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Vengeance is mine: Narcissism, vengeance, and the tendency to forgive

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Abstract

Recent theory and research have suggested that the disposition to forgive and the tendency to seek vengeance are related but distinguishable characteristics. Although highly forgiving individuals cannot be simultaneously high in vengeance, those who are low in forgiveness could be either vengeful or not. The present study tested the hypothesis that what distinguishes unforgiving people who are highly vengeful from unforgiving people who are not highly vengeful is that the latter group is lower in narcissism. Measures of dispositional forgiveness, narcissism, global self-esteem, and vengeance were administered to 248 undergraduates. As expected, people low in dispositional forgiveness were more vengeful than were people high in dispositional forgiveness, but particularly so among those high in narcissism; among those low in narcissism, forgiveness was less strongly related to vengeance. Thus, the most vengeful people were those who were both low in forgiveness and high in narcissism, independent of gender differences and healthy self-esteem.

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... At the same time, the sense of vengeance was associated with the perception of injustice, and vengeance might be defined by the individual's responses to resolve this injustice (Bradfield, & Aquino, 1999;Cota-Mckinley et al., 2001). Studies in the literature examine associations between narcissism and vengeance (Brewer et al., 2015;Brown, 2004). Sometimes people decide to take vengeance on people they find guilty. ...
... In line with the findings of empirical studies, it can be concluded that vulnerable narcissistic traits may be an indicator of a tendency to take vengeance. It would be stated that the emotional and behavioral responses of narcissists can be effective in separating the individual who wants to take vengeance and the individual who does not want to take vengeance (Brown, 2004). ...
... Vulnerable narcissists may turn to vengeance when subjected to an attack on themselves. Brown (2004) found significant relationships among narcissistic personality traits, vengeance, and forgiveness. The internet may be an effective tool for the person seeking vengeance if it is inaccessible or if the narcissist wants to conceal his identity while taking revenge. ...
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The present study aimed to explore the mediating pathway on internet addiction through vengeance. The sample was consisted of 392 university students (N female = 242, 61.7% and N male = 150, 38.3%). The ages ranged between 18 and 35, with a mean age of 21.6 (SD = 1.95). The sample completed Young's Internet Addiction Test-Short Form, The Vengeance Scale, and Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale. According to mediation analysis results using structural equation modeling and bootstrapping, vengeance partially mediated vulnerable narcissism-internet addiction association. The results of the present study intimated the importance of the effects of individual differences and communication styles or preferences on internet addiction. The possible potential therapeutic power of vulnerable narcissism, which may lead to a direct increase in vengeance and an indirect increase in internet addiction through vengeance, appeared in line with this perspective. Finally, the results provided beneficial outcomes for clinical experts.
... However, as mentioned in the previous section on forgiveness, conceptualizing revenge and forgiveness as opposite mental states negates the important pro-social aspects of the forgiveness concept (Ho et al., 2002). Given the definition of forgiveness as empathy-driven and pro-social transformation of emotions and thoughts that exceeds the pure absence of revenge, it seems plausible that intrapersonal revenge and forgiveness represent distinct mental phenomena (Brown, 2003;Brown, 2004). In terms of their conceptualization as coping mechanisms, revenge and forgiveness can thus be seen as distinct mental attempts to cope with injustice and harm (Bradfield & Aquino, 1999). ...
... Studies have shown that the forgiving and the vengeful dispositions are only moderately negatively correlated (Ysseldyk et al., 2007) and that revenge and forgiveness cognitions represent distinct approaches to coping with injustice (Bradfield & Aquino, 1999). From this perspective, the dispositional tendency to forgive has been conceptualized as theoretically and empirically distinct from dispositional vengeance (Brown, 2004). The personal tendency to forgive has been shown to be positively associated with forgiving a recent hurt but not negatively associated with revenge moti-vations toward the transgressor (Wade & Worthington, 2003). ...
... Clearly, intrapersonal revenge and forgiveness are negatively related to each other (Brown, 2004;McCullough et al., 2001). However, there are different theoretical approaches to the dimensionality underlying the two phenomena. ...
... Paralelo a isso, também se tem explorado a ideia de que perdão e vingança não apresentam apenas uma relação direta de oposição. Brown (2004), por exemplo, afirma que uma pessoa que perdoa muito também pode ser muito vingativa e vice-versa. Dessa forma, uma pessoa que não endossa comportamentos relacionados à vingança não significa, necessariamente, que ela perdoa facilmente alguém que a ofendeu (Brown, 2003). ...
... Assim, por um lado, há estudos que afirmam que perdão e vingança são construtos correlatos, evidenciando que a vingança tem um papel importante no ato de perdoar e que pessoas vingativas perdoam menos e ruminam mais, assim como também mantêm o desejo de se vingar por mais tempo do que pessoas menos vingativas (McCullough et al., 2001). Por outro lado, tem-se discutido que perdão e vingança não são apenas construtos opostos, mostrando que indivíduos que pontuam alto em perdão podem, simultaneamente, pontuar alto em vingança e que pessoas que não perdoam podem ou não ser vingativas (Brown, 2004). ...
... Nessa compreensão, pode-se pensar que, embora possam ter atributos específicos que os tornam distintos e independentes (Brown, 2004;McCullough et al., 2001), a vingança e o perdão também parecem compartilhar uma dimensão geral (Barber et al., 2005;Satici et al., 2014). Essa discussão permite levantar a hipótese de que perdão e vingança podem ser explicados por um modelo bifator. ...
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The desire to punish someone who has caused suffering is characterized by revenge. However, it ispossible for someone to present pro-social changes in relation to the offender, which constitutesforgiveness. Studies point out that forgiveness and revenge can be understood in the opposite wayand also share a common dimension. In this sense, this study aimed to compare the adjustment of atwo-factor model for forgiveness and revenge with alternative explanations of one-factor and twofactormodels. 195 people participated, the majority female (66.7%), heterosexual (83.2%), single (80.8%), with incomplete higher education (68.4%) and with ages between 18 and 82 years (M=27.26; SD=11.50), who responded to the Willingness to Forgive Scale and the Vengeance Scale. The results showed that the two-factor model was more appropriate [χ2(102)=175.639, p<0.001; χ2/gl=1.54, SRMR=0.06, CFI=0.94, RMSEA=0.061 (CI90%=0.04-0.07), TLI=0.93]. The results found suggest that, in addition to sharing a common factor, the variables seem to have legitimacy as distinct constructs, providing empirical support for the promotion of strategies aimed at intervening in both general and specific elements related to the constructs.
... Narcissism is an important personality trait that can cause difficulties in close relationships (e.g., Rhodewalt & Sorrow, 2003;Weikel et al., 2010). Narcissists feel greater threat to the possibility of partner transgressions and they are also more unforgiving (e.g., Besser & Priel, 2009;Brown, 2004). The current studies extended previous research by exploring the associations among narcissism, responsibility attributions, and unforgiveness following a significant conflict in an intimate relationship. ...
... This was especially true for those who scored high in Entitlement/Exploitation. Grandiose narcissists were also less likely to seek forgiveness (Sandage et al., 2000); grandiose narcissists who were low in forgiveness showed a higher need for vengeance (Brown, 2004), and grandiose narcissism was associated with the reported likelihood and perceived effectiveness of revenge after a hypothetical relationship transgression (Rasmussen & Boon, 2014). Nevertheless, one study found that vulnerable narcissism showed a greater association with unforgiveness than grandiose narcissism (Lannin et al., 2014). ...
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Three studies explored the influence of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism on negative responsibility attributions and unforgiveness following a conflict in an intimate relationship. We tested Morf and Rhodewalt’s (2001a, 2001b) Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model of Narcissism. In the first two studies, participants were primarily heterosexual college students in a serious dating relationship and both types of narcissism were examined. The first study involved participants’ self-nominated biggest conflict. The second study involved an agreed-upon conflict. The third study attempted a conceptual replication of the actor effects found in the first two studies by testing mediation models with narcissism, negative responsibility attributions, and unforgiveness in a larger, convenience sample of MTurk workers. The first two studies showed gender differences suggesting that responsibility attributions either partially or fully mediated the relationship between grandiose narcissism and unforgiveness in males. The pattern of results for females was different in the first two studies. The third study showed that responsibility attributions partially mediated the relationship between all three forms of narcissism (grandiose narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, and entitlement) and unforgiveness in males and females supporting the Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model of Narcissism.
... Clients are then asked to describe the three hopes they would take out of the hope chest and how the granting of these hopes would change their present situation. The hope questions reveal what clients want to change about their lives and what they are willing to do to sustain those changes (Brown, 2004;Brown & Phillips, 2005;Holeman, 2004). Another technique in strengthbased counseling is the forgiveness technique, which encourages clients to release themselves and others from the past. ...
... To help clients rid themselves of these negative emotions, counselors must have clients forgive the person they view as the wrongdoer or the persons responsible for their hurt. Most people must confront forgiveness during their lives (Brown, 2004;Holeman, 2004). The results of this study are in line with the findings of previous studies in this regard and showed the effectiveness of strength-based counseling intervention on divorced women with depression. ...
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Background and aim: Divorce is one of the most stressful losses and causes emotional derangement and behavioral problems in individuals. Although the negative consequences of divorce tend to bind both couples, but based on studies, the vulnerability of women after divorce is greater than men; therefore, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of strength-based counseling on the reduction of divorced women's depression. method: This study is a quasi-experiment an was performed based on pretest and post-test with a control group (10 in the experimental group and 10 in 10 in the control group). The statistical population of this study was divorced women who attended to Mehravar counseling center of Tehran in the second half of 1400 because of their depression. The data collection tool in the present study was the Beck depression inventory 2 (1996). ANOVA with repeated measure was used to analyze the data. Results: Based on the results obtained in the pre-test stage, there was no significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of depression. But after the intervention (Smith’s (2006) strength-based intervention) a significant difference (P = 0/006, F = 13.78) was observed between the two groups and this effect was sustained in follow-up stage. Conclusion: According to results, it can be concluded that strength-based counseling reduces the level depression in divorced women. Thus, using this approach is suggested in order to reducing depression of divorced women.
... Past research also indicates that narcissism, particularly a sense of entitlement, relates to vengefulness, or dispositionally positive attitudes toward revenge (Brown, 2004;Rasmussen, 2016, Stuckless & Goranson, 1992. Specifically, vengefulness reflects positive attitudes toward vengeance and the belief that taking revenge is part of showing moral character (McCullough, et al., 2001). ...
... Those who score highest on measures of both narcissism and vengefulness are unlikely to forgive others for past offenses, and this particular combination of traits can potentially increase desires for revenge and decrease perceived restraints against it (Brown, 2004). If vengefulness and narcissism combine to negatively predict one's tendency to forgive, then people high in each of these traits might also be less inhibited about considering or even planning overt, direct revenge behaviors. ...
Article
In this study, we examine the descriptive qualities of revenge fantasies and test evolutionary and individual-difference accounts for the experience of them. Participants recalled and described a revenge fantasy, and rated its recency, duration, intensity, and the frequency with which they fantasized about revenge overall. They also completed measures of narcissistic entitlement and vengefulness. Consistent with an evolutionary approach to understanding revenge, the results show that men were twice as likely to report fantasies of direct/overt acts of revenge than were women. Vengefulness and narcissistic entitlement did not relate to whether the fantasized revenge act was direct/overt or indirect/covert, but related to the frequency and intensity of participants’ revenge fantasies and the affective experiences participants reported while thinking of them. The findings add specificity to the three-phase model of revenge ( Yoshimura & Boon, 2018 ), and reveal areas of potential growth in research on revenge, in general, and revenge fantasies specifically.
... The Olweus method, which informs the many anti-bullying policies in schools today, recognizes that bullying is about the imbalance and abuse of power, but fails to consider the different ways that power is experienced, expressed, and channeled in a sexist, racist, and homophobic society, or the subtlety of girl-to-girl aggression, which is not always physical, and instead verbal and emotional (Brown 2004). Brown's (2004) work with girl-to-girl aggression revealed the more nuanced and culturallymediated motivations, such as misplaced anger and aggression about mistreatment in school, sexual harassment, and jealousies over boys. ...
... The Olweus method, which informs the many anti-bullying policies in schools today, recognizes that bullying is about the imbalance and abuse of power, but fails to consider the different ways that power is experienced, expressed, and channeled in a sexist, racist, and homophobic society, or the subtlety of girl-to-girl aggression, which is not always physical, and instead verbal and emotional (Brown 2004). Brown's (2004) work with girl-to-girl aggression revealed the more nuanced and culturallymediated motivations, such as misplaced anger and aggression about mistreatment in school, sexual harassment, and jealousies over boys. For many, these public performances (i.e., fighting, sexual dominance) were for visibility and power, designed to garner respect and popularity amongst their peers. ...
Thesis
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This study explored how Hispanic youth (ages 13-21 years) living in low-income neighborhoods of Florida defined resiliency and expressed agency navigating personal challenges and neighborhood adversity in pursuit of success. From the standpoint of the participants, this study focused on how youths: 1) judge the quality of life in their neighborhoods and the opportunities available for them, 2) identify personal aspirations for themselves and 3) identify what resilient factors allowed them to face the challenges and barriers of their daily lives to pursue this aspiration. This study takes into account the structural barriers that create inequities to examine how personal assets (e.g., familial and cultural values, self-esteem, and life experience) and external resources (e.g., social support, neighborhood resources, and political climate) affect youth behavior and resilience. Despite the participants living in similar neighborhoods with similar opportunities, the relationship between resources and assets exposed varying levels of resiliency, self-confidence (i.e., self-esteem), and agency against personal and structural challenges in their lives. Drawing from a critical medical anthropology (CMA) theory and resilience theory to examine both agency and resilience, this study designed a model called the “Youth Agency and Resiliency model” which consists of two perspectives: 1) the foundational assets (e.g., life experience, self-esteem, personal talents) and resources (e.g., social support, political climate, neighborhood environment) that contribute to an individual’s sense of agency, defining an aspiration, and perception of their surrounding and own self-worth and 2) how that sense of surrounding and self-worth affects their ability to take action (i.e. agentic action) and sustain resiliency to reach that aspiration. Participant observation took place over two years (2016-2018), focusing on youth from two adjacent low-income rural communities in Florida. Using community-based participatory research methods, a total of 127 Hispanic youths were included in this study who participated in only one data collection activity. In total, forty-eight participants completed semi-structured interviews, forty-three participated in four focus groups, and thirty-six completed community perception surveys that included questions about neighborhood, opportunities for youth, challenges and barriers, and self-described plans for attaining goals. This study revealed that out of 127 participants, 18 (14%) were able to both identify a long-term personal aspiration and actively were working towards that goal (displaying resilience) or were close to achieving that goal (“positively resilient”). The improvements youths identified as needed to improve resilience and success included strong social supports (e.g., presence of role models), recreational spaces, and increased educational/ economic opportunities geared towards youths’ interests. For the 18 Hispanic youth who self-identified as resilient and were actively working towards their goals, the factors with the strongest correlations to positive resilience were: 1) access to opportunities (both academic and economic); 2) strong social support from family and mentors and; 3) high self-esteem that supported agentic action to pursue their goals. Youth violence involving fighting was revealed to be a hidden resilience in a large majority of youth studied, enhancing self-esteem and expressions of resilience. All these resilience-enhancing factors played a protective role in overcoming the negative influences of peers or challenges faced within their own neighborhoods and influenced agency and self-esteem amongst youth to take action. The study also examined the individual-level challenges that inhibited resiliency in most of the youth in this study. A sense of hopelessness was the strongest factor that kept many youth from formulating or pursuing a long-term goal, with factors such as lack of opportunities and resources to support those goals (structural), lack of familial support (resources) and low self-esteem (individual capacity), coupled with underlying mental stress and emotional trauma. This study contributes to the literature on resilience and agency amongst minority youths by adding new resilience-enhancing factors to consider when working within disadvantaged neighborhoods. The study made the distinction between family support and family cohesion, with the former being a stronger resilience enhancer when it coincides with youth’s goals and aspirations, a distinction not made in any resilience literature. This study added a holistic and youth-perspective approach to how youths navigate hostile environments in their own defined resilient ways. This study was also the first to fuse resilience theory and critical medical anthropology theory to create a new youth agency and resilience framework model for working with young minority groups.
... The empirical research on trait narcissism casts a negative light on narcissistic individuals in intimate relationships (Miller et al., 2010). In such relationships, narcissism has been associated with conflict and hostility (Moeller, Crocker, & Bushman, 2009), low commitment and infidelity (Campbell, Foster, & Finkel, 2002;McNulty & Widman, 2014), vengefulseeking behavior (Brown, 2004), maladaptive jealousy (Chin, Atkinson, Raheb, Harris, & Vernon, 2017), a game-playing and exploitative approach to romantic relationships , and an accepting attitude toward domestic violence (Blinkhorn et al., 2016). Domestic violence encompasses physical, verbal, and psychological forms of abusive behavior; thus, any pattern of controlling, coercive, or threatening behavior intended to punish, harm, or frighten an intimate partner is considered illegal (Legislation.gov.uk, ...
... The significant distress and pain experienced by participants shed light on the dysfunctional context narcissists create through their interpersonal hostility, resulting in a lack of empathy and callous exploitation of others (Blinkhorn et al., 2016;Brown, 2004;Filippini, 2005;Foster & Campbell, 2005;Määttä et al., 2012;Miller et al., 2010;Moeller et al., 2009;Peterson & DeHart, 2014;Rhodewalt & Eddings, 2002;Tortoriello et al., 2017). ...
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Addressing an underresearched aspect of narcissism, this study investigated subclinical “grandiose” and “vulnerable” narcissism within the context of domestic violence. Common triggers evoking narcissistic rage and differences in narcissistic injury response were explored. Qualitative semi-structured interviews with seven participants who reported being in a relationship with a narcissistic partner were thematically analyzed. Three overarching themes emerged: (a) overt and covert expressions of abuse, (b) challenge to self-perceived authority, and (c) fear of abandonment. Findings suggest both grandiose and vulnerable narcissists’ reactions to narcissistic injury are most likely covertly and overtly aggressive and violent; however, the underlying motives for the behavior differed. For grandiose narcissists, violence was commonly triggered by threats to self-esteem, whereas vulnerable narcissists commonly experienced significant injury and rage from fear of abandonment. It is argued that attempts to regulate and restore self-esteem for the two subtypes of narcissistic presentation will differ, thus providing further support for theoretical distinctions between grandiose and vulnerable narcissists in intimate relationships. It is concluded that popular images of the narcissist are overly simplistic as the personality trait is more complex than the grandiose type typically presented. This study contributes new understanding to the nature of narcissism in domestic violence. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... Numerous studies show that narcissists report low levels of empathy, exaggerated feelings of deservingness and entitlement (Baumeister, Catanese, &, Wallace, 2002;Dickinson & Pincus, 2003). At the same time, they tend to also hold a sense of being deprived of 'deserved' admiration and gratification, which together makes them particularly prone to seek out vengeance and to engage in aggression (Brown, 2004;Bushman, Bonacci, van Dijk, & Baumeister, 2003;Twenge & Campbell, 2003). Relatedly, 'narcissistic rage' has been described as a defence mechanism in order to deal with feelings of deep-rooted shame, which arise when narcissists feel deprived of validation and gratification and thus, the grandiose perception of the self is threatened (Kohut, 1972;Krizan & Johar, 2015). ...
... Correlational studies found firm evidence for the strong mediating role of revenge motivation on the relationship between trait forgivingness and anger-related unforgiving dispositional traits, i.e., trait anger and chronic hostility (Berry et al., 2005). In a similar vein, narcissistic entitlement on the individual level has been associated with an unwillingness to forgive others for perceived insults or transgressions and for exhibiting a strong capacity for vengefulness (e.g., Brown, 2004) as well as grudge-holding (Exline, Baumeister, Bushman, Campbell, & Finkel, 2004). Similarly, collective narcissists have been found to be unwilling to forgive others for wrongdoings, insults or unfair treatment of the ingroup (Hamer, Penczek, & Bilewicz, 2018). ...
Thesis
Progress within the field of radicalisation is evident. Yet while research increasingly adopts a quantitative approach to studying radicalisation processes, there is no sound empirical evidence base on the risk and protective factors for violent extremism and much research is not fit for practice. Day-to-day risk assessment and management of individuals deemed to be a potential risk to national security forms a core component of counter-terrorism. Each phase of counter-terrorism risk assessment and management requires state-of-the-art science for the identification of putative risk and protective factors, and to understand how such factors are functionally linked to violent extremism. This thesis provides a unique contribution to these research endeavours in several important ways. First, in order to explain why individuals radicalise, we have to turn our focus towards those risk factors and underlying mechanisms, which explain why and how certain individuals come to develop extremist propensities. Thus, this thesis’ main aim is to study risk and protective factors for the development of violent extremist propensities. Second, terrorism studies is over-reliant on secondary data. By conducting two unique large-scale nationally representative general population surveys, this thesis contributes towards establishing a robust empirical knowledge base. These are one of the first such surveys conducted within the field of violent extremism research. Third, radicalisation trajectories and engagement in violent extremism are characterised by complex constellations of risk as well as protective factors. Risk factors for one risk specification may not equally apply to others and the conditional and contextual nature of various factors need to be taken into consideration, which necessitates more complex analyses of patterns of relationships. This thesis draws on a range of structural equation models, conditional mediation models and interaction analyses, which allow for a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms and complex configurations of various risk and protective factors. The analytical designs embedded throughout this thesis are some of the first to test such interactions in an empirical manner. Fourth, this thesis uses an integrative framework which examines not just risk but also protective factors for violent extremism and draws on a wide range of validated theories from different disciplines to strengthen the explanation of relationships between factors. By utilising models with several risk/protective factors, this thesis overcomes some of the 'problem of specificity', as it delivers plausible answers as to why the vast majority of individuals, who are experiencing particular conditions or grievances do not develop violent extremist intentions. Such research designs may be able to identify those factors that can inform prevention and intervention programs. Fifth, radicalisation is a complex and multifaceted process with diverse pathways and outcomes to it. This inherent complexity renders radicalisation, as a construct, difficult to operationalise. A key part of conducting quantitative research is the development of adequate and validated instruments. Thus, by developing and validating psychometrically sound instruments, this thesis contributes towards rigorous quantitative research on violent extremism. This thesis addresses these issues through a number of novel research designs. First, I conduct a systematic review and synthesise the existing evidence on quantitative risk and protective factors for different radicalisation outcomes. However, several gaps as well as conceptual and methodological issues are identified, which are addressed in the following chapters. Second, I conduct a German nationally representative survey on violent extremism, and I apply structural equation modeling to employ a conceptually integrated approach to studying the individual and environmental-level determinants of differential vulnerability to extremism. The findings demonstrate the profound effect of person-environment reciprocity and, thereby, highlight key individual, developmental and social mechanisms involved in the development of extremist propensities. Increasingly, we are witnessing a seeming convergence between belief in conspiracy theories and ideological extremes. However, there is a dearth of empirical research on the relationship between conspiracy beliefs and violent extremism. Therefore, third, this thesis conducts a unique quantitative analysis on this relationship and the findings highlight the contingent effects of risk and protective factors, which are defined as ‘interactive’ or ‘buffering’ protective factors. This has major implications in regard to prevention strategies of ‘at-risk’ populations. Fourth, based on a large-scale UK nationally representative survey, I develop and validate a novel psychometric tool to measure individuals’ misogynistic attitudes. Fifth, recent incidents have demonstrated that misogynistic beliefs can lead to acts of mass violence. This thesis provides the first survey-based study on the relationship between misogyny and violent extremism by examining the underlying mechanisms and contingent effects linking misogyny to (extremist) violence. Collectively, the dissertation’s results demonstrate that multiple factors likely contribute to individual pathways into violent extremism. No single risk or protective factor exists that can explain its genesis. This has significant implications for practice and policy. Preventing and countering violent extremism (P/CVE) programs must take account of the constellation of multiple factors that interact with (and sometimes enable or disable one another) rather than solely focusing upon single risk factors. These findings stress the need to implement evidenced based prevention and interventions programs, which have to address these risk factors early on, before they properly take hold and become so deeply ingrained that they are almost intractable. Therefore, increased focus of P/CVE interventions should be put on the indirect, long-term and life-course oriented protective factors.
... Different concepts of forgiveness have been proposed in psychology (see Mccullough & Worthington, 1994;Zarzycka, 2016). Brown (2003Brown ( , 2004 frames forgiveness in terms of attitude and tendency. Tendency to forgive refers to the consistency with which individuals respond with forgiveness to various interpersonal transgressions. ...
... Forgiveness is also associated positively with higher marital satisfaction and a greater commitment to the relationship (Novak, Smith, Larson, & Crane, 2017;Braithwalte, Selby, & Fincham, 2011) and negatively with vindictiveness (Brown, 2004) and severity of symptoms of depression (Brown, Barens, & Campbell, 2007). Research demonstrates that the willingness to forgive plays a very important role in married life, commitment to the relationship and satisfaction with the relationship (Orathinkal & Vansteenwegen, 2006;Braithwalte, Selby, & Fincham, 2011). ...
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We analyzed the relationship between post-critical beliefs and the quality and stability of marriage, taking into account the mediating function of attitude and the tendency to forgive. The sample consisted of 122 predominantly Roman Catholic respondents. We used the Marriage Quality and Stability Scale, the Post-Critical Belief Scale and the Attitude and Tendency to Forgive Scale. Correlation analysis showed a significant positive relationship between Symbolic Affirmation and stability of marriage. Mediation analysis demonstrated that the relationship between Symbolic Affirmation and stability of marriage was mediated by attitude toward forgiveness. The results suggest that religiousness plays a role in predicting stability of marriage and that attitude towards forgiveness is a mediator explaining the mechanism of this relationship.
... Their study revealed that people generally engage in vengeful behavior in order to accomplish three goals: "to restore moral balance"; "to return the transgressor what he or she deserves"; and "to reestablish one's selfesteem." Brown (2004) identified narcissism as one of the most important predictors of vengeance. McCullough et al. (2003) elaborated that narcissists are more likely to interpret negative feedback as an attack on their self and, therefore, justify their vindictive response as a self-defense (Brown, 2004;Ruggi, et al., 2012;Twenge & Campbell, 2003) and with an intention to restore their self-esteem. ...
... Their study revealed that people generally engage in vengeful behavior in order to accomplish three goals: "to restore moral balance"; "to return the transgressor what he or she deserves"; and "to reestablish one's selfesteem." Brown (2004) identified narcissism as one of the most important predictors of vengeance. McCullough et al. (2003) elaborated that narcissists are more likely to interpret negative feedback as an attack on their self and, therefore, justify their vindictive response as a self-defense (Brown, 2004;Ruggi, et al., 2012;Twenge & Campbell, 2003) and with an intention to restore their self-esteem. Frijda (1994) suggested that people with low self-esteem respond vindictively to perpetrators because it gives them some relief from the pain that is caused by the experience of humiliation or emotional injury to their ego and facilitates restoration of imbalance of power. ...
Article
The present study aimed at psychometric evaluation of Vengeance Scale, originally developed by Stuckless and Goranson (Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 25–42, Stuckless and Goranson, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 7:25–42, 1992), for the population of Pakistan in Urdu language. This was accomplished in three studies. In the first study, the items were translated in target language through forward and back-translation procedure followed by a pilot study to evaluate the comprehensibility and cultural equivalence of the items in Pakistani context. In the second study, the psychometric properties of the Urdu-translated Vengeance Scale were assessed on a sample of 316 bilingual university students. The results of factorial analysis suggested that the Urdu-translated Vengeance Scale is a two-dimensional measure of vengeance with an adequate internal consistency. The last phase of the study established the convergent validity of the scale by correlating it with recalled memories of adverse childhood experiences, emotional awareness, global self-esteem, and hurt feelings on a sample of 189 bilingual university students. Multiple regression analysis indicated global self-esteem and emotional awareness and regulation as strongest predictors of vengeance. Overall, the study demonstrated that the Urdu-translated Vengeance Scale is a psychometrically reliable and valid measure of vengeance in Pakistani population.
... They are also more likely to pursue casual sex (Foster, Shrira & Campbell, 2006) and use sexual coercion and commit rape (Baumeister, Catanese & Wallace, 2002). Narcissists also display higher levels of vengeance and vindictiveness (Brown, 2004;Byrne & O'Brien, 2014;Ogrodniczuk, Piper, Joyce, Steinberg & Duggal, 2009), envy (Krizan & Johar, 2012) and manipulativeness (Konrath, Corneille, Bushman, & Luminet, 2014;Nagler, Reiter, Furtner & Rauthmann, 2014). In addition, they will blame others for their failures (Campbell, Reeder, Sedikides & Elliot, 2000), and derogate and devalue others (Morf & Rhodewalt, 1993). ...
... Gormley & Lopez (2010) found that narcissistic entitlement is a robust indicator of men's perpetuation of psychological abuse in relationships. Kealy & Ogrodniczuk, 2011;Ogrodniczuk et al., 2009); derogate (Campbell, Rudich & Sedikedes, 2002), denigrate and devalue their partners (Kealy & Ogrodniczuk, 2011); be vindictive Ogrodniczuk et al., 2009), vengeful (Back et al., 2013;Brown, 2004) and unforgiving towards their partner (Back et al., 2013;Exline et al., 2004); deliberately induce jealousy in partners to gain control and power and sometimes for revenge ; and exhibit intrusiveness in their relationships, disregarding other's personal space, feelings, ...
Thesis
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ABSTRACT This research explores how women are affected by a long term, intimate relationship with a suspected narcissistic male partner. There has been very little empirical research, other than case studies, into women’s experiences in this area, and I have not located any similar research within the New Zealand cultural context. Practitioner research methodology was used to gain an in-depth understanding of women’s experiences with a view to improving my therapeutic counselling practice. Six women, whose ex-partners (from long-term relationships) were judged to have met specific criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder, were interviewed using a semi-structured interview method. The inquiry focused on their experiences at three stages of the relationship (beginning, during and post) and how they were affected. Transcripts were then analysed using thematic analysis which showed women were subjected to ongoing and repeated physical and psychological aggression, coercion, social isolation and financial exploitation throughout their relationship. They lost their independence and agency, and the relationships had a significantly detrimental effect on them in most areas of their lives, i.e. mentally, physically, socially, sexually, spiritually and financially. This abuse was insidious, and the women lived in fear for their safety and the safety of their children. The research shows that the deterioration of these relationships happens gradually, it ultimately erodes and annihilates the sense of self, which makes it almost impossible to leave. The negative effects on the women were immense and continued long after the relationships had ended. Despite what they endured, they showed enormous strength, courage and resiliency. Recovery was a long process, often self-directed, including seeking help from counsellors. Implications from the findings are discussed, and it is concluded that the experience of living long-term with a partner with strong narcissistic behaviours produces some outcomes of domestic abuse that may not be typical for other victims of domestic abuse. I discuss how these women become annihilated and trapped in these relationships and make recommendations on how response-based therapy and narrative therapy could be used to help these women rebuild their lives and sense of self.
... In close relationships, positive relationship evaluations predict forgiveness, such as commitment to and satisfaction with the relationship (Braithwaite et al., 2011;McCauley et al., 2022;McCullough, 2000). Other predictors of the tendency to retaliate against a transgressor include personality traits characterized by negative affect such as narcissism and neuroticism (Brown, 2004;McCullough et al., 2001;Schumann & Ross, 2010), and the tendency to ruminate about an offense (McCullough et al., 2007;Wu et al., 2019). Regarding outcomes, forgiving has been associated with higher levels of romantic relationship satisfaction and life satisfaction (Akhtar et al., 2017;Braithwaite et al., 2016;Wu et al., 2022). ...
Article
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The willingness to apologize and forgive is robustly associated with relational and personal wellbeing, and thus, it may be worthwhile for children to be taught about the importance of apologies and forgiveness through apology prompting from their parents. However, there is limited research on parental apology prompting, as well as on parental attitudes on the developmental importance of child apologies. Guided by Family System Theory, we investigated whether the proclivity to apologize to and forgive a romantic partner is associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. We also examined the role of childhood experiences with apologies, and moderators of these associations. We recruited a sample of parents of 3–10-year-olds. Parents’ proclivity to apologize to their romantic partner and their childhood experiences with apologies were positively associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. The association between the proclivity to apologize to the romantic partner and parental apology prompting was mediated by positive parental attitudes on the developmental importance of child apologies. The proclivity to retaliate against the romantic partner was negatively associated with positive parental attitudes on apologies and parental apology prompting. Political conservatism and romantic relationship satisfaction moderated the association between the proclivity to apologize to the romantic partner and parental apology prompting. Further, we share measures of childhood experiences with apologies and parental attitudes on apologies that may be useful for future research. Results suggest that it may be advantageous for parent couples to prompt apologies from their children.
... In this vein, it has been shown that narcissism is positively associated with increased feelings of anger and aggression (Twenge & Campbell, 2003), both of which are manifested in self-protective responses such as blaming and disregarding others (Tracy & Robins, 2003). Narcissists were also found to engage in vengeance, that is, a personally motivated desire to punish another individual when they perceive an offense toward their selfimage (Brown, 2004). Similarly, within leadership literature, it has been demonstrated that narcissistic leaders are more sensitive to cues of social status (i.e., the degree of influence, respect and admiration they receive in social situations) and consequently, may respond harshly and engage into social conflict when they perceive threats to their social status (Kroencke et al., 2023). ...
Article
Workplace relationships are inherently dynamic, wherein previously positive or neutral interpersonal ties can shift toward negativity. Emergent theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that negative ties are particularly detrimental in organizational contexts. Yet, little has been done for understanding why workplace relationships can pursue a declining trajectory and eventually, transition into negative ties. Drawing upon social exchange and self-regulation theories, this study aims to shed light on this transition process. We posit that unrequited relationships, where one party invests more than the other in a workplace relationship, increase the likelihood of transitioning into negative ties over time. Furthermore, we argue that narcissistic personality traits amplify these effects, while empathic concern serves as a buffer, counteracting the influence of unrequited relationships. We find empirical evidence for these arguments in a longitudinal study conducted among the employees in an Italian architectural firm. The trajectory of workplace relationships declines due to unharmonized social exchanges between dyad members, with these effects moderated by individual differences in narcissism and empathy.
... This technique encourages clients to release themselves and others from the past. Forgiveness is an essential part of treatment (Brown, 2004;Brown & Phillips, 2005). Typically, clients are overcome by anger, bitterness, betrayal, and despair. ...
Article
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Objective: Dealing with stress is one of the transformative changes that divorce introduces in personal and family lives, leading to the disruption of mental health, cognitive conflicts, and identity crises among women. Thus, the current study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a strength-based approach on distress tolerance and frustration tolerance in divorced women. Methods: The research was applied in nature and semi-experimental in design, featuring a pre-test and post-test with one experimental group and one control group, along with a two-month follow-up. Consequently, the study population consisted of all divorced women who visited counseling centers in District 6 of Tehran in 2022. From this population, 40 women were selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to an experimental group (20 participants) and a control group (20 participants). The experimental group underwent a strength-based approach program based on a protocol developed by Darbani and Parsakia (2022). Data collection tools included the Harrington Frustration Tolerance Questionnaire (2005) and the Simons and Gahr Distress Tolerance Questionnaire (2005). Descriptive statistics utilized frequency distribution tables, and inferential analysis was conducted using mixed ANOVA with repeated measures and Bonferroni post-hoc tests, employing SPSS software version 26. Findings: Considering the F-values and significance levels in the mixed ANOVA for frustration tolerance (F = 10.49, p = 0.002) and distress tolerance (F = 8.81, p = 0.003), it can be concluded that the intervention employed in this study, namely the strength-based approach as an independent variable, significantly altered the dependent variables (frustration tolerance and distress tolerance). Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the strength-based approach is effective in improving distress tolerance and frustration tolerance among divorced women. Therefore, techniques from this approach can be utilized in post-divorce counseling for divorced women.
... However, revengeideations do not necessarily differ between men and women, but could also be related to the degree of narcissism. Brown [23] found that the degree of narcissism successfully distinguished between vengeful and non-vengeful people who are low in forgiveness. In people with a high degree of forgiveness, narcissism was found to be unrelated to revenge. ...
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Our aim was to find out which social and psychological factors characterize forensic psychiatric patients who have committed family homicide with revenge as a reason as compared to subjects who committed family homicide with other motives. Qualitative research was carried out on the basis of pre-trial forensic assessment reports of existing cases (N = 20), divided between Revenge and No-Revenge cases. In case of revenge, violence was almost always a sort of settling of an interpersonal score. Psychotic symptomatology was absent in the Revenge cases, personality problems (particularly borderline and narcissistic traits) were common. Demoralization because of a decline of well-being seems to be an important factor pushing some persons with such vulnerabilities over the edge. Our expectation is that, at least in a certain proportion of (non-psychotic) patients, there will be more brooding on revenge than the psychotherapist suspects.
... Further, because forgiveness has been shown to vary with gender and age (Brown, 2004), ...
Article
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The extant literature on service failure focuses mainly on how to recover from such incidents. However, companies can act before a service failure occurs to mitigate its negative effects. Building on signaling theory, we adopt a mixed‐method approach based on five studies using different types of analyses (textual and content analysis, and multivariate analysis) to investigate the effect of signaling frontline employee inexperience on customer responses to service failure due to an error committed by an employee. Five studies provide evidence that highlighting inexperience—either informally (through a conversation) or formally (through an in‐training badge)—can act as a signal that prompts customers to be more forgiving toward frontline employees, and such consumer forgiveness then serves as an underlying mechanism to explain repatronage intention. This research also tests and explores the boundary conditions for the effectiveness of the inexperience signal. Our findings have various implications for professionals showing how useful it can be to signal the inexperience of a frontline employee who makes an error that leads to a service failure to be given a second chance, and how certain precautions should be taken to avoid the pitfalls of such a signaling strategy.
... Indeed, high narcissists experience interpersonal interactions more unfavorably: They think negatively of others 33 , show low empathy 34 , and regard others as colder, distrustful, and threatening 5,35 . They often feel misunderstood or rejected by their interaction partners, perceive the partners as cold, report a greater number of daily interpersonal transgressions perpetrated against them, are easily offended, and often feel victimized and vengeful 36,37 (see also 38,39 ). This maps well onto the characteristics of high noise perceivers: Noise perception is negatively associated with the degree to which participants report feeling understood, accepted, supported, and satisfied with the social interaction, and with the degree to which the interactant is seen as open and expressing positive emotions 22,26 . ...
Article
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Grandiose narcissists claim that they have better-than-average emotion recognition abilities, but many objective tests do not support this claim. We sought to clarify the relation between grandiose (both agentic and communal) narcissism and emotion recognition by taking a closer look at the components of emotion recognition. In two studies (N1 = 147, N2 = 520), using culturally distinct samples and different stimulus materials, we investigated the relation between grandiose narcissism and signal decoding (accurate view of the intended emotion displayed in an expression) as well as noise perception (inaccurate deciphering of secondary emotions that are not part of the emotional message). Narcissism was inconsistently related to signal decoding, but consistently and positively related to noise perception. High grandiose (agentic and communal) narcissists are not necessarily better at signal decoding, but are more susceptible to noise perception. We discuss implications for narcissists’ social interactions and interpersonal relationships.
... According to this orientation, women are focused on others (Fan et al., 2018). On the other hand, since vengeance behaviors are stronger in males, they are known to vary by gender (Stuckless & Goranson, 1992;Cota-McKinley et al., 2001;Brown, 2004;Uzun, 2018). The literature has found that WOM changes according to consumer personality traits (Majali & Bohari, 2016) and demographic factors (Maric et al., 2020) and that women are more open to WOM (Kempf & Palan, 2006). ...
Article
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The aims of this study were (a) to investigate the mediating role of vengeance in the relationship between self-enhancement and negative word-of-mouth (NWOM) intention, (b) to examine the moderated mediation role of helping other consumers, and (c) to test moderated moderation role of gender. The study employs Process Macro software to achieve research aims with the sample of 767 consumers. The results show that (a) vengeance has a partial mediating role in the relationship between self-enhancement and NWOM intention, (b) helping other consumers has a moderated mediation role in this indirect relationship, and (c) the moderated mediation role of helping other consumers is moderated by gender (difference for females) only in the effect of self-enhancement on vengeance. Research is important to understand the antecedents of NWOM.
... Ensuite, tant que la victime n'est pas parvenue à dominer sa colère, le pardon ne peut généralement pas être envisagé (Wade & Worthington, 2003). L'on sait depuis longtemps que les individus qui, en raison de dispositions narcissiques, se froissent facilement sont, davantage que d'autres, susceptibles de recourir à la vengeance (Brown, 2004). Par conséquent, un facteur de motif de type négativiste devrait pouvoir être identifié : Colère et Hostilité Persistantes. ...
... Individuals with narcissistic dispositions who cannot tolerate anger may be more unforgiving than mature individuals (Brown, 2004). Further research found that individuals differ in their forgiveness thresholds. ...
Article
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Background: Although the recent past has witnessed a surge in the study of forgiveness, little is known about unforgiveness. This study aims to understand the nature and attributes of unforgiveness. Methods: We used a qualitative design. The sample consisted of 14 participants (22-32 years). We collected data using a semistructured interview protocol. The interview content was tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using the thematic analysis method. Results: We identified five themes: a complex process, multiple causes, benefits, negative consequences, and strategies to reduce unforgiveness. Challenges to trust, unforgiveness-generated behaviors, and mixed emotionality of transgressions made it a complex process. Transgressors' misconduct, challenges to regard and relationship, and negative feelings associated with transgressions were identified as the main causes. Unforgiveness benefits victims by increasing their adaptability, self-worth, productivity, well-being, and relationship outcomes. Some negative consequences of relationships, emotionality, self-worth, etc., have also been described. Positive changes in transgressors' behaviors and poor conditions and the likelihood of revictimization were described as mechanisms to reduce unforgiveness. Discussion: Contrary to previous views, which assumed unforgiveness represents only cold emotion and rumination, our findings reveal that unforgiveness is a complex process. Aside from certain negative consequences, it also serves some adaptive functions.
... Forgiveness and vindictive behavior are linked to a reduction in psychological well being. It is negatively correlated with life satisfaction and overall well being (Brown, 2004), but in some situations taking revenge is beneficial and can be proved pro-social and constructive (Ysseldyk, 2005). Most research on forgiveness and vengeance has been conducted on adults, and little attention is given to the young population. ...
Article
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Forgiveness helps individuals overcome their desire to take revenge and helps improve physical and mental well-being. This study tends to investigate the relationship between forgiveness, revenge, and well-being. The data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire from 101 participants in Karachi, Pakistan. To analyze the data, correlation & t-test were used, and the result showed no significant relation between forgiveness and well-being. Though, one of the surprising findings of the present study is that it shows a positive association between revenge and well-being. Moreover, no gender difference has been found in forgiveness and vengeance. The present study's findings suggest that educational institutes and media should design programs that teach love, compassion, and empathy. As a result, it would help individuals make their lives better and build a peaceful society.
... .org; Brown, 2004;Brown & Phillips, 2005;Holeman, 2004). Seringkali, klien berada dalam masa kemarahan, pengkhianatan, dan putus asa -emosi. ...
Conference Paper
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Schools, as formal education institutions, are supposed to be a pleasant place and able to facilitate the learning process. However, in reality, it seems that learning difficulties still occur among students. The purpose of this study is to describe alternative actions in overcoming learning difficulties. This study uses a qualitative approach and a case study method. The researchers acted as the main instrument. Interviews and documentation studies were employed as data collection techniques. After the data was collected, the researchers used descriptive data analysis techniques. Based on the results of the study, several learning difficulties that were experienced by the students occurred due to several factors, namely lack of motivation in learning, fluctuating enthusiasm, family background, lack of interest in one subject that often led to students absent from school, the condition of the class that is not conducive, and student’s health history of certain diseases. Basically, every learning difficulty experienced by the students can be overcome through Islamic guidance and counseling such as providing assistance in the form of guidance and advising to individuals who are facing problems and to those who are not to develop their potentials, so that they are always in harmony with the Islamic provisions and instructions. Islamic guidance and counseling methods include Qur'anic counseling, Ṣalat therapy, habituation of dhikr, and other good deeds, through the approach of Sufism. As for the strategy in approaching students who have learning difficulties is done in a subtle way and easy to understand by using three methods namely al-hikmah, maui’ẓah hasanah, and mujādalah. The implication is that the Islamic guidance and counseling are very important to be learned, pondered, understood, developed, and implemented in overcoming learning difficulties.
... Forgiveness conceptualized in this manner might be viewed not only as a single act following a particular offense, but also as a dimension of personality (Hill & Allemand, 2010;Kamat, et al., 2006). The latter (also referred to as forgivingness; Roberts, 1995) can be defined as one's tendency to forgive regardless of time, relationships, and situations (Berry et al., 2001;Brown, 2003) and is mainly related to other personality traits, such as agreeableness (Berry et al., 2001;Kamat et al., 2006), neuroticism (Allemand et al., 2008;Maltby et al., 2004), religiousness (Brown et al., 2007;Edwards et al., 2002), empathy (Brown, 2003;Chung, 2014;Giammarco & Vernon, 2014), gratitude (McCullough et al., 2002;Touissant & Friedman, 2009), cognitive flexibility (Thompson et al., 2005), rumination (Berry et al., 2005;Burnette et al., 2009;Chung, 2014), or narcissism (Brown, 2004;Eaton et al., 2006;Fatfouta et al., 2015). Many of these personality characteristics are usually gender-specific, which suggests that dispositional forgiveness might also differ depending on gender. ...
Article
This study explores gender and age differences in forgivingness using the crosscultural and stress-and-coping perspective. Polish and Italian versions of the Heartland Forgiveness scale (HFS) were used. The sample consisted of 1957 individuals aged 18–80 (61% females and 39% males). A 3-way between groups ANOVA was used to examine the main effects and interactions of country, age and gender as they relate to total HFS score. Post-hoc analyses were performed where appropriate. The results revealed that Polish and Italian respondents did not differ in the level of the general tendency to forgive. Gender differences in trait forgiveness were reported in whole sample and in Italian subsample, showing males to be more forgiving than females. Further, our results for all study participants, in Polish subsample and among Italian males showed that older adults were more forgiving than young respondents, which is consistent with the previous findings showing an increase in forgivingness with age.
... As noted, agreeableness scales sometimes put positive reciprocity and (reversed) negative reciprocity items together. Sometimes separate scales for prosocial behavior and negative reciprocity are used and these are often found to be negatively correlated (Brown, 2004;Hoyt et al., 2005;Lee & Ashton, 2012;McCullough et al., 2001;McCullough & Hoyt, 2002;Sheppard & Boon, 2012;but cf. Eisenberger et al., 2004, finding a .1 correlation between positive and negative reciprocity). ...
Article
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Opportunistic actors-who behave expediently, cheating when they can and offering minimal cooperation only when they have to-play an important role in producing some puzzling phenomena, including the flourishing of strong reciprocity, the peculiar correlation between positive and negative reciprocity within cultures of honor, and low levels of social capital within tight and collectivist cultures (that one might naively assume would produce high levels of social capital). Using agent-based models and an experiment, we show how Opportunistic actors enable the growth of Strong Reciprocators, whose strategy is the exact opposite of the Opportunists. Additionally, previous research has shown how the threat of punishment can sustain cooperation within a group. However, the present studies illustrate how stringent demands for cooperation and severe punishments for noncooperation can also backfire and reduce the amount of voluntary, uncoerced cooperation in a society. The studies illuminate the role Opportunists play in producing these backfire effects. In addition to highlighting other features shaping culture (e.g., risk and reward in the environment, "founder effects" requiring a critical mass of certain strategies at a culture's initial stage), the studies help illustrate how Opportunists create aspects of culture that otherwise seem paradoxical, are dismissed as "error," or produce unintended consequences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Typically, such conflicts arise in response to situations threatening narcissists' entitled self-image (Morf et al., 2011). Narcissists tend to be particularly susceptible to self-threatening information (Horvath & Morf, 2009) and, hence, may react in a vengeful and aggressive manner (Brown, 2004;Fatfouta et al., 2015;. So far, psychological explanations of narcissists' malevolence used to focus primarily on situational characteristics, such as the type of provocation (i.e., ego-threat vs. no ego-threat) or the source of provocation (i.e., same vs. ...
Preprint
Previous research highlights that narcissism predicts a wide range of antisocial tendencies. We propose that the expression of such tendencies is contingent on the level of dispositional self-control. Three independent studies (Ntotal = 1,458) using three different narcissism measures and self-reported as well as behavioral indicators of antisocial tendencies tested this moderation hypothesis. In Study 1, antagonistic narcissism was positively related to self-reported revenge following an interpersonal transgression and this relationship was weakened among individuals high (vs. low) in self-control. Studies 2 and 3 conceptually replicated this finding using different narcissism measures, respectively, and trait (Study 2) as well as behaviorally assessed aggression (Study 3) as outcome variables. Results support the moderating role of self-control in the antagonistic narcissism-antisociality link.
... Forgiveness conceptualized in this manner might be viewed not only as a single act following a particular offense, but also as a dimension of personality (Hill & Allemand, 2010;Kamat, et al., 2006). The latter (also referred to as forgivingness; Roberts, 1995) can be defined as one's tendency to forgive regardless of time, relationships, and situations (Berry et al., 2001;Brown, 2003) and is mainly related to other personality traits, such as agreeableness (Berry et al., 2001;Kamat et al., 2006), neuroticism (Allemand et al., 2008;Maltby et al., 2004), religiousness (Brown et al., 2007;Edwards et al., 2002), empathy (Brown, 2003;Chung, 2014;Giammarco & Vernon, 2014), gratitude (McCullough et al., 2002;Touissant & Friedman, 2009), cognitive flexibility (Thompson et al., 2005), rumination (Berry et al., 2005;Burnette et al., 2009;Chung, 2014), or narcissism (Brown, 2004;Eaton et al., 2006;Fatfouta et al., 2015). Many of these personality characteristics are usually gender-specific, which suggests that dispositional forgiveness might also differ depending on gender. ...
Article
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Although women are believed to be more forgiving than men, the results of many studies comparing women with men vary. Moreover, little is known about unique correlates or differential patterns of experiencing forgiveness by gender. In the present study, we compared men and women in terms of their level of dispositional forgiveness and its emotional correlates, namely positive and negative affect, anxiety, and emotional control. The sample consisted of 625 individuals aged 19–69, of whom 478 (76.5%) were women and 147 (23.5%) were men. Polish versions of the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Courtauld Emotional Control Scale (CECS), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used. Men showed a higher level of general forgiveness and greater willingness to overcome unforgiveness than women, but there was no significant difference in positive facets of the disposition to forgive. In both genders negative affect, anxiety, and control of anger and of depression were negatively related to dimensions of dispositional forgiveness, and positive affect was positively associated with forgiveness. In females control of anxiety was negatively and in males it was positively related to facets of forgiveness. Gender moderated a number of links between affective traits and forgiveness of self and of situations beyond control, but not forgiveness of others.
... Consistent with the many clinical reports on interpersonal impairment, the empirical research on trait narcissism casts a negative light on narcissistic individuals in intimate relationships . In such relationships, narcissism (NPI) has been associated with conflict and hostility (Moeller, Crocker & Bushman, 2009), low commitment and infidelity (Campbell, Foster & Finkel, 2002; McNulty & Widman, 2014), vengeful-seeking behaviour (Brown, 2004), maladaptive jealousy (Chin, Atkinson, Raheb, Harris & Vernon, 2017), and a gameplaying and exploitative approach to romantic relationships (Campbell et al., 2002). ...
Thesis
Despite its longevity as a personality construct, theoretical understandings of gender differences in narcissistic presentation are underdeveloped given the overemphasis of grandiose features indicative of the male gender. The existing literature is also fragmented across empirical and clinical subfields, with inconsistent conceptualisations regarding an assumed heterogeneous construct encompassing grandiose and vulnerable features. In this context, this thesis aims to enhance theoretical knowledge regarding gender differences in grandiose and vulnerable narcissism through undertaking three distinct but interrelated studies. The focus was specifically on parenting styles in the development of narcissism and variances in self-esteem regulation within Intimate Partner Violence, and the gender bias of narcissistic pathology as captured in the psychiatric nomenclature. Results demonstrate that hypothetical patients with vulnerable narcissism symptomatology are being (mis)diagnosed as having other ‘vulnerable disorders’, findings which may contribute to the observed gender bias in the psychiatric nomenclature (Study 1). Converging evidence demonstrates gender differences linking females to vulnerable features of narcissism (Study 2 and Study 3). Retrospective accounts of childrearing experiences generated findings which associated different parenting styles with manifestations of narcissism and partner violence outcomes in each gender, further elucidating the underling construct of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism (Study 2). The complexity of narcissism is revealed, as gender roles were perceived to shape self-regulatory strategies in females to obtain their self-worth (Study 3). It is concluded that gender socialisation processes play an important role in producing these gender differences, impacting on the diagnostic assessment, development, and manifestation of narcissism. It is recommended that a significant theoretical re-synthesis is required to capture gender issues in narcissism at the level of conceptualisation and clinical treatment, and integrate the disjointed subfields. Limitations of the thesis are identified and suggestions for future research made.
... Forgiveness itself depends on various factors and some people are more prone than others to forgive because of their personality characteristics, like empathy, narcissism or general personality traits (Walker and Gorsuch, 2002;Brown, 2003Brown, , 2004. Personality constitutes whether a person is positive or hostile towards a spouse after having been hurt, mitigates a partner's faults or exaggerates them, nurtures anger or easily calms down, co-operates or fights. ...
Article
As a result of the gerotranscendence process, marital satisfaction becomes especially important in old age. At the same time, researchers emphasize that the effect of seniors' personality on their marital satisfaction depend on many mediators. The analysis of literature suggests that one of such variables might be forgiveness. Thus, the aim of the present research was to investigate whether forgiveness mediates the relationship between personality traits and marital satisfaction in late adulthood. Three hundred and fifteen participants aged 60 to 75 were involved in the study. Three psychological methods were used: (1) The Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire for Older Persons; (2) NEO Five-Factor Inventory; (3) Marital Offence-Specific Forgiveness Scale. The analyses that have been undertaken revealed a number of significant associations. Neuroticism was positively related to resentment-avoidance and negatively to benevolence and marital satisfaction, whereas extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness were negatively correlated with resentment and positively with benevolence and satisfaction. The results also showed that both dimensions of dyadic forgiveness mediated the relationships between personality traits and marital satisfaction in aging persons. They suggest that forgiveness of a spouse, when enhanced, could work as a buffer against negative impact of neuroticism on marital happiness, as well as allow to transfer positive aspects of extraverted, agreeable and conscientious tendencies into marriage. Practical implications of the study for counseling older adults are recommended.
... Çalışmada, cinsiyete göre toplam intikam puanı incelendiğinde, erkeklerin kadınlara oranla daha intikamcı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu sonucu destekleyen birçok çalışmaya rastlanmıştır (Cota-McKinley vd., 2001;Brown, 2004;Nayir, 2015;Satıcı vd., 2015;Şantaş vd., 2019;Yılmaz, 2014 ...
... Çalışmada, cinsiyete göre toplam intikam puanı incelendiğinde, erkeklerin kadınlara oranla daha intikamcı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu sonucu destekleyen birçok çalışmaya rastlanmıştır (Cota-McKinley vd., 2001;Brown, 2004;Nayir, 2015;Satıcı vd., 2015;Şantaş vd., 2019;Yılmaz, 2014 ...
Article
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Araştırmanın amacı, Türkiye’de fiilen çalışmakta olan hemşirelerin örgütsel adalet algılarının, intikam ve affetme davranışları ile ilişkilendirilmesi ve bu ilişkinin iki model yardımıyla betimlenmesidir. Araştırma ilişkisel tarama modelinde tasarlanmıştır. Çalışmanın evrenini Türkiye genelinde çalışmakta olan hemşireler oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada ise 411 hemşireye ulaşılmıştır. Verilerin toplanması 30 Ekim 2017-30 Haziran 2018 tarihleri arasını kapsamaktadır. Verilerin analizinde SPSS ve LISREL programlarından yararlanılmıştır. Yüzde, ortalama, standart sapma, t testi ve ANOVA testi yapılmıştır. Örgütsel adaletin amirlerle ilişkiler boyutu ve çalışanlarla ilişkiler boyutunun intikam ve affetme davranışlarını etkilemesi üzerine iki model tasarlanmıştır. Tasarlanan bu modeller ise Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi (YEM) analizi ile doğrulanmıştır. Ortalama değerleri hemşirelerin cinsiyete göre intikam davranışı; medeni durum ve yaşa göre affetme davranışı; tecrübe yılına göre intikam ve affetme; çalışılan birim değişkenine göre toplam örgütsel adalet ve alt boyutları arasında anlamlı düzeyde fark çıkmıştır (p
... Later, the concept has been included among the five factors of narcissism, indicating the tendency to expect favored treatment from others . It is well-documented that narcissism has a negative impact on couple relationships by increasing vengefulness (Brown, 2004), interpersonal aggression (Reidy et al., 2010), and vindictive behavior (Ogrodniczuk et al., 2009). Also, some studies indicate that narcissism may predict higher marital satisfaction and commitment, but only in cases of narcissistic individuals with high self-esteem (Sedikides et al., 2004) and with communal feelings for the partner (Finkel et al., 2009). ...
Article
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Recent research has investigated how the sense of relational entitlement (SRE, the extent to which a person expects that his/her needs and wishes will be fulfilled by the romantic partner) diminishes couple satisfaction, but little is known about how SRE affects the daily quality of close, romantic relationships. Moreover, the evidence on how SRE interacts with other features of a satisfying relationship (such as the variables of the interpersonal process model of relationships - self-disclosure, perceived partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness) is scarce. Using an electronic daily diary, we examined 99 couples (198 participants) for seven days, with two daily measurements for each partner. We used a dyadic double intercept multilevel model which simultaneously computes effects for men and women. We tested a model where one partner’s daily couple satisfaction was predicted by their overall levels of SRE (excessive, restricted, and assertive) and by their daily and overall levels of self-disclosure, perceived partner self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness. The model also included person-level interactions and cross-level interactions between the SRE types and variables of the interpersonal process model of relationships for each gender. The analysis indicated that person-level excessive SRE lowers couple satisfaction. Also, day and person-level perceived partner responsiveness and person-level self-disclosure are related to couple satisfaction, but the latter association is significant only for men. Finally, we found some significant person-levels interactions that account for changes in couple satisfaction. For men, the links between couple satisfaction, excessive and restricted SRE were moderated by self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness, respectively perceived partner self-disclosure and perceived partner responsiveness. For women, the associations between couple satisfaction, restricted and assertive SRE were moderated by self-disclosure, respectively perceived partner self-disclosure. This study advances our understanding of the general implications of SRE in the dynamics of couple relationships. More specifically, it shows how SRE interacts with other couple-specific variables in shaping day-to-day couple satisfaction. The theoretical and clinical implications for couple therapy are discussed.
... Furthermore, the literature shows that avoidance and revenge behaviors may vary with gender, age, culture (Zourrig et al., 2009;Brown, 2004) and other personality traits from the OCEAN model such as neuroticism Maciantowicz and Zajenkowski (2018) and conscientiousness (Kucuk, 2019a). Hence, future research should be directed toward testing the moderating impact of these variables. ...
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the interplay between brand and consumer personalities in shaping brand hate and its consequences. More specifically, it investigates the relationship between fallacious character of the brand, brand betrayal feelings and brand hate, and identifies two response routes leading to consumer avoidance and revenge. Furthermore, the study explores the moderating impact of narcissism on the relationships between brand hate and its outcomes. Design/methodology/approach Data are collected from an online survey of a French representative consumer panel where participants were asked to cite a particular brand they hate, and then assess the different constructs tested in the model. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used for data analysis. Findings The study sheds light on the possible mediators and moderators of brand hate. Particularly, brand betrayal is hypothesized as a mediator between fallacious character of the brand and brand hate. Moreover, the study assesses the impact of narcissism on the relationship between brand hate and desire for avoidance and revenge. Findings show that active brand hate leads to a desire for revenge, whereas passive brand hate positively influences desire for avoidance. Finally, the current research suggests that consumer narcissism fuels desire for revenge on the brand. Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to integrate brand personality (the fallacious character of the brand) and consumer personality (narcissism). The study describes the mechanism through which brand transgressions activate two response routes to brand hate associated with the desires for revenge and avoidance.
... Narcissists tend to be envious [27] and hateful [28], and people who possess such traits are more inclined to have revengeful motivations [29]. Narcissism is also associated with vindictiveness [30,31,32] and retaliatory behavior [33], as well as disconnection between self and reward [34]. Narcissists may be therefore especially inclined to engage in actions that may be potentially rewarding. ...
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We investigated whether collective narcissism (i.e., believing that the in-group is exceptional but insufficiently recognized by others) and in-group satisfaction (i.e., believing that the in-group is a source of satisfaction) have opposite, unique associations with intergroup aggression via belief in the hedonistic function of revenge (i.e., an expectation of emotional reward from harming others in response to feeling oneself harmed). Results of two studies conducted in Poland (N = 675) found that collective narcissism is positively related to belief in the hedonistic function of revenge, whereas in-group satisfaction is negatively related, and both are related to intergroup aggression. These relationships were found only when the overlap between collective narcissism and in-group satisfaction was partialled out. The results shed new light on the mechanisms linking in-group positivity to out-group derogation and highlight the importance of investigating revenge motivations in the intergroup relations.
... Al., 2000). There are studies which show individual personality characteristics, compensative behavior of the other party and the level of harm subject to forgiveness are all components of the forgivingness action (Brown, 2004;Bugay & Demir;2011). Definition of forgivingness in terms of motivational change in interpersonal relations reflects a decrease in the individual's feelings of revenge and alienation towards the accused person and an increase in reconciliation motivation. ...
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The purpose of this study is to assess the conflict activity styles of psychological counselor candidates in terms of psychological well-being and forgiveness. The sample of the study consists of a total of 410 individuals, 281 females and 129 males, who are studying at the department of psychological counseling and guidance at 4 different universities located at İstanbul during the 2019-2020 academic year. The study data were collected by “Personal information form”, “Conflict activity styles scale”, “Forgivingness scale” and “Psychological well-being scale”. The data was analyzed with SPSS-21 statistic software program. The first step of the data analysis included the assessment of the relationship between the variables with Pearson correlation analysis, which then followed by hierarchical multiple regression analysis in order to evaluate the psychological well-being and forgivingness as mutual predictors of conflict styles. The obtained results showed that there is a significant correlation between the psychological counselor candidates’ conflict style scores and their psychological well-being and forgivingness scores. Additionally, it was found that these two variables, though in different percentages, are predictor variables of conflict activity styles of psychological counselors. The data were discussed considering the literature to lead variety of suggestions which would serve both the researchers and field practitioners.
... Il terzo aspetto del narcisismo identificato da Thomaes e colleghi (2018) riguarda l'"orientamento interpersonale di tipo antagonistico", fatto di atteggiamento altezzoso, maggiore ostilità (Brown, 2004;Raskin, Novacek e Hogan, 1991), minore empatia (Hepper, Hart e Sedikides, 2014) e propensione a manipolare gli altri (Nagler et al., 2014;Sedikides et al., 2002). I narcisisti rinunciano a rapporti di intimità e vicinanza emotiva (temendo di essere conosciuti nella propria difettosità) in favore di rapporti in cui possono essere ammirati da lontano. ...
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Thesis
Le présent travail doctoral s’est intéressé aux processus d’intégration d’informations chez des adultes âgés atteints de démence vivant en institution. Il a eu pour objectifs d’étudier les processus d’intégration d’informations dans des tâches de jugement et d’identifier l’influence d’une Activité Physique Adaptée (APA) sur ces processus de jugement chez cette population. Cette recherche comporte deux axes : le premier axe est composé de quatre études menées pour estimer l’impact de la démence sur l’intégration d’informations au cours de jugements moraux (blâme, pardon, poursuite, vengeance, ressentiment et réconciliation). Le deuxième axe comprend une cinquième étude constituée d’un programme de lancer de balle pour explorer l’effet d’une APA sur les processus d’intégration d’informations impliqués dans les jugements de réussite de lancer de balle dans une cible. Les cinq études ont utilisé la Théorie de l’Intégration de l’Information d’Anderson (1996, 2008, 2019). L’étude 1 a montré que des adultes âgés atteints de démence ne combinaient pas les informations Intention et Conséquences de la même manière que des jeunes adultes sains et des adultes âgés sains dans des tâches de jugement de blâme et de pardon. Les adultes âgés atteints de démence ont pris en considération deux informations au mieux sur les trois présentées dans les scénarii (Intention, Conséquences, et Excuses) pour établir leurs jugements dans l’étude 2, contrairement aux jeunes adultes sains et aux adultes âgés sains. L’étude 3 a confirmé les différences de processus d’intégration entre les adultes sains (jeunes adultes et adultes âgés) et les adultes âgés atteints de démence dans d’autres types de jugement moraux (poursuite, vengeance, ressentiment et réconciliation). L’étude 4 a mis en avant une stabilité, durant 15 mois, dans les processus d’intégration d’informations issus des jugements de blâme et de pardon chez les adultes âgés atteints de démence. L’étude 5 a témoigné qu’une APA régulière modifiait la manière de prendre en compte les informations pour effectuer un jugement de réussite d’un lancer de balle dans une cible.La présente recherche a confirmé l’impact de la démence sur les processus d’intégration d’informations. La pratique d’une APA serait bénéfique pour les fonctions cognitives telles que les processus de jugements.
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Despite its importance in the history of European and Christian thought, the virtue of mercy is currently a problematic and under-developed concept in business ethics, compared to related ideas of care, compassion or philanthropy. This article argues for its revival as a core principle of ethical business practice. An overview is provided of the scope of contemporary business ethics research on mercy and related topics. The question is then explored as to why mercy has so little traction in business ethics. The idea of mercy in European and Anglophone philosophy is discussed, from Anselm and Aquinas to the present day, showing how discourse on mercy came to be split into a wider concept of the prevention and alleviation of suffering (misericordia) and a narrower one of clemency or leniency. The concept of misericordia is developed as the basis for a principle of mercy, which is applicable directly to corporations. The practical implications of this for standards of corporate behaviour towards employees and other stakeholders are then considered through the introduction of a ‘vulnerability grid’. The grid offers a critical contrast to other analysis tools, such as stakeholder power-interest matrices.
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We investigated whether collective narcissism (i.e., believing that the in-group is exceptional but insufficiently recognized by others) and in-group satisfaction (i.e., believing that the in-group is a source of satisfaction) have opposite, unique associations with intergroup aggression via belief in the hedonistic function of revenge (i.e., an expectation of emotional reward from harming others in response to feeling oneself harmed). Results of two studies conducted in Poland (N = 675) found that collective narcissism is positively related to belief in the hedonistic function of revenge, whereas in-group satisfaction is negatively related, and both are related to intergroup aggression. These relationships were found only when the overlap between collective narcissism and in-group satisfaction was partialled out. The results shed a new light on the mechanisms linking in-group positivity to out-group derogation, and highlight the importance of investigating revenge motivations in the intergroup relations.
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The aim of this study was to analyze the direct and indirect relationships between the two phenotypes of narcissism, vulnerable and grandiose, and the tendency to perpetrate psychological abuse, exploring the mediating role of romantic jealousy. Our sample included 473 participants (213 males), aged 18–30 years (M = 22.74; SD = 2.81), involved in a stable romantic relationship. A structural equation modeling was conducted to test our model and a multigroup analysis was performed to test gender differences. Results show that the two forms of narcissism are both linked to psychological perpetrated abuse, but in different ways. Vulnerable narcissism was linked to psychological abuse only indirectly, through the role of romantic jealousy. On the contrary, grandiose narcissism was positively and directly associated with psychological abuse within the romantic relationship. Moreover, the model was invariant across genders. Limitations, strengths, and theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
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Because forgiveness theory has tended to neglect the role of dispositional factors, the authors present novel theorizing about the nature of vengefulness (the disposition to seek revenge following interpersonal offenses) and its relationship to forgiveness and other variables. In Study 1, vengefulness was correlated cross-sectionally with (a) less forgiving, (b) greater rumination about the offense, (c) higher negative affectivity, and (d) lower life satisfaction. Vengefulness at baseline was negatively related to change in forgiving throughout an 8-week follow-up. In Study 2, vengefulness was negatively associated with Agreeableness and positively associated with Neuroticism. Measures of the Big Five personality factors explained 30% of the variance in vengefulness.
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Generalizability analyses were used to evaluate the contribution of individual differences to people’s transgression-related interpersonal motivations (TRIMs). Individual differences accounted for 22% to 44% of the variance in participants’ TRIMs (i.e., avoidance, benevolence, and revenge). Although revenge motivation is apparently more cross-situationally consistent than either avoidance or benevolence, estimating people’s dispositions on the basis of their responses to single transgressions will lead to perilously undependable estimates for all three TRIMs. Agreeableness consistently predicted revenge, whereas both Neuroticism and Agreeableness predicted avoidance and benevolence. The association of Neuroticism, but not Agreeableness, with people’s TRIMs appeared to be mediated by appraisals of transgression severity. Differences in people’s responses to historical versus fictional transgressions suggest that transgression-related motivational dispositions should probably be estimated with responses to historical rather than fictional transgressions.
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This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This study examines the relationships among hostility, grandiosity, dominance, narcissism, and self-esteem in samples of 84, 57, and 300 Ss. The intercorrelations among various self-report and observer ratings of these constructs suggest that (1) hostility, grandiosity, dominance, and narcissism are substantially intercorrelated and form a coherent system of constructs and (2) the common variance in this system of constructs significantly predicts variations in Ss' self-esteem. The notion that some people use grandiosity, dominance, and a more generalized narcissistic personality style to manage their hostility and maintain a sense of positive regard was evaluated using hierarchical analyses. The results of these analyses were consistent with this model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Previous research reveals a substantial degree of variability in the extent to which narcissism (as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory or NPI; Emmons, 1987) and self-esteem (measured using a variety of self-report scales) are associated. Data from 329 college students provided support for the hypothesis that the variability in associations between narcissism and different measures of self-esteem may be explained in part by the degree to which a given self-esteem measure is related to dominance. These results have important implications for research on narcissism and self-esteem, as well as the broader issue of how self-esteem is conceptualized and measured in psychological research.
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In this paper, we offer a clarified account of global self-esteem as consisting of self-competence and self-liking and describe a revised instrument designed to measure the two correlated dimensions. In Study 1, four measurement models representing distinct conceptions of self-esteem are compared to confirm the a priori structure of the instrument. In Study 2, multiple reporters (self, mother, father) are used to provide evidence for convergent and discriminant validity in a multitrait–multimethod context. Advantages of the two-dimensional approach to measurement are discussed.
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We examined the internal and external validity of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI). Study 1 explored the internal structure of the NPI responses of 1,018 subjects. Using principal-components analysis, we analyzed the tetrachoric correlations among the NPI item responses and found evidence for a general construct of narcissism as well as seven first-order components, identified as Authority, Exhibitionism, Superiority, Vanity, Exploitativeness, Entitlement, and Self-Sufficiency. Study 2 explored the NPI's construct validity with respect to a variety of indexes derived from observational and self-report data in a sample of 57 subjects. Study 3 investigated the NPI's construct validity with respect to 128 subject's self and ideal self-descriptions, and their congruency, on the Leary Interpersonal Check List. The results from Studies 2 and 3 tend to support the construct validity of the full-scale NPI and its component scales.
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Lack of a suitable measuring device hampered the empirical study of narcissism until Raskin and Hall (1979) developed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI). The NPI possesses desirable psychometric properties, and in this article I used the scale in a variety of studies. Factor analysis of the scale replicated the four-factor solution found by Emmons (1984): Leadership/Authority, Self-Absorption/Self-Admiration, Superiority/Arrogance, and Exploitiveness/Entitlement. The Exploitiveness/Entitlement subscale was found to correlate with measures of pathological narcissism and affective intensity and variability. The relevance of Linville's (1982) theory of self-complexity-affect intensity for understanding aspects of narcissism is outlined. Implications of the study of narcissism for attribution theory and research are discussed.
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It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause.
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Interpersonal forgiving was conceptualized in the context of a 2-factor motivational system that governs people's responses to interpersonal offenses. Four studies were conducted to examine the extent to which forgiving could be predicted with relationship-level variables such as satisfaction, commitment, and closeness; offense-level variables such as apology and impact of the offense; and social-cognitive variables such as offender-focused empathy and rumination about the offense. Also described is the development of the transgression-related interpersonal motivations inventory--a self-report measure designed to assess the 2-component motivational system (Avoidance and Revenge) posited to underlie forgiving. The measure demonstrated a variety of desirable psychometric properties, commending its use for future research. As predicted, empathy, apology, rumination, and several indexes of relationship closeness were associated with self-reported forgiving.
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The present research addresses the question of when and why forgiving might enhance psychological well-being. The authors predict that forgiving is associated with enhanced well-being but that this association should be more pronounced in relationships of strong rather than weak commitment. This hypothesis received good support in Studies 1-3. Studies 2 and 3 addressed the issue of why forgiving might be associated with psychological well-being, revealing that this association was reduced after controlling for psychological tension (i.e., a psychological state of discomfort due to conflicting cognitions and feelings). Study 4 revealed that in the context of marital relationships, tendencies toward forgiving one's spouse exhibited a more pronounced association with psychological well-being than did tendencies to forgive others in general.
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Four studies examine the construct validity of the Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF), a brief measure of dispositional forgiveness. Study 1 showed that romantic partners' ratings of targets converged with targets' self-ratings, and Study 2 demonstrated that higher scores on the TTF were associated with lower offense accessibility. Study 3 examined the TTF's relation to self-reported depression symptoms, both independent of and interacting with attitudes toward forgiveness and dispositional vengeance. Lower TTF scores were associated with higher degrees of depression, especially for individuals with positive attitudes toward forgiveness or those low in dispositional vengeance, although neither of these latter variables displayed significant zero-order relations with depression. Finally, Study 4 examined relations between the TTF, dispositional empathy, another recent measure of dispositional forgiveness, and the dimensions of the Big Five, providing both convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the TTF.
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Across four studies, narcissists were more angry and aggressive after experiencing a social rejection than were nonnarcissists. In Study 1, narcissism was positively correlated with feelings of anger and negatively correlated with more internalized negative emotions in a self-reported, past episode of social rejection. Study 2 replicated this effect for a concurrent lab manipulation of social rejection. In Study 3, narcissists aggressed more against someone who rejected them (i.e., direct aggression). In Study 4, narcissists were also more aggressive toward an innocent third party after experiencing social rejection (i.e., displaced aggression). Narcissists were not more aggressive after social acceptance. Self-esteem plays little role in predicting aggression in response to rejection. These results suggest that the combination of narcissism and social rejection is a powerful predictor of aggressive behavior.
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Three empathy questionnaires were correlated with scores on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), and the predicted negative relationship was observed in two of the three cases. In addition, the Exploitiveness/Entitlement (E/E) subscale of the NPI was inversely related to all three empathy scales and directly related to another hypothesized measure of narcissism. Unexpected negative correlations between the E/E subscale and social desirability scales were interpreted as evidence of E/E subscale sensitivity to the manipulative dimension of narcissistic relationship styles. These data further support the construct validity of the NPI in general and of the Exploitiveness/Entitlement subscale in particular.
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This study examined effects of threat to the sef on efforts to maintain a positive self-evaluation in individuals with varying levels of narcissism. Male students (N= 216) with varying levels of narcissism, as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, were given feedback that they had been either slightly or substantially outperformed on an ego-relevant task. Subjects completed personality ratings of the better-performing other believing that the other would or would not see the evaluation. According to Tesser's self-evaluation maintenance model, one way to reduce threat from a better-performing other is to derogate the other More narcissistic individuals reacted to such a threat to self by rating the other more negatively than less narcissistic individuals. However, in contrast to prediction, narcissists were somewhat less negative in public than in private. Discussion centers on the utility of translating a psychoanalytic construct into social cognitive processes.
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Tested the external validity of N. Stuckless and R. Goranson's (see record 1992-33601-001) Vengeance Scale, which they had tested on 600 undergraduates. In the present study, 20 male and 48 female college students, 37 male and 5 female prison inmates, and 10 male and 3 female police officers completed the scale. It was hypothesized that inmates would score the highest, with police officers and students ranking 2nd and 3rd, respectively. As predicted, the inmates reported a significantly higher score than did the police officers and the students. A comparison of scores on vengeance indicated higher means than Stuckless and Goranson reported in their original study. Also, both the original and present studies found that women generally scored lower than men on vengeance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The present study examined the validity of three putative measures of dispositional forgiveness, as well as a measure of trait rumination, with respect to measures of mental health and forgiveness for a specific offense. Two hundred undergraduates completed the Tendency to Forgive scale, the Attitudes Toward Forgiveness scale, the Transgression Narrative Test of Forgivingness, and a multi-dimensional measure of trait rumination, along with measures of depression, life satisfaction, self-esteem, agreeableness, neuroticism, attachment, and aggression. Participants also recounted a specific offense they had experienced and reported the extent to which they had forgiven their offender. Results strongly supported the discriminant validity of the Tendency to Forgive scale with regard to both mental health (depression and life satisfaction) and state forgiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Conducted 3 studies among a total of 638 undergraduates (aged 18–59 yrs) to develop a measure of vengefulness. Three findings supported the validity of the Vengeance Scale: inspection of the test items; judges' ratings of the items; and a high correlation between the selected scale and an ad hoc scale constructed of the remaining candidate items. The Vengeance Scale was positively related to anger and negatively related to expressions of empathy. The scale was only minimally contaminated by social desirability. Findings also supported the test-retest reliability of the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
We propose a dynamic self-regulatory processing model of narcissism and review supporting evidence. The model casts narcissism in terms of motivated self-construction, in that the narcissist's self is shaped by the dynamic interaction of cognitive and affective intrapersonal processes and interpersonal self-regulatory strategies that are played out in the social arena. A grandiose yet vulnerable self-concept appears to underlie the chronic goal of obtaining continuous external self-affirmation. Because narcissists are insensitive to others' concerns and social constraints and view others as inferior, their self-regulatory efforts often are counterproductive and ultimately prevent the positive feedback that they seek-thus undermining the self they are trying to create and maintain. We draw connections between this model and other processing models in personality and employ these models to further elucidate the construct of narcissism. Reconceptualizing narcissism as a self-regulatory processing system promises to resolve many of its apparent paradoxes, because by understanding how narcissistic cognition, affect, and motivation interrelate, their internal subjective logic and coherence come into focus.
Article
In two studies, participants preselected on their extreme scores on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory were assessed for self complexity and evaluative integration. Then, for 5 (Study 1) or 6 (Study 2) consecutive days, they recorded their moods, self-esteem, and daily experiences. Narcissists displayed greater positive mood variability, mood intensity, and self-esteem instability than did less narcissistic individuals. Narcissism, self-complexity, and evaluative integration were unrelated; however, narcissists who were low in evaluative integration experienced the greatest self-esteem instability. Narcissism also interacted with daily events such that relative to less narcissistic individuals, negative interpersonal events increased self-esteem instability, and positive interpersonal events decreased self-esteem instability. The findings are discussed within reference to a social-cognitive-interpersonal model of narcissistic behavior.
Article
We investigated the role of narcissism in reactions to interpersonal feedback. Participants first completed the Narcissism Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988). They then participated in a laboratory session in which they received either positive or negative feedback. A variety of reactions to the feedback were then assessed. The results indicated that following positive feedback, narcissism was related to perceiving the evaluation technique as more diagnostic and the evaluator as more competent. Conversely, following negative feedback, narcissism was associated with perceiving the evaluation technique as less diagnostic and the evaluator as less competent and likeable. However, narcissism did not moderate the impact of feedback on emotional reactions. Additional analyses revealed some, but not complete, overlap with effects found for level of self-esteem. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Book
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.
Personality and forgiveness
  • R A Emmons
Emmons, R. A. (2000). Personality and forgiveness. In M. E. McCullough, K. I. Pargament, & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 156-175).