs. four interactants) × 3 (textbox vs. stick figure vs. animated character) mixed-design experiment (N = 72), we investigated how conformity pressure operates in a simulated CMC setting. Each participant was asked to make a decision in hypothetical social dilemmas after being presented with a unanimous opinion by other (ostensible) participants. The experiment examined how the visual representation of interaction partners on the screen moderates this social influence process. Group conformity effects were shown to be more salient when the participant's responses were allegedly seen by others, compared to when the responses were given in private. In addition, participants attributed greater competence, social attractiveness, and trustworthiness to partners represented by anthropomorphic characters than those represented by textboxes or stick figures. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1, replacing interaction with a computer(s) rather than (ostensible) people, to create an interaction setting in which no normative pressure was expected to occur. The perception of interaction partner (human vs. computer) moderated the group conformity effect such that people expressed greater public agreement with human partners than with computers. No such difference was found for the private expression of opinion. As expected, the number of computer agents did not affect participants' opinions whether the responses were given in private or in public, while visual representation had a significant impact on both conformity measures and source perception variables.
... The aim of using the change management in information security awareness is to ensure that security awareness initiative objectives are met, as well as followed within the organization [20]. Therefore, the abilities of the persuasive technology to combine data with graphics, animation, audio, video, simulation, or hyperlinked content create the optimum persuasive impact that match people's preferences [21] that is vital for use in Change management approach. ...
Persuasion is part and parcel of human interaction. The human persuaders in
society have been always exit, masters of rhetoric skilled of changing our
minds, or at least our behaviors. Leaders, mothers, salesmen, and teachers are
clear examples of persuaders. Persuaders often turn to technology and digital
media to amplify their persuasive ends. Besides, our lives and how we lead them
influenced by technologies and digital media,but for the most part, their
effects on our attitudes and behaviors have been incidental, even accidental.
Although, nowadays, the use of computers to sell products and services
considered as the most frequent application of persuasive technology. In this
short paper, based on an extensive review of literatures, we aim to give a
brief introduction to persuasive technology, and how it can play a role and
contribute to enhance and deliver the best practice of IT. Some challenges of
persuasive technology have been discussed. At the end, some recommendations and
steps should be taken place to empower IT professional practices have been
listed.
... Literature suggests that realism is the most important factor herein (e.g. King et al. 1991, Walther et al. 2001). The so-called personaeffect postulates that the visual presence of an animated pedagogical agent in a learning environment promotes students' positive perception of the learning experience and learning because it is perceived as more socially engaging and interesting than other attention directing and information dispensing device (e.g. ...
Internet users decide within seconds, whether to elaborate on a website, or to go on to a new page. This calls for investigation of the factors influencing this decision. In two studies, we presented websites for 3 s and analysed the effect implementation of Gestalt principles (GPs) and visualisation of an interaction partner has on acceptance, recommendation of the site by the user, and social presence. Study 1 implemented a 3 (Gestalt principle of proximity: no, medium and strong implementation) × 3 (Gestalt principle of a common region: no, medium and strong implementation) – design and found more acceptance and recommendation with more GPs used. Study 2, using a 2 (GPs: implemented and not implemented) × 3 (visualisation: no, drawing and photograph) – design, showed more social presence with more realistic visualisation and more recommendation with higher social presence. Thus, GPs and realistic visualisation should be implemented in web design to intensify interaction with the user.
... Literature suggests that realism is the most important factor herein (e.g. King et al. 1991, Walther et al. 2001). The so-called personaeffect postulates that the visual presence of an animated pedagogical agent in a learning environment promotes students' positive perception of the learning experience and learning because it is perceived as more socially engaging and interesting than other attention directing and information dispensing device (e.g. ...
Internet users decide within seconds, whether to elaborate on a website, or to go on to a new page. This calls for investigation of the factors influencing this decision. In two studies, we presented websites for 3 s and analysed the effect implementation of Gestalt principles (GPs) and visualisation of an interaction partner has on acceptance, recommendation of the site by the user, and social presence. Study 1 implemented a 3 (Gestalt principle of proximity: no, medium and strong implementation) × 3 (Gestalt principle of a common region: no, medium and strong implementation) – design and found more acceptance and recommendation with more GPs used. Study 2, using a 2 (GPs: implemented and not implemented) × 3 (visualisation: no, drawing and photograph) – design, showed more social presence with more realistic visualisation and more recommendation with higher social presence. Thus, GPs and realistic visualisation should be implemented in web design to intensify interaction with the user.
... Enhanced graphical presentation can act as a means of persuasion [46]. More specifically, King et al. [34] found that graphic presentation was more persuasive than text-only messages. Also, Carswell et al. [8] found that subject attitudes were positively affected by 3-D images as compared to 2-D images. ...
CLWMC02In this paper, we set forth a program of research for identifying the pertinent issues that are affecting the adoption and use of mobile electronic commerce applications and collaborative mobile technologies. The primary vehicle for understanding these issues is the observation and analysis of how different cultures utilize these emerging technologies. For example, why is short message service (SMS) messaging so popular in Europe but barely used in the US? A review of the existing and near-future technologies is provided, along with the differences in national infrastructure as well as culture. The roles of cognitive fit and technology acceptance model (TAM) in addressing these questions are reviewed, along with other relevant literature. Finally, a listing of research questions and a research plan for testing them is detailed. While no research on this plan has yet been conducted by the authors in time for the press deadline, it is hoped that some studies will have been completed and analyzed to the point where preliminary findings can be shared with the conference audience at HICSS itself.
... Other aspects of gaze do influence others' various behaviors (such as turn taking), but little else is known about attitude change or its antecedents as far as facial expressions are concerned. In research on the effect of graphics on persuasion in CMC, altogether aside from facial affect, some evidence exists that even simple graphics accompanying a verbal message achieve greater social influence than a verbal message alone (King, Dent, & Miles, 1991). If we assume that the exhibition of a facial expression signals the communicator's affective attitude toward an object and that social influence should result in the receiver's attitude taking the same direction as the sender's, tentative hypotheses may be posited for facial expressions in social influence. ...
Emoticons are graphic representations of facial expressions that many e-mail users embed in their messages. These symbols are widely known and commonly recognized among computer-mediated communication (CMC) users, and they are described by most observers as substituting for the nonverbal cues that are missing from CMC in comparison to face-to-face communication. Their empirical impacts, however, are undocumented. An experiment sought to determine the effects of three common emoticons on message interpretations. Hypotheses drawn from literature on nonverbal communication reflect several plausible relationships between emoticons and verbal messages. The results indicate that emoticons’ contributions were outweighed by verbal content, but a negativity effect appeared such that any negative message aspect—verbal or graphic—shifts message interpretation in the direction of the negative element.
... Enhanced graphical presentation can act as a means of persuasion [46]. More specifically, King et al. [34] found that graphic presentation was more persuasive than text-only messages. Also, Carswell et al. [8] found that subject attitudes were positively affected by 3-D images as compared to 2-D images. ...
Sets forth a program of research for identifying the pertinent issues that are affecting the adoption and use of mobile electronic commerce applications and collaborative mobile technologies. The primary vehicle for understanding these issues is the observation and analysis of how different cultures utilize these emerging technologies. For example, why is short message service (SMS) messaging so popular in Europe but barely used in the USA? A review of the existing and near-future technologies is provided, along with the differences in national infrastructure as well as culture. The roles of cognitive fit and the technology acceptance model (TAM) in addressing these questions are reviewed, along with other relevant literature. Finally, a listing of research questions and a research plan for testing them is detailed.
Despite the potential of online spaces for the democratic development of public discourse, concerns over aggressive and uncivil interactions in those spaces are rising. Online incivility is the term to define the features of a discussion that convey an unnecessarily disrespectful tone toward the participants or the topic. Concerning the adverse impact of online incivility on users, we sought to explore ways to reduce online incivility to promote secure and trustworthy online debate culture. Meanwhile, the web is becoming increasingly multimodal and images are known to be an effective way of improving emotions. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions generated by positive images can impact incivility levels. Hence, with the goal to reduce online incivility, we conducted a one factorial between-subject online experiment with three conditions (N = 105). We compared the three conditions (with a positive background image in color, a positive background image in grayscale, and no background image) to identify an efficient way of reducing online incivility. The data gathered from surveys and participants' online comments were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed to answer the research questions. The results showed that not only positive backgrounds in color but also positive backgrounds in grayscale may be effective in reducing online incivility. The results will pave way for designing more civil discussion platforms in online settings.
The visualization of information is a widely used tool to improve comprehension and, ultimately, decision-making in strategic management decisions as well as in a diverse array of other domains. Across social science research, many findings have supported this rationale. However, empirical results vary significantly in terms of the variables and mechanisms studied as well as their resulting conclusion. Despite the ubiquity of information visualization with modern software, there is little effort to create a comprehensive understanding of the powers and limitations of its use. The purpose of this article is therefore to review, systematize, and integrate extant research on the effects of information visualization on decision-making and to provide a future research agenda with a particular focus on the context of strategic management decisions. The study shows that information visualization can improve decision quality as well as speed, with more mixed effects on other variables, for instance, decision confidence. Several moderators such as user and task characteristics have been investigated as part of this interaction, along with cognitive aspects as mediating processes. The article presents integrative insights based on research spanning multiple domains across the social and information sciences and provides impulses for prospective applications in the realm of managerial decision-making.
Graphs have become a fixture of everyday life, used in scientific and business publications, in magazines and newspapers, on television, on billboards, and even on cereal boxes. Nonetheless, surprisingly few graphs communicate effectively, and most graphs fail because they do not take into account the goals, needs, and abilities of the viewers. This book addresses these problems by presenting eight psychological principles for constructing effective graphs. Each principle is solidly rooted both in the scientific literature on how we perceive and comprehend graphs and in general facts about how our eyes and brains process visual information. The author uses these eight psychological principles as the basis for hundreds of specific recommendations that serve as a concrete, step-by-step guide to deciding whether a graph is an appropriate display to use, choosing the correct type of graph for a specific type of data and message, and then constructing graphs that will be understood at a glance. The book includes a complete review of the scientific literature on graph perception and comprehension, appendices that provide a quick tutorial on basic statistics, and a checklist for evaluating computer-graphics programs.
The impact of adolescent smoking cessation clinics has been disappointing due to low participation rates, high attrition, and low quit rates. This paper describes two computerized self-help adolescent smoking cessation intervention programs: 1) a program utilizing the expert system which is based on the transtheoretical model of change and 2) a popular action-oriented smoking cessation clinic program for teens which was modified for computer presentation. High participation rates in the program among 132 smokers demonstrate the high feasibility and acceptability of the programs. Quit rates of up to 20% were observed during the intervention, and an additional 30% made unsuccessful quit attempt(s). The 6-month follow-up findings indicated that adolescents were poorly prepared to maintain abstinence.
Can computers change what you think and do? Can they motivate you to stop smoking, persuade you to buy insurance, or convince you to join the Army? "Yes, they can," says Dr. B.J. Fogg, director of the Persuasive Technology Lab at Stanford University. Fogg has coined the phrase "Captology"(an acronym for computers as persuasive technologies) to capture the domain of research, design, and applications of persuasive computers.In this thought-provoking book, based on nine years of research in captology, Dr. Fogg reveals how Web sites, software applications, and mobile devices can be used to change peoples attitudes and behavior. Technology designers, marketers, researchers, consumers-anyone who wants to leverage or simply understand the persuasive power of interactive technology-will appreciate the compelling insights and illuminating examples found inside. Persuasive technology can be controversial-and it should be. Who will wield this power of digital influence? And to what end? Now is the time to survey the issues and explore the principles of persuasive technology, and B.J. Fogg has written this book to be your guide.
Two experiments addressed the questions of if and how normative social influence operates in anonymous computer-mediated communication (CMC) and human-computer interaction (HCI). In Experiment 1, a 2 (public response vs. private response) × 2 (one interactant vs. four interactants) × 3 (textbox vs. stick figure vs. animated character) mixed-design experiment (N = 72), we investigated how conformity pressure operates in a simulated CMC setting. Each participant was asked to make a decision in hypothetical social dilemmas after being presented with a unanimous opinion by other (ostensible) participants. The experiment examined how the visual representation of interaction partners on the screen moderates this social influence process. Group conformity effects were shown to be more salient when the participant's responses were allegedly seen by others, compared to when the responses were given in private. In addition, participants attributed greater competence, social attractiveness, and trustworthiness to partners represented by anthropomorphic characters than those represented by textboxes or stick figures. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1, replacing interaction with a computer(s) rather than (ostensible) people, to create an interaction setting in which no normative pressure was expected to occur. The perception of interaction partner (human vs. computer) moderated the group conformity effect such that people expressed greater public agreement with human partners than with computers. No such difference was found for the private expression of opinion. As expected, the number of computer agents did not affect participants' opinions whether the responses were given in private or in public, while visual representation had a significant impact on both conformity measures and source perception variables.
More powerful computers and affordable digital-video equipment means that desktop-video editing is now accessible and popular. In two experiments, we investigated whether seeing fake-video evidence, or simply being told that video evidence exists, could lead people to believe they committed an act they never did. Subjects completed a computerized gambling task, and when they returned later the same day, we falsely accused them of cheating on the task. All of the subjects were told that incriminating video evidence existed, and half were also exposed to a fake video. See-video subjects were more likely to confess without resistance, and to internalize the act than told-video subjects, and see-video subjects tended to confabulate details more often than told-video subjects. We offer a metacognitive-based account of our results. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Most research on information presentation is based on the rational approach to display design. This approach assumes that the quality of displays is determined by their relative efficacy to provide the relevant information for the viewer, as assessed through variables such as response latency, accuracy, or decision quality. However, presentations often are intended to convince viewers and create desired impressions. These considerations may lead to the choice of displays that differ from those prescribed by the rational approach. Three experiments addressed the degree to which the presenter's objectives and the desirability of the presented information affect presenters' preferences for display formats. Presenters exhibited different preferences when they tried to create a favorable impression compared to when they tried to reach optimal decisions or provide information for optimal decision making by others. There was an increased use of depth in graphic displays when impressions were crucial, and this tendency was particularly strong when the presented information was undesirable for the presenter. The results demonstrate the importance of understanding the social circumstances of information presentation when evaluating the adequacy of display formats.
Research on the effect of distraction has produced conflicting results and competing theoretical explanations. Nonetheless, distraction has been cited as the process by which violations of conversational expectations influence the outcomes of persuasive communications. In this study, results from 38 studies examining distraction were subjected to meta‐analysis. The results indicate it is necessary to distinguish between communication relevant distraction (produced by behaviors of the source) and communication irrelevant distractors. The former, including violations of conversational expectations, produce attitude change via source valence effects, while the latter, in general, reduce attitude change by reducing message comprehension. The counterarguing hypothesis receives little support, though questions concerning counterargument measures suggest that it may not have been put to a fair test. The type of communication irrelevant distraction influences the reduction in attitude change perhaps due to the cognitive load required to overcome the distraction. Overall, the effect of communication irrelevant distraction on attitude change is moderate at best.
The new technology of computer graphics makes it possible to create images on the screen that literally appear to pop out into the room. This is accomplished by creating separate images for the left and right eye and filtering them so that each eye receives the appropriate image. In the context of a scattergram, the binocular disparity information is interpreted by the brain as the z axis of a three dimensional x-y-z scattergram. In this article a convenient anaglyph method of accomplishing this on a standard IBM PC is presented. Also, a multi-color method using polarized projection is described and tested. The effectiveness of stereoscopic presentations is investigated within the context of managerial decision-making problems. When used to present continuous data in an x-y-z scattergram, the stereoscopic presentation resulted in greater accuracy and faster answers. However, when used with 3-D block diagrams to present semi-discrete data of the type usually presented by crosstab tables, the technique was less successful than a conventional crosstab presentation.
Most business communication textbooks limit their treatments of persuasion to the classical rhetorical model, motive-goal theories, and psychological organizational structures. Suggesting the need to integrate contemporary persuasion theory into the business communication literature, the author synthesizes a wide range of persuasion theories and relevant research using four theoretical approaches: learning theory, consistency theory, perceptual theory, and functional theory. Where appropriate, the author suggests practical implications of these theories to business communication.
In the information age the use of computer technology has and will increasingly change the way communication occurs in organizations. In this article, we setforth an Integrative Model of Information Systems and Organizational Communication. Based on this model, we discuss the communication implications offour computer-based systems: (a) Electronic Messaging Systems (EMS), (b) Executive Information Systems (EIS), (c) Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS), and (d) Executive Presentation Systems (EPS). The major purpose of this article is to provide an overview of these systems and, through a series of propositions, to examine the potential impact of these computerized systems upon the traditional areas of organizational communication.
Within the last ten years the use of experimental methodology in information systems (IS) research has substantially increased. However, despite our experience with experimentation, studies continue to suffer from methodological problems. These problems have led to an accumulation of conflicting results in several areas of IS research. Moreover, future research studies will keep producing contradictory results unless researchers begin to answer questions of task and measurement validity before reporting their experimental findings. This article discusses common methodological problems in experimental IS studies and, through a description of a series of graphics experiments at the University of Minnesota, illustrates the particularly acute problem of low internal validity. Suggestions are offered to experimental IS researchers on how some of these common problems can be alleviated or even avoided, particularly in studies on the use of managerial graphics.
This article reports the development of an instrument to measure the perceptions of fairness or equity experienced by users in the context of allocation of information systems resources by the centralized MIS function. Literature in the area of equity and social justice is presented to identify the dimensions of equity relevant to the MIS environment. The article presents the results of data analysis on a cross-sectional survey conducted to refine and evaluate the instrument. Support for reliability and validity of the instrument is presented. Possible applications of the instrument are discussed in the concluding section.
Proponents of computer graphics foresee them having a dramatic impact on decision maker productivity. The availability of inexpensive graphic computer technology permits organizations to rely extensively on graphics for standard information presentations. Despite the claims of the proponents, however, there is little substantial evidence linking the use of graphics with increased management productivity and/or higher quality decisions. Moreover, the use of powerful graphics capabilities by end users, unskilled in graphics design, presents the likelihood that information presentations will suffer rather than improve as computer generated graphics grow in popularity. This article discusses typical and atypical applications of computer graphics for presenting business information. Existing evidence relating the use of graphics with improvements in user productivity is discussed. Much of the article is focused on computer graphics design within the organization including: who should do design, the conceptual foundations of good graphics design, and a set of guidelines and cautions applicable to the design of quality graphics. The article concludes with a list of suggested research topics.
This study investigated the role of importance, novelty, and plausibility of message information in producing belief change. Participants in the study were 224 university students who read messages that were either high or low in importance, novelty, and plausibility. The results demonstrated that significant belief change only occurred when message information was high in importance, novelty, and plausibility.
The importance of effective training in ensuring the success of end-user computing (EUC) has been emphasized by several researchers in information systems. A vast amount of evidence from research in related areas such as educational psychology suggests that individual differences, such as learning style, may affect users learning about a new EUC software package. This article reports the findings of a series of studies that examine the influence of a novice's learning style in learning typical EUC tools such as spreadsheets and electronic mail. A consistent pattern of findings emerges that indicates that learning modes is an important predictor of learning performance, both by itself and in interaction with training methods. The findings suggest that in the design of training, it is essential to match training methods to individual difference variables. Based on these findings, guidelines are recommended for IS professionals involved in EUC training and further research directions are discussed.
While businesses are investing enormous resources in information technology (IT), there is little evidence linking IT investment to organizational performance. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to increase understanding of the basis for IT investment in firms. Six mini case studies of companies in five different industries address questions of how they define IT for the purpose of determining the level of investment, how they track IT investments, and what other factors influence IT investment decisions. Each organization uses a different definition of IT, but there appears to be an overall trend to broaden the definition. Although companies track IT investment with varying degrees of rigor, they appear to be generally moving toward centralized tracking of all IT investment. Political considerations are important and significantly impact investment decisions. In all cases, the effectiveness with which IT investment is converted to useful output is acknowledged to be affected by the implementation process, the culture of the organization, and the skill of management. Three major implications for practitioners responsible for IT investment are: the need to adopt a broad definition of IT and track it over time against a convenient base; the need to separate different types of investment and match them to appropriate organizational performance measures; and the need to take into account factors such as management commitment and previous experience with IT. The latter impacts the effectiveness with which the firm converts it investment into useful outputs.
299 undergraduates were exposed to either an easy- or difficult-to-understand persuasive message presented via the written, audiotaped, or videotaped modality. With difficult messages, both persuasion and comprehension of persuasive material were found to be greater when the message was written, compared to videotaped or audiotaped. With easy messages, persuasion was greatest for a videotaped message, moderate when audiotaped, and least when written, but comprehension was equivalent regardless of modality. The persuasion and comprehension findings, as well as results on other variables, are discussed within a framework that considers the effect of communication modality on the capacity for effective reception of information and on the tendency to yield to information. The communicator's nonverbal expressions of confidence, manipulated within audiotaped and videotaped conditions, did not affect opinions. Discussion focuses on the generalizability of the findings across message content.(35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Computer-generated graphics are becoming increasingly available to decision makers. Despite claims on the part of vendors that the use of graphics will improve decision speed and quality over traditional methods of data display, the available evidence is far from supportive. Initial studies show graphics to be no more effective in communicating information than tables. Correct interpretation of graphical displays appears to require training, which most users lack. Furthermore, there is evidence that those features that make a graph visually attractive—such as color, design complexity, and realism—may actually detract from accurate comprehension. This paper summarizes the literature dealing with the human use of graphics, develops several propositions based on persistent trends in the literature, and suggests directions for future research.
This article presents a review of the development of research on the persuasive effects of evidence. Focusing on research dealing with the impact of evidence on persuasive communication, this review makes three related arguments. First, past claims about the inconsistency in evidence research are largely mistaken when testimonial assertion evidence is involved; second, the conditions under which evidence should produce maximal effects can be understood by reference to Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model; finally, persuasive effects are surprisingly consistent across evidence types when careful comparison of operational definitions, rather than conclusions, is undertaken.
Three experiments explored the effects of computer-mediated communication on communication efficiency, participation, interpersonal behavior, and group choice. Groups of three members were asked to reach consensus on career choice problems; they communicated face-to-face and in simultaneous computer-mediated discussions or through computer mail. When groups were linked by computer, group members made fewer remarks than they did face-to-face and took longer to make their group decisions. Social equalization was higher in computer-mediated groups in that group members participated more equally in discussions. Computer-mediated groups also exhibited more uninhibited behavior—using strong and inflammatory expressions in interpersonal interactions. Decisions of computer-mediated groups shifted further away from the members' initial individual choices than group decisions which followed face-to-face discussions. We discuss the implications of these findings for extension of theories about group interaction and for analyses of the effects of Computers in organizations.
The impact of computer graphics on organizational effectiveness can be considerable. The cost of these benefits can also be substantial, both in system cost and in personnel investment. Most discussions of computer graphics technology are driven by technology rather than by applications. Most managers do not understand the technology, and most of the graphics literature is directed either at engineers or at persuading customers in general to purchase systems. This paper provides information for managers and system designers on the major application areas in computer graphics, and the technological alternatives appropriate to different applications.
A total of 840 junior and senior-level undergraduate business students particpated in three experiments that compared computer-generated graphical forms of data presentation to traditional tabular reports. The first experiment compared tables and bar charts for their effects on readability, interpretation accuracy, and decision making. No differences in interpretation accuracy or decision quality were observed for the two groups, although tabular reports were rated as "easier to read and understand" than graphical reports. The second experiment compared line plots to tables for their effects on interpretation accuracy and decision quality. Subjects with graphical reports outperformed those with tables. There were no meaningful differences in interpretation accuracy across treatment groups. The third experiment compared graphical and tabular reports for their ability to convey a "message" to the reader. Only in situations in which a vast amount of information was presented and relatively simple impressions were to be made, did subjects given graphs outperform those using tables.
This program of cumulative experiments indicates that generalized claims of superiority of graphic presentation are unsupported, at least for decision-related activities. In fact, the experiments suggest that the effectiveness of the data display format is largely a function of the characteristics of the task at hand, and that impressions gleaned from "one shot" studies of the effectiveness of the use of graphs may be nothing more than situationally dependent artifacts.
With the advent of effective psychiatric treatments, greater accuracy in psychiatric diagnosis has become a vital concern for psychiatric training, research, and patient care. The authors have adapted current computer diagnostic procedures in order to obtain highly accurate diagnosis while simplifying and shortening the process of information input and diagnostic output. Their program requires a minimum of the clinician's time and provides feedback during the diagnostic process when the clinician requires it. The authors believe that routine use of this computer diagnostic program will improve psychiatric training, research, and patient care.
A computer conducted patient interview for measuring symptomatic change was developed and pilot tested with 10 inpatients, 10 day care patients, and 10 outpatients. The interview is concerned with individualized target symptoms and a standardized symptom scale, the Hopkins Symptom Check List. Four repetitions of the interview are possible and a computer printout suitable for clinical use and summarizing all completed interviews for the patient is available immediately after each interview. Data, which are complete and standardized, are stored on magnetic tape in computer processable form for research analysis. Patients interact easily with the computer terminal and though reaction to the experiences is mixed, all patients were able to formulate and express their problems including painful personal material, in meaningful terms.
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