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“A general theory of crime” and patterns of crime in Nigeria: An exploration of methodological assumptions
Abstract
The general theory of crime proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) claims to be valid across time and space. That claim is assessed through an analysis of three categories of Nigerian crime — normal, political-economic, and riotous. Logical, empirical, and theoretical shortcomings in the theory are identified and discussed. Factually, many individuals who act imprudently (and criminally) in Nigeria do not seem to fit the low self-control characterization required under the theory. Logically and theoretically, unacknowledged value assumptions built into the theory undermine its claim to universality.
... People in both public and private life face severe challenges by the effort to live with and overcome discordant tendencies across the country. The federal formation of the country is colonial and remains the present ideological and political solution (Marenin and Reisig 1995). Nigeria has failed to establish "true federalism"; instead, it has fostered the political scramble for power among different ethnic groups. ...
... This event prepared Nigerians for the civil war that started in 1967 (Rotimi 1984); a war fought for racial or ethnic injustices more than anything else (see Akinwumi 2006). That war is far from being over because there are still social divisions by regions, birthplace and state of origin; ethnic affiliations; religious beliefs; ideological dogmas, and class distinctions (Marenin and Reisig 1995). ...
Piracy is a global crime which impedes the free movement of ships containing people and goods, with its attendant economic ramifications. The perpetrators are usually heavily armed, with sophisticated weapons to enable them to hijack a vessel or vessels and redirect them to their desired location for the payment of an expected ransom.
This paper thematically explores contemporary piracy in the African state of Nigeria, the Niger Delta and the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria is undeniably a rich country based on its economic, agricultural and population advantages, but criminal activities like piracy have been a significant disadvantage. Most of the piracy activities happening in Nigeria are mainly located in the Niger Delta region, the heart of Nigeria’s oil and gas exploration. Some of the unemployed youths of the region use piracy activities as a fightback against the so-called “resource control” embarked upon by the Federal Government of Nigeria, which disadvantages them.
... While self-control theory does not have a specific focus on gender, it has been argued men and women have different levels of self-control as a result of differential socialization (LaGrange & Silverman, 1999). While some scholars have critiqued self-control theory (Akers, 1991;Marenin & Reisig, 1995), an extensive number of studies have been devoted to the effects of self-control on crime, with most finding support for the theory (e.g., Piquero, Jennings, & Farrington, 2010;Pratt & Cullen, 2000). Indeed, lower levels of self-control have been shown to affect the perpetration of a variety of criminal behaviors, including violent and property crimes (Payne, Higgins, & Blackwell, 2010), digital piracy (Higgins, Wolfe, & Marcum, 2008;Moon, McCluskey, & McCluskey, 2010), and cyber deviance (Holt, Bossler, & May, 2012). ...
... The current study additionally examined predictors of cyberstalking perpetration and reveals that cyberstalking perpetration is yet another crime that is significantly affected by the perpetrator's levels of self-control. Though self-control theory has been met with considerable controversy (Akers, 1991;Marenin & Reisig, 1995), our study finds support for the theory in the context of cyberstalking perpetration. This is important; as it aligns with previous research that has found lower levels of self-control increased the risk of cyberstalking perpetration among high school students (Marcum et al., 2014). ...
Few studies have examined theoretical predictors of cyberstalking victimization and offending. The current study, guided by self-control theory and a feminist framework, analyzed predictors of cyberstalking victimization and offending among undergraduate college students (N = 662). College women were at increased risk of cyberstalking victimization, but were also more likely to report having engaged in cyberstalking perpetration. Higher levels of self-control reduced the likelihood of cyberstalking victimization and offending. While Greek life membership and holding adversarial heterosexual beliefs did not affect cyberstalking victimization and offending, gender stereotyping decreased the odds of experiencing cyberstalking victimization. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
... While self-control theory does not have a specific focus on gender, it has been argued men and women have different levels of self-control as a result of differential socialization (LaGrange & Silverman, 1999). While some scholars have critiqued self-control theory (Akers, 1991;Marenin & Reisig, 1995), an extensive number of studies have been devoted to the effects of self-control on crime, with most finding support for the theory (e.g., Piquero, Jennings, & Farrington, 2010;Pratt & Cullen, 2000). Indeed, lower levels of self-control have been shown to affect the perpetration of a variety of criminal behaviors, including violent and property crimes (Payne, Higgins, & Blackwell, 2010), digital piracy (Higgins, Wolfe, & Marcum, 2008;Moon, McCluskey, & McCluskey, 2010), and cyber deviance (Holt, Bossler, & May, 2012). ...
... The current study additionally examined predictors of cyberstalking perpetration and reveals that cyberstalking perpetration is yet another crime that is significantly affected by the perpetrator's levels of self-control. Though self-control theory has been met with considerable controversy (Akers, 1991;Marenin & Reisig, 1995), our study finds support for the theory in the context of cyberstalking perpetration. This is important; as it aligns with previous research that has found lower levels of self-control increased the risk of cyberstalking perpetration among high school students (Marcum et al., 2014). ...
Few studies have examined theoretical predictors of cyberstalking victimization and offending. The current study, guided by self-control theory and a feminist framework, analyzed predictors of cyberstalking victimization and offending among undergraduate college students ( N = 662). College women were at increased risk of cyberstalking victimization, but were also more likely to report having engaged in cyberstalking perpetration. Higher levels of self-control reduced the likelihood of cyberstalking victimization and offending. While Greek life membership and holding adversarial heterosexual beliefs did not affect cyberstalking victimization and offending, gender stereotyping decreased the odds of experiencing cyberstalking victimization. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
... Even with these specific issues hampering international testing of self-control, it is still unfortunate that only about 10 such studies exist (Cheung & Cheung, 2008;Kerley, Xu, & Sirisunyaluck, 2008;Özbay & Köksoy, 2009;Teevan & Dryburgh, 2000;Tittle & Botchkovar, 2005a;Tittle & Botchkovar, 2005b;Vazsonyi, Clifford-Wittekind, Belliston & Van Loh, 2004;Vazsonyi, Pickering, Junger, & Hessing, 2001). Moreover, of the cross-national studies that have been conducted, some are qualitative essays that argue why the theory is or is not a suitable explanation of that nation's unique criminal milieu (Marenin & Reisig, 1995;Moss, 1997). ...
... Among the international qualitative investigations of self-control, Marenin and Reisig (1995) point out that the theory is not particularly well-suited to explaining Nigerian crime because much of it requires planning and self-control focuses on impulsivity. Further, Moss (1997) argues that while self-control seems well-suited to explaining the low levels of violence among the Semai of Malaysia, the existence of low rates among this people group may be due to a conditioned fear response to violence and not an ability to control behavior. ...
While self-control theory continues to generate debate, one shortcoming of the literature is that the
perspective has only rarely been tested utilizing international data. Of the studies that have, the
theory receives support for its claim that it can explain crime cross-nationally. An additional gap in
the research is that scholars have largely ignored the fact that Hirschi (2004) revised the
conceptualization of low self-control to reflect a one-dimensional, social bond type measure. As far as
we know, this is the only test of the specific items that Hirschi stated make up the revised scale. In
this study, which relies on data collected in a large Chinese university, both the traditional Grasmick
et al. (1993) scale and Hirschi’s revised measure of self-control are tested. Results indicate that the
revision may be an important explanation of Chinese deviance. The implications of these findings are
discussed in terms of how the theory has been tested in both the U.S. and international settings.
... Crime for Gottfredson and Hirschi is not to be defined in strictly behavioral or legalistic terms because one and the same act may be criminal in some contexts and not in others (1990: 175). But research in Nigeria would point out that self-control theory does not travel well because it contains 'unacknowledged value assumptions' that 'undermine its claim to universality' (Marenin and Reisig, 1995: 501). There is also the interesting observation by Gottfredson and Hirschi that 'if a society defines an act as criminal, our definition should be able to comprehend the basis for that society's definition' (1990: 175). ...
... Whether behavior is criminal and condemned, or simply imprudent but admired is determined by social conventions and law. (Marenin and Reisig, 1995: 516) There are other perplexing aspects of this extension of Gottfredson and Hirschi's formulation beyond crime. For one thing, it totally neglects what, for a very large number of persons, at least in the US, represents the quintessential absence of self-control: overeating. ...
It is now approaching a decade since Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi promulgated what they called 'a general theory' of crime. This article scrutinizes the claims made by the theory as measured against the standards of science and the results of empirical inquiries into elements of the proposed theoretical construct.
... CPT is applied to analyse and address crime in communities by focusing on the spatial and temporal dynamics of criminal incidents. For example, research in Nigerian cities has highlighted how poorly lit areas and congested pedestrian routes can become hotspots for crimes like robbery and assault (Marenin & Reisig, 1995;Ekpo, 2019;Mohammed, & Musa, 2023). This theory informs urban planning and policing strategies aimed at enhancing environmental design, increasing surveillance, and strategically deploying resources to prevent and respond to criminal activities effectively. ...
This paper examines urban insecurity and the coping strategies of residents in the Benin metropolis. The main objective of the research is to determine insecurity challenges and coping strategies of residents in the Benin metropolitan area. The research adopted the survey method. A total of 384 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the residents in the study area. However, only 367 valid copies of the questionnaire were returned. The results of the analysis revealed that armed robbery was the most common crime incident in the study area with Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance value of 0.84 and a mean ranking of 1.16. The results further showed that Ikpoba-Okha Local Government Area (LGA) had the highest proportion of armed robbery cases (33.66%), car snatching (34.69%), and rape (38.6%) with a total crime incident of 106.95% (n=138) while Egor LGA had the highest proportion of burglary cases (37.97%). The study further revealed that the perception of respondents to crime incidents was high with a mean value of 4.04. Majority of the respondents (with Kendall’s Coefficient Concordance value of 0.66 (66%) and a mean ranking of 1.56) were of the view that the government should empower local vigilantes to combat crime in the area. The paper concluded with the recommendation that police patrol of the various neighbourhoods in the study area should be intensified and there should be an efficient channel of information gathering with utmost confidentiality between the informants and the respective agencies that are responsible for combating crime.
... Although ornamentation of pediments was noticed in some Afro-Brazillian buildings, the upsurge and expansion of their embellishments was proliferated by urban insecurity arising from the economic recession triggered by the 1970 concluded Biafra war (Marenin and Reisig, 1995;Osasona, 2006). The unemployment and poverty incited by the war, as well as the contrasting extravagance from sudden oil boom, cum Udoji welfarism award of 1975, resulted in high socio-economic fragmentation and larceny (Siollum, 2009;Osasona, ibid). ...
Pediments of domestic building are spaces for ornamentation inspired by the modern Yoruba culture of sealing up domestic buildings with gated fences. The erected fences often conceal ornamented buildings, thus preventing the showcasing of the beautiful embellishments on lower walls, in line with the institutionalized ostentation in Yoruba culture. The embellishment of pediments in Yorubaland, has not been treated with deserved importance despite the uniqueness of the forms, which leaves a gap in literature on this topic. This discourse examines and analyses the images on the pediments of domestic buildings, with the view to documenting the artistic embellishments and revealing the social-cultural significances of the presented forms. The study carried out in Osogbo metropolis, South-western Nigeria, utilized the ethnographic approach, with data derived mostly from primary sources. The paper submits that images on pediments send out information about the philosophies, religious and the socio-cultural affiliations of the owners of these sealed-up buildings to passers-by. It is also observed that although ornamented pediments beautify buildings, they are more of status symbols and are better appreciated from afar, thus enhancing the urban fabric in general.
... They lack any innate conscience which extends beyond them and must be socialized to morality. Whether the pursuit of self-interest leads to criminal or to legal and non-deviant acts (i.e., self-interest pursued without fraud or force) is determined by levels of self-control, opportunities to experience pleasure or avoid pain, and situational constraints, for example, "the sense of immunity experienced by the offender, such things as darkness, anonymity, and vulnerability of the victim" tends to make criminals feels secure and subsequently commit an act of crime (Marenin and Reisig, 1995). ...
Climate change is one of the leading human and environmental crises of the 21st century. Several scholars have observed that beside the physical aspect of the society that climate change has great impact, it also impacts our social life. Many studies in the past have found that climatic elements such as temperature, rainfall, sunshine have a significant impact on human behavior at times leading toward aggression which in turn could lead to an increase in crimes rate. Therefore, understanding climatic changes and variability becomes very important not only for solving environmental problems but also social. This study asses the climatic trends in Gombe metropolis, located between latitude 9 o 30' and 12 o 30'N and longitude 8 o 45' and 11 o 45'E, then correlates them with criminal activities in the area. Crime data was collected from the Nigerian Police Force headquarters in Gombe while data on climatic elements was collected from the Upper Benue River Basin development Authority office in Yola, for the weather station they maintain in Gombe. The result shows that maximum temperature has a significant relationship with theft, burglary and assault in the area but minimum temperature has shown no significant relationship with any of the listed crimes. It was also found by employing a multiple regression analysis that maximum temperature are low predictors of Burglary (R=0.106) and moderate predictors of theft (R=0.264) and assault (R=0.169). This study recommended more weather monitoring, taking environmental factors such as climate into prediction of crimes and crime protections and more studies into other aspects of climate and crimes in the study area and the country at large.
... It contains substantial information deployed to enhance readers' understanding of the challenges associated with and solutions to oil theft and vandalisation in Nigeria. Marenin and Reisig's (1995) "A General Theory of Crime and Patterns of Crime in Nigeria: an exploration of Methodological Assumptions" analyses three categories of Nigerian crime, namely: normal, political-economic and riotous. Logical, empirical and theoretical shortcomings in the theory are identified and discussed. ...
The study examines the thematic foci of selected online crime-related news stories in Nairal and Nigerian Forum. It identifies and analyses the lexico-semantic and discourse features of the news stories. The study relates the identified lexico-semantic and discourse features to the situational context of the news stories. This is done with a view to examining the conundrum of crime as an impediment to national development in the post independence Nigerian nation. Data are analysed using the principles of Opara's model of Discourse Stylistics (2005). Four online news stories which were published in October, 2015 are purposively sampled for analysis. The paper reveals that lexico-semantic and syntactic features such as synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms are devices that account for meanings (i.e. interpersonal, affective, expressive attitudinal and ideational meaning, among others) in the data. The study further shows that discourse features for achieving cohesion and coherence such as reference, conjunction, repetition, collocation and substitution are devices that account for unity, sense and aesthetics/texturing of the selected news stories, as some of these devices delight the senses by producing auditory impacts on readers, while some generate strong linkage qualities which qualify the selected data as high discourses. The paper concludes that the language of online crime-related discourses is not only packed with meanings (i.e. attitudinal, affective and interpersonal) but aesthetics, which enhance the texturing of the discourses.
... The study also revealed an inverse association between crime rates and educational achievement. Marenin and Reisig (1995) tested the general theory of crime as proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) which claims to be valid across time and space. The authors assessed this claim through an analysis of three categories of Nigerian crimenormal, political-economic, and riotous. ...
This study endeavoured to formulate an economic rationale for why human beings commit crime, particularly the heinous crime against persons known as kidnapping. This forms the major objective of this study. The issue of kidnapping has attained such significance in Nigeria that the country was recently listed as sixth on the global kidnap index, putting Nigeria amongst countries with serious kidnapping problems, behind Philippines, Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil and Mexico. Utilising secondary data, the study applied functionalist theoretical assumptions and employed Qualitative Document Analysis (QDA), thereby utilising a qualitative approach to gain an in-depth understanding of the causes, nature and quantum of kidnapping for ransom in Nigeria. The theoretical framework that governed this study was Becker’s Rational Choice model, where an individual’s decision to commit a crime is based on the costs and benefits analysis. The study revealed that kidnapping for ransom in Nigeria is a multifaceted phenomenon with social, economic, political, cultural and demographic ramifications. Our study further showed that there are many economic causes of the spate of kidnapping in Nigeria. Prominent among them are unemployment, poverty, low literacy level and high rate of school dropouts, increasing urbanisation, multidimensional inequality, low real income, and spiraling inflationary trends, among others. We recommended that government should tackle this menace head-on by instituting measures to reduce poverty, creating enabling environment for more productivity; thus, leading to increased employment, increasing school enrolment and improving educational infrastructure, reducing rural-urban migration to make the rural areas worthwhile to live in, discouraging ransom payments to free captives and instituting stiffer laws against kidnapping.
... Similarly, three policemen serving at the Ijanikin Division in Lagos State were dismissed from the Nigeria Police Force for robbing a businessman in December 2018 (The Punch, 2018). Furthermore, cases of bribery/extortion involving police personnel are more easily detected since they are openly and indiscreetly perpetrated on the major intercity and intracity highways in Nigeria (Ojedokun & Adeyaju, 2019;Marenin & Reisig, 1995). ...
Professional misconduct involving police officers has consistently put the Nigeria Police Force in a bad light and negatively impacts the public image of the law enforcement agency. In view of this, this study investigated incidents of police professional misconduct recorded in Nigeria between 2008 and 2018. Differential association theory and situational choice theory were employed as conceptual framework. Data were strategically elicited through content analysis of the online versions of three purposively selected first generation national newspapers in Nigeria. The results revealed that 137 cases of police professional misconduct were captured within the timeline. The highest percentage (32%) of the cases was reported in 2017 with Lagos State alone accounting for 29.9%. Furthermore, the involvement of police personnel in unethical behaviour was generally high in the last four months of every year. Extrajudicial killing (36.5%) was the most commonly reported type of police professional misconduct.
... These dealers, mainly between the ages of 19 and 38 (Adejoh et al., 2020), occupy lower-level positions, serving as mules (Ellis, 2009) and street-level retailers (Gyong & Tanimu, 2010). They peddle different drugs, including cannabis, prescription drugs, cocaine, heroin and ATS (Marenin & Reisig, 1995;Nelson, 2018;UNODC, 2017). ...
Drawing on semi-structured interviews with 31 male commercially-oriented retail dealers selling multiple substances in a street-level drug market recruited through snowball sampling in Uyo, Nigeria, this study explores situated strategies for minimizing the risk of police arrest. Findings highlight four broad strategies: selling to genuine buyers, using mobile phones, discreet transactions, and temporary desistance. These strategies are situated within local drug markets and law enforcement contexts. Strategies were oriented towards avoiding arrest for criminal complicity, negotiating changing relationship to law enforcement, and reducing visibility through a combination of phone calls and delivery services. It is argued that while restrictive deterrence may displace retail drug dealing, it does not lead to an overall reduction in the frequency of sales. Further, police complicity in the drug trade through bribery limits restrictive deterrence. Measures that prioritize the demand-side of drug markets, including treatment for dependent users, should be considered while refocusing law enforcement on large-scale traffickers.
... There are many theories that have been developed to explain crime and violence causation in the Global North and a few of these theories, e.g., general crime theory, situational, social disorganization, modernization, underdevelopment, and routine activities theories have been applied or discussed in SSA contexts to explore crime and violence causation (Arthur & Marenin, 1995;Breetzke, 2010b;Breetzke & Horn, 2008;Burt et al., 2006;Marenin & Reisig, 1995). The general consensus among scholars, however, is that these theories are invalid or insufficient in and across SSA contexts. ...
Crime and violence are serious issues in informal settlements around the world. To date, there is a dearth of evidence about the causes of and effective strategies for reducing and preventing violence and crime in informal settlements in cities in the Global South. Additionally, women’s voices are often absent from research focused on violence and crime prevention and reduction in informal settlements. The purpose of this study, therefore, was (1) to identify potential causes of violence and crime in informal settlements, as perceived by women living in Mathare informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya and (2) to highlight residents’ strategies for response and prevention. Fifty-five in-depth and walk-along interviews were conducted with women living in Mathare in 2015-2016. A modified grounded theory approach was used to guide data collection and analysis. The most common contributor to violence and crime identified by women in Mathare was idle youth, but leadership and government challenges, corruption and/or inadequacy of police, community barriers, tribalism, and lack of protective infrastructure also emerged as contributing factors. Despite facing many economic, environmental, and day-to-day challenges, women in Mathare identified violence and crime as predominant issues; thus, developing effective response and prevention strategies to these issues is paramount. Women discussed many strategies and initiatives to reduce and prevent violence and crime in informal settlements, but also identified barriers to implementing them. Findings suggest there is a need for trust-building between formal and informal sectors of the community, systems of accountability, and long-term investment to foster sustainable and effective violence and crime response and prevention in these settlements.
... Policing therefore started as a communal effort to maintain order and protect properties, such as farm lands and animals (Miller and Hess, 1998). However, other violent crimes like armed robbery became rampant in Nigeria shortly after the end of the Nigerian civil war (Marenin and Reisig, 1995). For instance, in Calabar southern part of Nigeria, gunshot wounds were rare before the civil war (Udosen et al., 2006). ...
The police occupy a very important position in the entire criminal justice system in Nigeria. The nature of police relationship with the people and the manner in which the public were handled at the station and on the street daily within the community affects the way the people perceive them and the level of cooperation they get from the people in curbing crime in the society. The study took place in Zaria, Kaduna state, Northern Nigeria. A study population was the police in Zaria. Three police stations (Zaria City, Sabon Gari, and Samaru police stations) were purposively selected reflecting the socio-cultural and demographic backgrounds of Zaria residence and population. The Divisional Police officers and police officers in-charge of crime were interviewed. The police crime and incidence records were examined while the general conduct and social atmosphere of the police and police stations were observed. Using in-depth interview, observational method, and police records, it was discovered that the socio-economic status of suspects affected how they were treated by the police in the police stations studied. Also, the environment suspect lives affected how they were treated too by the police. It was recommended that the police make the rule of law their guide in the handling of suspects in the police stations irrespective of socio-demographic variable or area of habitation of the suspects. Police brutality and violations of citizen’s rights should be checked by senior police officers, while community-policing style should be implemented across communities in Nigeria.
... There are many theories that have been developed to explain crime and violence causation in the Global North and a few of these theories, e.g., general crime theory, situational, social disorganization, modernization, underdevelopment, and routine activities theories have been applied or discussed in SSA contexts to explore crime and violence causation (Arthur & Marenin, 1995;Breetzke, 2010b;Breetzke & Horn, 2008;Burt et al., 2006;Marenin & Reisig, 1995). The general consensus among scholars, however, is that these theories are invalid or insufficient in and across SSA contexts. ...
The purpose of this study was to identify potential causes of violence and crime in informal settlements and residents’ strategies for response and prevention to these issues, as perceived by women living in Mathare informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. A total of 55 in-depth interviews were conducted with women living in the informal settlement in 2015-2016. A modified grounded theory approach was used to guide data collection and analysis. The most common contributor to violence and crime identified by women in Mathare informal settlement was idle youth, but leadership and government challenges, corruption and/or inadequacy of police, community barriers, tribalism, and lack of protective infrastructure also emerged as contributing factors. Despite facing many economic, environmental, and day-to-day challenges, women in Mathare identified violence and crime as predominant issues; thus, developing effective response and prevention strategies to these issues in informal settlements is paramount. Women suggest there are many strategies and initiatives to reduce and prevent violence and crime in informal settlements, but also identified barriers to implementing them. Findings suggest there is a need for trust-building between formal and informal organizations and institutions, systems of accountability, and long-term investment to foster sustainable and effective violence and crime response and interventions in these settlements.
... Urban crime constitutes a serious impediment to social and economic development in Nigeria (Marenin and Reisig, 1995;Salm and Falola, 2009). In numerous urban centres, high rates of crime threaten human welfare, undermine the growth of small, medium and large scale enterprises and impede social development (Suberu, 2001;Nyam and Ayuba). ...
This research report synthesises a wide range of literature on the depth and breadth of crime within selected Nigerian urban centres, and based on primary research presents compelling new evidence on the structure, trends and repercussions of crime on urban dwellers.
Whilst it is not intended to provide a definitive blueprint for action, the report is offered as a mechanism for engaging key local stakeholders, civil society organisations, citizens, and international partners in a thoughtful dialogue on crime, based on robust empirical analysis and good practices from within and outside Nigeria.
This research is national in its scope, extending across as many major cities as possible within the country’s six geo-political zones.
... Also, it is the strategy of the elites to ignore their devastating ecological costs of oil spillage and the highest gas flaring rates in the world (Watts et al., 2003) in order to keep on exploiting them. This condition has infuriated the indigenes of South-South, leading to protests that have taken different forms (Marenin and Reising, 1995;Owugah, 1999) in contemporary times. ...
The nature of insecurity at global level is changing rapidly. In the Cold-War era, its problem was an issue of concern among countries but, it later changed to become a major challenge within different countries in the Post-War era. The case of African societies is critical due to the emergence of non-violent conflicts which seem to have compounded the already existing violent conflicts in these countries. This article uses social theories to explain this problem in Nigeria via data from secondary source. The article among other things examines the concept of insecurity, sources of insecurity, and theoretical approaches to insecurity, which include traditional (Functionalism and Marxism) and contemporary theories (Elite, social structure and anomie as well as relative deprivation theories) as they relate to the problem of insecurity in contemporary Nigeria. The study concludes that none of these theories could adequately provide an extensive explanation of the phenomenon under study but it offers synthesis of all the theories to provide an encompassing knowledge
... This paper therefore contributes to the literature on economics of crime by examining the effect of unemployment on different types of crimes in Nigeria. This is not the first time that issues of crime are studied in Nigeria, a number of studies on crime in Nigeria do exist [18,19,20,21,22,23] but none of these studies examined the economic model of crime except [23]. Even Odumosu [21], who used anomie theory to analyse the indirect effect of unemployment through poverty on crime did not consider the economic model of crime. ...
... In Nigeria, provision of security has been a major challenge to governments at local, state and federal levels (Marenin 1987, Ekpenyong 1989, Marenin and Reisig 1995, Agbola 1997. On daily basis, Nigerians confront various forms of security challenges, ranging from domestic violence and sexual offences to armed robbery, kidnapping and murder. ...
... In Nigeria, provision of security has been a major challenge to governments at local, state and federal levels (Marenin 1987, Ekpenyong 1989, Marenin and Reisig 1995, Agbola 1997, Otu 2003. On daily basis, Nigerians confront various forms of security challenges, ranging from domestic violence and sexual offences to armed robbery, kidnapping and murder. ...
... Although certainly not without its critics (Akers, 1991;Marenin & Reisig, 1995;Tittle, 1991), the self-control tradition has remained vibrant in criminology for over two and a half decades. To be sure, the predictive strength of measures of self-control has proven remarkably consistent across the body of empirical literature (Pratt & Cullen, 2000;see also Antonaccio & Tittle, 2008;Franklin, Bouffard, & Pratt, 2012;Meldrum, Young, & Weerman, 2009). ...
In this article an argument is developed that criminologists' focus on individuals' levels of self-control has caused us to miss another key component within this theoretical tradition: within-individual situational variability in self-control. Accordingly, in the present study, self-control variability is treated as an important theoretical construct that should explain criminal behav-ior independent of one's level of self-control. This proposition is tested empirically on a sample of young adults, using measures of both self-control and situational self-control variability in a series of multivariate regression models. The results demonstrate that both self-control and self-control variability exert significant and independent effects on criminal behavior. These results reveal support for a reconceptualized model of self-control that incorporates both static and dynamic dimensions.
... There are an extensive number of studies testing these four sociological based criminological theories of crime and deviant behavior within the United States (Agnew, 1985(Agnew, , 1992Akers, 1990;Cullen and Agnew, 2006;Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990;Hirschi, 1969); there are also a few cross-cultural studies as well (Boa et al., 2004;Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004;Broidy and Agnew, 1997;Hwang and Akers, 2003;Marenin and Reisig, 1995). However, this is the first study to understand the explanatory power of all four theories on college student criminal and deviant behavior in Bolivia and the United States. ...
... Self-control theory is one of the most widely tested theories within criminology (Akers, 1991;Geis, 2000, Marenin & Reisig, 1995Pratt & Cullen, 2000;Pratt, Turner & Piquero, 2004;Sampson & Laub, 1993;Tittle, 1991). Since its presentation in 1990, most researchers have examined the relationship between self-control and offending (Benson & Moore, 1992;Brownfield & Sorenson, 1993;Graskmick, Tittle, Bursik, & Arneklev, 1993;Paternoster & Brame, 1998, Piquero & Tibbetts, 1996Polakowski, 1994;Pratt & Cullen, 2000;Winfree & Bernat, 1998). ...
... To be sure, there have been quite a number of tests of various portions of Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory, 5 most of which have been supportive of the authors' most central propositions. However, to our knowledge, no one has tested the invariance of low self-control, and a few recent tests with attitudinal indicators of this construct 6 have tentatively suggested that its 5 See for example, Moore (1992), Arneklev et al. (1993), Brownfield and Sorenson (1993), Grasmick et al. (1993), Keane et al. (1993), Wood et al. (1993), Polakowski (1994, Gibbs and Giever (1995), Marenin and Reisig (1995), Longshore (1996a), Longshore et al. (1996 Longshore et al. ( , 1998), Piquero and Tibbets (1996), Reed and Yeager (1996), Bartusch et al. (1997), Paternoster and Brame (1997), Evans et al. (1997), and Arneklev et al. (1998 Gottfredson and Hirschi do prefer behavioral indicators of self-control that incorporate behaviors that are analogous to crime for tests of their theory (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1993; Keane et al., 1993; Evans et al., 1997). However, we believe that the use of an attitudinal indicator of self-control is more appropriate for testing the dimensionality and invariance of the global construct. ...
According to Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) A General Theory of Crime, all illegal activity is the manifestation of a single underlying cause. The authors argue that inadequate child-rearing causes individuals to develop a similar type of propensity for criminal and analogous behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi label this characteristic “low self-control.” Six dimensions, which can be identified in their theory, are suggested to comprise a final low self-control trait. Further, low self-control is proposed to be an invariant characteristic (i.e., its form does not change with the age of the individual or context in which the person resides). In this research, we evaluate these two propositions. First, the six dimensions are measured and used to determine if a multidimensional model can explain another common factor—low self-control—in two samples of individuals (from different locales) with dissimilar mean ages. Second, low self-control in both samples is tested for invariance. We test the proposed invariance of low self-control by examining if the parameter values in a model, which is reflective of Gottfredson and Hirschi's conceptualization of the characteristic, differ across the two samples of individuals. The results support both of Gottfredson and Hirschi's propositions. Low self-control does appear to be a multidimensional characteristic whose dimensions represent another common factor. Low self-control also appears to be an invariant latent trait that members of these two samples possess. These tests help to clarify Gottfredson and Hirschi's conceptualization of low self-control.
... ." (Reed and Yeager, 1996, p. 377) that, in turn, contribute to crime. It is this very need to specify and modify self-control theory to account for different cultural contexts that led Marenin and Reisig to claim that the general theory of crime is not in fact general or valid "across time and space" (Marenin and Reisig, 1995, p. 501). They found that both impru- dent behavior and criminal behavior in Nigeria were not explained by the key explanatory vari- able, low self-control. ...
Comparative criminology is making an impressive imprint in academic circles. This is evident by the burgeoning number of studies, journal articles, books, college courses, symposia, and conferences devoted to comparative issues. Our reading of existing literature, however, indicates the comparative field is overly descriptive and oriented to the pragmatic rather than theoretical. Comparative criminology is not theoretically sophisticated. This paper assesses the current state of theory in the comparative field and offers some preliminary suggestions for correcting the theoretical void. Coleman's (1991) theory of white‐collar crime and Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory of crime are presented as examples of theoretical frameworks with potential comparative applications. Implications for future development of comparative criminological theory are discussed.
... While the evidence is unusually supportive, it is not yet suYcient to conclude that the eVect of self-control is similar in all circumstances. The most important test of generality is probably a theory's ability to explain equally well in various cultural contexts (Marenin and Reisig, 1995;Vazsonyi et al., 2001Vazsonyi et al., , 2004, and (Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990, pp. 174-175)) clearly contend that cultural variability is irrelevant to the validity of their theory: "Our approachƒassumes instead that cultural variability is not important in the causation of crime,ƒand that a single theory of crime can encompass the reality of cross-cultural diVerences in crime rates." ...
Unique data from residents of Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, are used to address issues about self-control. They provide some support for the generality claims of the theory, that self-control is associated with criminal behavior regardless of the cultural context, but evidence concerning the idea that self-control explains associations between standard predictive variables and crime is mixed. The analyses reveal a general association between self-control and indicators of criminal behavior that is consistent with that shown by the collective body of evidence. However, criminal opportunity (and in most instances deviant peer association) is found to predict the indicators of misbehavior as well as or perhaps better than, and independently of, self-control. Moreover, self-control only partially renders relationships between well known predictive variables and crime spurious. Thus, these results from an unusual cultural context confirm that self-control is at least a modest but persistent predictor of indicators of criminal conduct. However, self-control does not appear to be as potent as the authors of self-control theory contend and it may not even be as important as criminal opportunity, a variable that some have interpreted as a precondition for the operation of self-control in accounting for criminal/deviant behavior, or deviant peer association.
... ological, and empirical attention (Akers 1991;Geis 2000;Marenin and Reisig 1995;Pratt and Cullen 2000;Sampson and Laub 1993;Tittle 1991). Driving much of the academic community's discussion on the subject is the general theory's core conceptual proposition that the sole "cause" of crimeand of behaviors "analogous" to crime, such as smoking, excessive drinking, driving too fast, and gambling-is low self-control (Hirschi andGottfredson 1990, 1995). ...
Several empirical studies have attempted to estimate the effect of low self-control on criminal and "analogous" behaviors. Most of these studies have shown that low self- control is an important feature of the cause(s) of crime. Although research is begin- ning to emerge that targets more specifically the "roots" of self-control via parental socialization (the most salient factor in the development of self-control according to Hirschi and Gottfredson), researchers have yet to explore the degree to which the structural characteristics of communities may influence patterns of parental social- ization and, in turn, individual levels of self-control. To address this question, the authors employ longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to examine community-level influences on parental socialization and self- control. The results indicate (1) self-control was predicted both cross-sectionally and longitudinally by both parental socialization and adverse neighborhood conditions, (2) the total effect of adverse neighborhood conditions on children's levels of self- control was just as strong as the total effect for indicators of parental socialization, and (3) important race differences did emerge, particularly with regard to the inter- relationships between our neighborhood-level measures and parental socialization.
... Although not without its critics (Geis, 2000;Marenin and Reisig, 1995;Reed and Yeager, 1996), self-control theory has received a considerable amount of empirical scrutiny. A large number of studies have examined the influence of low self-control on offending and related outcomes, and the link between self-control and crime/deviance is well supported (Pratt and Cullen, 2000). ...
Purpose
The paper builds on and extends the existing research on self‐control theory and fraud. Specifically, the purpose of this paper is to examine whether low self‐control increases the odds of engaging in two common forms of fraudulent behaviors: check and credit card frauds.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper addresses these issues using a national, longitudinal sample of young adults.
Findings
The results of the multivariate logistic regression models indicate that individuals with lower levels of self‐control are more likely to engage in credit card and check frauds. These findings support Gottfredson and Hirschi's theoretical argument that fraudulent behavior is similar to acts of force in that it too is explained by the same underlying trait – low self‐control.
Research limitations/implications
The paper underscores the importance of low self‐control in the etiology of fraudulent behaviors. Future researchers should examine the relationship between low self‐control and other fraudulent behaviors, particularly those occurring in the workplace (e.g. embezzlement).
Practical implications
Suggestions for preventing credit card and check frauds through situational crime prevention are provided.
Originality/value
The paper improves upon prior research by using a more representative sample and self‐reported fraudulent behavior.
Crime committed by employees in public and private institutions in Nigeria is
worrisome. The criminal behaviour of the employee must have manifested during the
undergraduate years in the tertiary institutions but taken as no consequence to the larger
society. Employers emphasising requisite qualifications for a prospective employee
gloss over that tertiary institutions can provide an environment for breeding criminals of
various types. More worrisome is that people attach temporality to students' criminal acts
thereby influencing how crimes are disposed-off in tertiary institutions. This notion that
ignores social and traditional media awash with reports of students involved in heinous
crimes is misleading. One major problem is that no extant law authorizes the
backtracking of employees' criminal records as undergraduate students. This study
adopted an explanatory research design, permitting conclusions based on interpretations
of reports of undergraduates involved in crimes in books, journals, newspapers, and
magazines. The study is anchored on state fragility theory that assesses state institutional
capacities to respond to or prevent crimes. Finding reveals that employees commit
various crimes in Nigeria which no doubt reflects old habits learned or exhibited as an
undergraduate student. A law mandating scrutinizing employees' criminal history and
installing a technological device to enhance surveillance in the tertiary institutions and
compelling tertiary institutions to put criminal records of an undergraduate student in the
public domain, especially government institutions is advocated.
Keywords: crime, tertiary institutions, student's criminal history, policymakers,
employees and crime, national security
The social control of crime is diversified across societies. The social control of crime in Asia inherits features that are unique to Asian cultural traditions (e.g., Confucianism and Islamism) and strives by exploring more effective models by balancing formal and informal social control. These social controls are also greatly influenced by socioeconomic developments and the dominance of the polity in Asian societies. Overall, Asian countries are going through the struggles between capitalism–socialism, democracy–authoritarianism, and traditionality–modernity. Such changing dynamics will continue to shape and reshape the way that formal and informal social institutions and processes exert control over crime and deviance.
Cultivated by different civilizations, Asian societies have provided unique and valuable evidence to understand and refine the existing social control models developed from Western societies.
Urban population growth in Nigeria—in both absolute and relative terms—has been supplemented by opportunities and challenges for urban dwellers. Nigerian cities have functioned as the engines of economic growth. However, frequently unplanned and unprecedented physical growth, combined with tenure insecurity and the proliferation of urban poverty, have given rise to complex linkages between spatial expansion and urban risk and crime. This chapter makes the link between urbanisation and Nigeria’s crime challenge. It provides a review of historical and contemporary process of urbanisation in Nigeria and expands on the debates about the underlying causes. It also discusses the characteristics of the transformative role of urbanisation and its accompanying challenges. The chapter concludes by explaining the nexus between trend and pace of urbanisation and Nigeria’s crime challenge.
This paper considers the ways in which established criminological theories born and nurtured in the West might need to be transformed to be applicable to the context of East Asian societies. The analyses focus on two theoretical perspectives—Situational Action Theory and Institutional Anomie Theory—that are located at opposite ends of the continuum with respect to levels of analysis. I argue that the accumulated evidence from cross-cultural psychology and criminological research in East Asian societies raises serious questions about the feasibility of simply transporting these perspectives from the West to the East. Instead, my analyses suggest that the formulation of theoretical explanations of crime that are truly universal will require criminologists to create and incorporate new concepts that are more faithful to the social realities of non-Western societies, societies such as those in East Asia and Asia more generally.
By drawing on the two streams of Western literature on “neighborhood effects” and perceptions of neighborhood disorder adapted to the distinctive organizational infrastructure of neighborhoods in contemporary urban China, we examine the contextual effects of different forms of neighborhood social control (i.e., collective efficacy, semipublic control, public control, and market-based control) on different types of perceived disorder (i.e., criminal activity, social disorder, physical disorder, and total disorder) across neighborhoods. The analyses are based on data collected in the year 2013 from a survey of approximately 2,500 households in 50 neighborhoods across the city of Tianjin. Collective efficacy as a form of informal control has a significant effect only for perceived social disorder. Public control as measured by the activities of neighborhood police stations has a significant contextual effect on all forms of perceived disorder, whereas the role of market-based control as represented by contracted community services is limited to perceived physical disorder. Finally, semipublic control as measured by the activities of neighborhood committees significantly affects all forms of perceived disorder, but the direction of the effect is positive. We interpret this positive effect with reference to the complex processes surrounding the “translation” of neighborhood disorderly conditions into perceptions of disorder.
This chapter focuses on control theories of crime and delinquency. It describes the key elements of any control theory. The chapter analyzes whether it is possible for control theory to accommodate new findings. A control theory of crime asserts that the primary cause of an individual engaging in a criminal act results from too few controls on their behavior. There are many different types of control theory, which vary by the specific source of control the theory sees as most important. The chapter connects the various elements that are important to understanding the components of control theories. The two key dimensions that need to be considered in thinking about the sources of control on individual behavior are: internal v. external and formal v. informal. Control theory's continued development and relevance as an explanation of crime will require the incorporation of many biologically based findings as they emerge from ongoing research.
Implementing safety management systems (SMS) can be a difficult task when the oil and gas companies operate in an environment with several human, cultural, technical and operational constraints that impact negatively on safe operations. This is also coupled with high demands for transparency, compliance with laws and legislations as well as international standards to maintain safe operations of pipelines. Companies are also expected to adequately analyse the possible hazards of their operations and effectively manage their risks. They are expected to perform accident-free operations with environmentally friendly responsibilities, improve the efficiency of their pipelines with proper integrity management systems, improve emergency response systems, and most importantly learn lessons and apply corrective measures from past incidents. This paper aims to analyse pipeline related incidents in Nigeria to identify the underlying causes of these recurring accidents with reference to the widely accepted principles of safety management systems.
Ideal for use in either crime theory or race and crime courses, this is the only text to look at the array of explanations for crime as they relate to racial and ethnic groups. Each chapter begins with a historical review of each theoretical perspective and how its original formulation and more recent derivatives account for racial/ethnic differences. The theoretical perspectives include those based on religion, biology, social disorganization/strain, subculture, labeling, conflict, social control, colonial, and feminism. This new Second Edition includes discussions of "Deadly Symbiosis," critical race theory/criminology, comparative conflict theory, maximization, and abortion, race, and crime. In the closing chapter, the author considers which perspectives have shown the most promise in the area of race/ethnicity and crime.
By focussing on kidnappings that are putatively connected to the struggle for emancipating the Niger Delta, Oriola makes the case for analysing the 'Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta' (MEND) as a social movement organization. Based on multi-actor research, including interviews and focus group discussions with community members, military authorities, 42 ex-insurgents directly involved in illegal oil bunkering and kidnapping, and official email statements from 'Jomo Gbomo', the spokesperson of MEND, this book is of interest to sociologists, political scientists and peace and security studies scholars.
According to Gottfredson and Hirschi and their general theory of crime (1990), self-control - defined as the degree to which individuals are vulnerable to temptation - is a relatively stable, universal trait that accounts for individual differences in criminal, deviant, and reckless behavior. Self-control is said to develop in early childhood, while the family is still the most important socializing agent. Thus, the absence of self-control and subsequent deviant activity are a result of familial factors. Using a large, nation-wide sample of Canadian children, this study examines the effect of parenting on children's self-control while considering the role of such factors as parental composition and household size. Analyses reveal that self-control varies by family structure, whereby children living with two biological parents report higher levels of self-control than children in reconstituted and single parent families. However, this relationship is offset, in part, by parental monitoring. Overall, regardless of family structure, it is evident that a nurturing, accepting family environment is positively associated with self-control.
Several empirical studies have attempted to estimate the effect of low self-control on criminal and "analogous " behaviors. Most of these studies have shown that low self-control is an important feature of the cause(s) of crime. Although research is beginning to emerge that targets more specifically the "roots " of self-control via parental socialization (the most salient factor in the development of self-control according to Hirschi and Gottfredson), researchers have yet to explore the degree to which the structural characteristics of communities may influence patterns of parental socialization and, in turn, individual levels of self-control. To address this question, the authors employ longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to examine community-level influences on parental socialization and self-control. The results indicate (1) self-control was predicted both cross-sectionally and longitudinally by both parental socialization and adverse neighborhood conditions, (2) the total effect of adverse neighborhood conditions on children's levels of self-control was just as strong as the total effect for indicators of parental socialization, and (3) important race differences did emerge, particularly with regard to the interrelationships between our neighborhood-level measures and parental socialization.
This paper considers the ways in which established criminological theories born and nurtured in the West might need to be transformed to be applicable to the context of East Asian societies. The analyses focus on two theoretical perspectives—Situational Action Theory and Institutional Anomie Theory—that are located at opposite ends of the continuum with respect to levels of analysis. I argue that the accumulated evidence from cross-cultural psychology and criminological research in East Asian societies raises serious questions about the feasibility of simply transporting these perspectives from the West to the East. Instead, my analyses suggest that the formulation of theoretical explanations of crime that are truly universal will require criminologists to create and incorporate new concepts that are more faithful to the social realities of non-Western societies, societies such as those in East Asia and Asia more generally.
That the police have the onerous duty of maintaining law and order in society is not in contention; however, the extent to which the public are satisfied with police maintenance of law and order varies from society to society. There has been very little research on views about policing in Nigeria. Based on survey data collected from 758 college students, this exploratory study compares and contrasts college students' views of policing in Nigeria and the USA. The results uncover both intra- and international differences in views on various areas of policing, including general confidence in the police, trust in and support for the police, and specific attitudes toward police civility, effectiveness, accountability, aggressive policing and community policing.
The focus of this paper is on the social and economic aspects of corruption in Nigeria. Given the increasingly borderless nature of corruption and economic crime, this paper argues that a successful control campaign requires a coordinated response that will fuse domestic and international strategies. While the paper is wholly committed to the strategy of depriving criminals of their ill-gotten wealth, it acknowledges that the success that law enforcement agencies have had around the world in ‘taking the profit out of crime’ has been hitherto unimpressive. Drawing on the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), particularly Article 20, the paper argues that governments in developing economies should adopt the radical strategy of taxing unaccountable wealth and criminalising illicit enrichment.
This study examines self-control theory using the criminal records of 500 adult arrestees. Four indicators taken from official rap sheets (aliases, Social Security numbers, and dates and places of birth) were used to create a self-control measure. Negative binomial regression models indicated that offenders who scored low on the self-control measure accumulated significantly more violent Index, property Index, white-collar, and nuisance arrests net the effects of control variables. These findings contribute to the empirical support for self-control theory and indicate that self-control is salient using a criminal sample.
Comparative criminology continues to develop at an accelerated pace. Today, cross-national empirical studies of crime are quite common and comparative theories of crime, such as the Durkheimian-modernization theory, Marxian World Systems/Dependency theory, and ecological opportunity theory have been formulated. There also have been several cross-national analyses of American theories of crime, yet very little attention has been given to theoretical developments unique to the historical, cultural, and social structural characteristics of lesser known societies. The central thesis of this article is that criminology can benefit from the theories and concepts formulated outside the United States. The purpose of this article was to examine theoretical developments and concepts indigenous to various societies and to compare them with theories prevalent in American criminology. The benefits of integrating non-American theories and concepts with dominant American theories of crime are discussed.
Since its conception, A General Theory of Crime has attracted a considerable amount of interest among criminologists. At this particular juncture, the extant research literature has generally been supportive of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory. However, opportunity, a critical element of low-self-control theory, remains conspicuously untested. Although some empirical studies have examined this theoretical concept, they have neglected to take into consideration the issue of temporal ordering. The current investigation addressed this oversight by presenting a pool of research participants with an actual and controlled opportunity to commit fraudulent behavior in a natural setting.
This paper tests the relationship between self-control, social-control, gender, age, ethnicity, social class and delinquent behaviour. The data source is a survey of senior and junior high school students in Alberta, Canada. Results offer strong support for the General Theory of Crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990), in that self-control is the strongest predictor of all types of delinquency. Moreover, self and social-control interact in their relationship with delinquency, as suggested by the control theories. However, among various dimensions of self-control, risk-seeking followed by impulsivity are more predictive of delinquent behaviour than other dimensions. Contrary to our hypothesis, present orientation, carelessness and restlessness are unrelated to delinquency. Finally, gender, age and ethnicity maintain a significant relationship with delinquency even after controlling for self-and social-control.
Opening Paragraph
Since 1980, with considerable regularity during the dry season which propels the rural poor into the urban centres of northern Nigeria, religious riots have erupted in or adjacent to five cities: Kano (1980), Kaduna (1982), Bulum-Ketu near Maiduguri (1982), Jimeta near Yola (1984) and Gombe (1985). In each instance the conflict was remarkably similar. When confronted by the state authorities, an Islamic sect, the 'Yan Tatsine, unleashed an armed insurrection against the Nigerian security forces and those outside the sect, resulting in widespread destruction, in thousands of deaths and in millions of naira of property losses. Indeed, if one were to search for a historical equivalent in Nigerian history, only the communal riots of 1966 surpass the destruction wrought by the 'Yan Tatsine insurrections of the eighties. The account appearing in West Africa , describing the Gombe outbreak, provides a typical press analysis of the insurrection:
Fighting began early on Friday, April 29 when a detachment of police moved in to arrest suspected members of a maitatsine type religious sect in the Pantami ward of Gombe. The suspected leader of the religious group is a man named Yusufu Adamu. That was when all hell broke loose. Within hours, some streets had been littered with corpses many of them caught in the cross fire between fanatics and the law enforcement agents. [ West Africa , 6 May 1985: 876]
For the following analysis it is noteworthy that the correspondent describes the sect as a ‘maitatsine type’, that the insurrection erupted only when the police attempted to arrest an alleged leader and that the members of the dissident sect are labelled ‘fanatics’ without any supporting evidence.
This article addresses two propositions on white-collar crime derived from a general theory of crime recently proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi. This theory predicts that white-collar offenders are (a) as criminally versatile and (b) as prone to deviance as common offenders. To assess the validity of these propositions, the authors investigate the criminal records of white-collar and common offenders and their respective levels of participation in deviant activities. As the general theory predicts, some white-collar offenders are involved in crime and deviance to much the same degree as typical street criminals. A large majority differ significantly from street criminals in these regards, contradicting the theory and limiting its generality. The authors argue that the theory's rejection of motives as important causal forces is misguided and that a more complex causal structure is needed to account for patterns of white-collar offending.
This article analyses the immediate and long term causes of the outbreak of religious violence between Muslims and Christians in Kaduna State, Nigeria, in 1987. The author argues that the crisis arose from the politicisation of religion in the regional contest for power. On the one hand is the issue of the rise of fundamentalist Christianity and Islam. On the other is the struggle for political power by the ‘northern Oligarchy’ within the north and against the south in which religion has become a means for forging new coalitions.
The relevance of the primitive accumulation of capital to the experience of the neo‐colonies is explored by Iyayi for the case of Nigeria. He concludes that the classic understanding of this process requires expansion it if is to take account of situations where indigenous capital remains weak and lacks possibilities for accumulation through exploitation of external, less developed markets. Iyayi contends that while an attempt was made in Nigeria to foster indigenisation through legislative means, in practice the fundamental method of approaching this goal has been corruption. Indeed he suggests that corruption in such circumstances becomes the logical, if not the only, means through which primitive accumulation proceeds.
In this paper we present a "routine activity approach" for analyzing crime rate trends and cycles. Rather than emphasizing the characteristics of offenders, with this approach we concentrate upon the circumstances in which they carry out predatory criminal acts. Most criminal acts require convergence in space and time of likely offenders, suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians against crime. Human ecological theory facilitates an investigation into the way in which social structure produces this convergence, hence allowing illegal activities to feed upon the legal activities of everyday life. In particular, we hypothesize that the dispersion of activities away from households and families increases the opportunity for crime and thus generates higher crime rates. A variety of data is presented in support of the hypothesis, which helps explain crime rate trends in the United States 1947-1974 as a byproduct of changes in such variables as labor force participation and single-adult households.
Since the early 1970s, the incidence of armed robbery has been increasing at an accelerating rate in Nigerian cities. It is argued that widespread corruption at the most influential levels of national life encourages and provides the justification the armed robber needs to choose, judge, and condemn his victims; and that the type of socio-economic order shapes in large part the prevalence, magnitude, and seriousness of Nigeria's crime problem. In the same vein, the form, emphasis, and extent of success or failure of social control and crime prevention programmes are, in large part, functions of the operative order. The paper suggests that de-emphasising materialism as the prime value of society, together with the creation of a humane and disciplined society, may bring a reduction in armed robbery and related properly offences. © 1989 The Institute for the Study and Treatment of Delinquency.
Since the early 1970s, the incidence of armed robbery has been increasing at an accelerating rate in Nigerian cities. It is argued that widespread corruption at the most influential levels of national life encourages and provides the justification the armed robber needs to choose, judge, and condemn his victims; and that the type of socio-economic order shapes in large part the prevalence, magnitude, and seriousness of Nigeria's crime problem. In the same vein, the form, emphasis, and extent of success or failure of social control and crime prevention programmes are, in large part, functions of the operative order. The paper suggests that de-emphasising materialism as the prime value of society, together with the creation of a humane and disciplined society, may bring a reduction in armed robbery and related properly offences.
It has been postulated that “The Crime or Delinquency Area” theory of Shaw and McKay (1942), which assumes that certain areas
of the city are spawning-grounds for crime and delinquency, is applicable to urban settlements in non-Western societies (Morris
1985). To investigate this postulate, ecological data are presented on the place of residence of criminals and juvenile delinquents
and on the location of their offenses in metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria. These are discussed and contrasted with similar pioneer
studies in the United States; then implications are drawn concerning crime and delinquency theories. The data confirm Shaw
and McKay's theory. Heterogeneity does lead to weak social control which leads to high rates of crime and delinquency. But
the research suggests that in the Lagos cultural setting the generator of heterogeneity is something besides physically deteriorated
conditions. Indeed, heterogeneity in Lagos is characteristic of high and medium rent areas rather than low income areas.
This book evaluates the global status and prospects of democracy, with an emphasis on the quality of democratic institutions and the effectiveness of governance as key conditions for stable democracy. Bringing together a wide range of the author's work over the past three decades, it advances a framework for assessing the quality of democracy and it analyzes alternative measures of democracy. Drawing on the most recent data from Freedom House, it assesses the global state of democracy and freedom, as of the beginning of 2015, and it explains why the world has been experiencing a mild but now deepening recession of democracy and freedom since 2005. A major theme of the book across the three decades of the author's work is the relationship between democratic quality and stability. Democracies break down, Diamond argues, not so much because of economic factors but because of corrupt, inept governance that violates individual rights and the rule of law. The best way to secure democracy is to ensure that democracy is accountable, transparent, genuinely competitive, respectful of individual rights, inclusive of diverse forms and sources of participation, and responsive to the needs and aspirations of ordinary citizens. Viable democracy requires not only a state that can mobilize power to achieve collective goals, but also one that can restrain and punish the abuse of power-a particularly steep challenge for poor countries and those with natural resource wealth. The book examines these themes both in broad comparative perspective and with a deeper analysis of historical trends and future prospects in Africa and Asia,. Concluding with lessons for sustaining and reforming policies to promote democracy internationally, this book is essential reading for students and scholars interested in democracy, as well as politics and international relations more generally.
In 1979 Nigeria's military government held the first general elections for fifteen years. The politicians then resumed power under a republican constitution. The National Party of Nigeria, a conservative coalition, narrowly won the elections from four other parties and virtually controlled the next elections in 1983. There were five election rounds: for the President, for nine-teen state governers, for the Senate, for the House of Representatives and for the state assemblies. Increases over the 1979 vote in the presidential round indicated some rigging. Results in the following rounds were incredible. The root cause was northern reluctance within the National Party to honour an agreement to a southern presidential candidate at the next elections in 1987 and southern competition for the 1987 nomination. After the elections the courts failed to redress the rigging and the President to purge corrupt Ministers. The military then overthrew the government and resumed control.
In A General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi propose that low self-control, in interaction with criminal opportunity, is the major cause of crime. The research reported in this article attempts to test this argument while closely following the nominal definitions presented by Gottfredson and Hirschi. A factor analysis of items designed to measure low self-control is consistent with their contention that the trait is unidimensional. Further, the proposed interaction effect is found for self-reported acts of both fraud and force (their definition of crime). Inconsistent with the theory are (a) the finding that criminal opportunity has a significant main effect, beyond its interaction with low self-control, on self-reported crime and (b) the substantial proportion of variance in crime left unexplained by the theoretical variables. Suggestions are offered for modifying and expanding the theory.
Phenomenon of beggars in Nigeria is described. Classes and types of beggars indicate the complexity of this social problem. The author points to a variety of sources for this problem and suggests specific changes as steps toward alleviation.
Recently, Gottfredson and Hirschi proposed a general theory of crime. Central to the theory is the assumption that most criminal behavior is impulsive and reflects a lack of self-control. Thus criminals are seen as risk takers who are less restrained than noncriminals from illegal activities. In a secondary analysis of data from a roadside traffic survey, this study attempts to test Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory by examining the relationship between self-control and driving under the influence of alcohol. Using several indicators of self-control, the results support the existence of a relationship for both men and women between low self-control and driving under the influence of alcohol.
There is a great need to study female criminality in African Societies. Therefore, this paper investigates the general characteristics of Nigerian female offenders incarcerated in a major woman's prison in Nigeria. In a preliminary study of female offenders in Nigeria, Oloruntimehin (1982) suggests that female criminality in Nigeria may be correlated with socioeconomic and family background variables. Consequently, the major task of this study is to find out the relationship between socioeconomic and family bond measures and female criminality in Nigeria. The offenses the inmates committed form the dependent variables.The data show that most of the inmates had a loose attachment to their families prior to the time they committed the offense that led to their imprisonment, most of the offenders are lower-class persons. There is an inverse correlation between socioeconomic measures and involvement in property crimes (p =.01) and crimes without victims (p=.001). Also, there is no significant relationship between socioeconomic measures and crimes against persons. Family bond measures are significantly correlated with involvement in property crimes (p=.001), crimes without victims (p =.001), and personal crimes (p =.01). But there is no significant relationship between family bond measures and involvement in smuggling contrabands.The inmates' criminality can be explained in terms of the breakdown of kinship ties and poor economic conditions in Nigeria.
The expulsion of well over a million unregistered aliens from Nigeria in January 1983 abruptly conveyed to world opinion that the country was in the throes of a severe crisis. This action was soon followed by the decision of the Nigerian government to cut the posted price of its crude oil in the hope that the steady decline in export earnings could be halted. These drastic measures, however, should be seen as consequences of a deeper crisis in the political and economic order which can be temporarily palliated, but not resolved, by such sudden initiatives. I shall examine several aspects of this deeper crisis, such as the shift to a mono-mineral export economy, the socio-economic proclivities of the dominant class, the considerable expansion in the state’s economic role, and the distinct pattern of competition for access to public resources in all sectors of Nigerian society. The sense of dissatisfaction with the achievements of Nigeria’s Second Republic, and the mounting concern about its viability, will be shown to reflect the combined effects of these fundamental problems.
SOME have tried to explain corruption in the Third World by reference to anachronistic traditions and to the special pressures on officials in developing countries. In this article, I argue that, at least in the case of Nigeria, the roots of corruption go deeper, to a materialism and a political fragmentation that are the products of a moment in development. After a schematic review of the relevant literature, I examine the causes of Nigerian corruption, and conclude with the suggestion that the future of good government depends on an expansion of the private economy.
At the conclusion of a meeting of the Armed Forces Ruling Council in October 1986, President Ibrahim Babangida turned to the Inspector- General of the Nigeria Police Force, Etim Inyang, and asked, ‘My friend, where is Anini?’. At about this time, Nigerian newspapers and journals were publishing numerous articles and editorials on the ‘Anini Challenge’, the ‘Anini Saga’, the ‘Anini Factor’, ‘Lawrence Anini – the Man, the Myth’, ‘Anini, Jack the Ripper’, and ‘Lawrence Anini: A Robin Hood in Bendel’. The Guardian asked, almost plaintively, ‘Will they ever find Anini, “The Law”?’, and when he was finally captured in early December, the cover of the magazine Thisweek blared forth, above a picture of the badly injured criminal in his hospital bed, ‘Anini. Face to Face with The Law’.
This study investigates the question of reliability among four widely used cross-national data sets by constructing an error framework that relates types of errors to uses of the data. The findings indicate that (1) for nation-by-nation point estimation, the four data sets differ by varying degrees, (2) for aggregate point estimation in cross-sectional descriptive and longitudinal descriptive studies, they are statistically similar, and (3) for analytic or explanatory cross-sectional purposes, they yield statistically and substantively similar results. In short, for studies seeking aggregate descriptions of world crime or analytic explanations of cross-national crime rates, differences in the data sets do not make a difference in the results.
Low self-control theory will have an impact on criminological theory. G&H's arguments are too forcefully and intelligently made to be ignored. I anticipate that the theory will inspire a great deal of attention and research (and much of it may be in an attempt to prove them wrong). The value of self-control theory would be advanced even more, however, if G&H would grapple with the tautology problem, attend to theoretical linkages with prior control theory, and ease off a bit from the oppositional strategy in comparing their theory with other theories.
Gottfredson and Hirschi'sA General Theory of Crime contends that individual differences in involvement in criminal and analogous behavior are due largely to individual differences in the personality trait they call low self-control. Among the various behaviors considered analogous to crime are imprudent behaviors such as smoking, drinking, and gambling. This research explores the generality of Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory by examining the link between low self-control and these imprudent behaviors. The results are mixed. In support of the theory, the data reveal a modest but significant effect of a scale designed to capture the various components of low self-control on an index of imprudent behavior. A more detailed analysis, however, reveals that some of the components of low self-control, specifically those probably linked to low intelligence, detract from the scale's predictive power. In fact, one of the components, risk-seeking, is more predictive than the more inclusive scale. Furthermore, one of the imprudent acts, smoking, appears to be unaffected by low self-control. These contradictory findings suggest the need for theoretical refinements.
When a country is undergoing rapid techno-industrial change, experiencing a shift from a "Gemeinschaft" to a "Gesellschaft" type of existence, as well as a widening of the gap between the "haves" and the "have-nots', the emergence or aggravation of certain social problems is an historically proven correlate. That is, certain identifiable social problems are accompaniments of development, .especially the capitalist or "mixed" type of development. Of these problems, those of crime and delinquency within the urban existence seem to be in the forefront. There is the obsessive pursuance of individual wealth rather than the erstwhile reliance on community or family land or cattle. Also evident is the insecurity of a large portion of the urban population which has been deprived of the social and psychological support previously' given by the family structure of a close-knit community. The anonymity of urban existence and the consequent lessening of the family's group pressure towards conformity with regard to conduct norms is observable and "justifications" like unemployment, obvious and relative poverty as well as opportunities in the cities and towns for committing, and being victims of crime are increased. This situation in Nigeria is similar to that in many other developing countries oriented toward a free enterprise economy. However, there is the belief that in Nigeria we do not have a "crime problem" and that such a problem is only characteristic of the developed nations of Europe and America. This belief is contrary to reasoning and observable facts. Under conditions of development such as we are experiencing, a crime problem may be expected. Several factors suggest this: the cultural and socioeconomic communications and interdependencies among modem societies; the fact that our present legal and economic systems originated in, and were received from the West; the similarities between the patterns of our ongoing
By articulating a general theory of crime and related behavior, the authors present a new and comprehensive statement of what the criminological enterprise should be about. They argue that prevalent academic criminologyâwhether sociological, psychological, biological, or economicâhas been unable to provide believable explanations of criminal behavior. The long-discarded classical tradition in criminology was based on choice and free will, and saw crime as the natural consequence of unrestrained human tendencies to seek pleasure and to avoid pain. It concerned itself with the nature of crime and paid little attention to the criminal. The scientific, or disciplinary, tradition is based on causation and determinism, and has dominated twentieth-century criminology. It concerns itself with the nature of the criminal and pays little attention to the crime itself. Though the two traditions are considered incompatible, this book brings classical and modern criminology together by requiring that their conceptions be consistent with each other and with the results of research. The authors explore the essential nature of crime, finding that scientific and popular conceptions of crime are misleading, and they assess the truth of disciplinary claims about crime, concluding that such claims are contrary to the nature of crime and, interestingly enough, to the data produced by the disciplines themselves. They then put forward their own theory of crime, which asserts that the essential element of criminality is the absence of self-control. Persons with high self-control consider the long-term consequences of their behavior; those with low self-control do not. Such control is learned, usually early in life, and once learned, is highly resistant to change. In the remainder of the book, the authors apply their theory to the persistent problems of criminology. Why are men, adolescents, and minorities more likely than their counterparts to commit criminal acts? What is the role of the school in the causation of delinquincy? To what extent could crime be reduced by providing meaningful work? Why do some societies have much lower crime rates than others? Does white-collar crime require its own theory? Is there such a thing as organized crime? In all cases, the theory forces fundamental reconsideration of the conventional wisdom of academians and crimina justic practitioners. The authors conclude by exploring the implications of the theory for the future study and control of crime.
Kaduna State, Nigeria serves as an example of a third world state that in the wake of rapid change and the weakening of traditional forms of welfare has created an underclass of beggars, many of whom are children. Lack of a comprehensive welfare system in general, and more specifically, protective services for minors, has resulted in the neglect of some children who are exploited by poor families for street begging. Although laws exist to protect minors and prevent street begging by children, they are seldom enforced. Perhaps this is due to the absence of a governmental agency solely responsible for child welfare. In light of the need to assist beggar children, the following measures are recommended: Establish a Bureau for the Protection of Beggar Children. Establish a Division of Protective Services in the Ministry of Social Development. Establish advocacy programs for street children by voluntary agencies.
Drug availability, distribution and control are major concerns in health development. In contending that the concern in Nigeria now is as much with the availability of, as well as the dangers in drugs, this essay examines the 1990 paracetamol poisoning which resulted in the death of 109 children. It is explained that this tragedy, and others before it, are more fully understood within the context of a seemingly free-for-all drug scene on the one hand, and a health care system which excludes the majority on the other. The implication of this "drug swindling", of which the paracetamol tragedy is a part, are discussed. We conclude that whereas more meticulous self regulation will most certainly provide a greater safeguard against recurrence, the war on counterfeit and poisonous drugs can hardly be won without consumer initiative and more effective regulatory system.