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Derogating black sheep: Individual or group protection?
Abstract
What motivates people to derogate unfavorable ingroup members more harshly than comparably unfavorable outgroup members? Researchers investigating the black sheep effect maintain that this differential derogation is a means of group protection. In contrast, we argue that derogating unfavorable ingroup members may be an individual protection strategy whereby target devaluation distances an unfavorable other from the self as a means of limiting the threat of being associatively miscast. Participants read an article describing an unfavorable ingroup or outgroup target, and then received two means of responding to the target: target devaluation and group disidentification. Importantly, group disidentification was considered to be a uniquely individualistic distancing strategy. We found that both response options substituted for one another, depending on the order of presentation. Substitutability, we argue, suggests that the primary motive behind ingroup derogation in our study was distance augmentation, an individual protection strategy.
... In other words, they perceive a discrepancy between their expectations (how the group ought to be) and the actual state of affairs (how it is). But also violations of more general societal norms by in-group members have been claimed to be threatening: They might tarnish other group members' image (due to them being perceived as similar to the deviate; Eidelman & Biernat, 2003) or of the group as a whole (Chekroun & Nugier, 2011). ...
... For instance, Chekroun and Nugier (2011) extrapolate their key variable, "threat to social image", from items assessing whether respondents thought about the image others may have of their group when observing norm-violating behaviour. Eidelman and Biernat (2003), in turn, do not assess "fear of being seen as similar" in any form. ...
... This is especially noteworthy given that threat is proposed to underlie various forms of confrontational behaviour in response to violations of group-based expectations (sometimes called social control responses, 1 Frings & Pinto, 2018). These include communicating disapproval to those violating expectations (e.g., Chekroun & Nugier, 2011;, nominating them for unappealing tasks (e.g., Schachter, 1951), evaluating them negatively (e.g., Abrams et al., 2000;Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Levine & Ruback, 1980;, and even excluding them from the group (Eidelman et al., 2006). In short, individuals may try persuading and punishing deviates while allowing them to remain group members, but may also exclude them from the group (cf. ...
... According to the focus theory of norms, the black sheep effect results from a motivational strategy of group norm preservation and social identity protection (Kutlaca, Becker, & Radke, 2020). When a member of the in-group fails to comply with the group norms, this threatens the group's positivity and the social identity of group members (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). Therefore, other group members tend to evaluate the case of in-group deviance more harshly to indicate differentiation and protect their group norms (Bernhard et al., 2006;McAuliffe & Dunham, 2016). ...
... In-group members hold higher expectations of reciprocity and motivation of norm-maintenance under tight norms and a greater desire to ensure that other group members comply with the norms that help make cooperation profitable (McAuliffe & Dunham, 2016;Wang et al., 2016). Hence, higher expectancy violations would arise in the case of deviant behavior of the in-group, which would prompt harsher punishment than the out-group's deviance, thus forming a means of group protection for long-term sustainable development (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). A marketing study found that advertising puts more emphasis on permissiveness and norm deviance in loose societies, while advertising themes in tight environments put greater emphasis on uniformity and norm abidance . ...
... Previous studies have shown that group type is a key variable that affects observers' evaluation of deviant behavior (Goldring & Heiphetz, 2020;Karelaia & Keck, 2013). However, some studies have found that people show in-group favoritism when assessing deviance (Bocian, Cichocka, & Wojciszke, 2021;Ellemers & Haslam, 2012), while others have found the black sheep effect (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Kutlaca et al., 2020). The conflicting conclusions in these sets of literature are worth exploring (Aguiar et al., 2017). ...
Drawing on social identity theory and focus theory of norms, this study investigated differences in how destination residents respond to deviant behaviors by other residents-members of their in-group-and similar behavior by tourists, who they see as the out-group. We proposed and tested a conceptual model of the transition between in-group favoritism and the black sheep effect under the moderating effect of norm strength. A mixed-method approach, including a secondary data study and three scenario-based experiments, was applied. Findings of this study revealed that focal residents showed in-group favoritism for other residents' deviant behavior compared with tourists. The contagion effect of deviant behavior was stronger among in-groups than out-groups. However, with respect to behaviors about which norms are tight, the black sheep effect comes into play, as focal residents hold a higher desire to punish in-groups' deviant behavior than the out-group. This study has theoretical and practical implications for destination marketing organizations.
... Individual members of the group distance or dissociate from the deviants in order to limit the threat of being associated with the derogated members (Eidelman and Biernat, 2003;Jetten and Hornsey, 2014). The levels of shame and embarrassment that the deviant causes to individual group members is correlated with the level of their rejection (Chekroun and Nugier, 2011). ...
... By treating them harshly and putting distance between the community and the deviants, community members try to dissociate themselves. This serves to protect their individual image and limits the likelihood of appearing to side with the 'guilty' ones and subsequently be casted in the same way (Eidelman and Biernat, 2003). The negative treatment received by IS affiliates as deviating members in the community, in both exclusive and inclusive resilient communities, places the deviants at risk of social isolation and marginalisation. ...
... Other reasons for doing this included protecting their individual images and limiting the likelihood of being accused of siding with the 'deviants' (and, therefore, being casted away) (Dentler and Erikson, 1959;Erikson 1961;Eidelman and Biernat, 2003). Interestingly, despite inclusive resilient communities better delineating the deviant group in the community, the negative treatment IS affiliates received in terms of quality and quantity of contact was not concentrated in inclusive resilient communities-it was present in Hessey (inclusive), Fhelat (exclusive) and, to a lesser extent, Karma (exclusive). ...
In the aftermath of the occupation by, and subsequent war against, the self-proclaimed Islamic State (IS) in Iraq (2014-2017), geographically proximate communities with similar ethno-religious and tribal compositions, as well as shared social systems, developed different resilience responses to the return of IS affiliates. Some communities developed ‘exclusive resilience’, whereby communities responded to the perceived threat of return by rejecting the return of families with a perceived affiliation to IS, thereby aiming to keep the perceived threat away. Other communities developed ‘inclusive resilience’, whereby they allowed the return of IS affiliates; this approach aimed to mitigate the perceived threat from within. Drawing on a Most Similar Systems Design method of comparative case study analysis, this study found that pathways to exclusive or inclusive resilience emerged from specific combinations of the communities’ social interaction factors associated with the four-element model of Sense of Community, which is used as the framework of analysis. The study is based on original data collected through 42 in-depth interviews, 17 focus group discussions and 17 participatory mappings in six Arab Sunni communities in Iraq from June to August 2019
... The pressure experienced by dual-identity minority members may further result in subsequent self-silencing behaviors through the black sheep effect (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). Specifically, the black sheep effect occurs when members of a group with opposing or unpopular opinions are ostracized or devalued by the group while members in agreement with the status quo are favored (Marques & Paez, 1994). ...
... Therefore, when interpreting the findings, particularly, in the self-defense and Black pride categories, the counts we reported may be overestimated due to racism issues common in fandom (Navar-Gill & Stanfill, 2018). For example, consistent with the black sheep effect, Black members may silence themselves or feel threatened to identify themselves (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques & Paez, 1994;Ray, 2018). Future studies may take a quantitative approach to study intragroup fandom relations and explicitly ask for racial demographic information. ...
During the Black Lives Matter (BLM) digital activism in 2020, Adorable Representative Master-of-Ceremony for Youth (A.R.M.Y.), a K-pop fan group for Bangtan Boys (BTS), initiated a movement to have BTS respond in solidarity with the Black members of the fan group (i.e., the Black A.R.M.Y. Lives Matter movement). The movement resulted in a large donation from BTS to the BLM movement. The goal of the current study was to apply intragroup process theories to describe the actions and experiences of a group of BTS fans, A.R.M.Y., in the context of BLM digital activism on Twitter. Particularly, this study aimed to address (a) how fans responded to the demands from movement supporters and (b) how they acknowledged each other on Twitter. Furthermore, based on the dual-identity theory, the study also examined how self-identified, dual-identity Black A.R.M.Y. expressed their opinions during the movement both (c) in their message contents and (d) in their pronoun use. Content analysis and text analysis were employed to answer the research questions. A total of 2,132 tweets were analyzed. Results showed that fans showed both sides of opinions, that is, standing in solidarity versus attacking the movement. The minority group and the allies continued to appeal to the majority by using strategies such as encouraging action and demonstrating Black pride and identity. We also found that self-identified dual-identity Black members tended to tweet using collective first-person pronouns “we,” rather than “I.” Implications on group cohesion, minority influence, and the black sheep effect were discussed.
... With punishment, people express their disapproval and moral outrage and thereby distance themselves from attempted or actual offenses and offenders (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Feinberg, 1965). For example, the punishment of ingroup offenders promotes a positive group identity (Hutchison et al., 2008) and increases the punisher's moral standing (Hofmann et al., 2018). ...
... Either method leads participants to punish malicious intentions. This is important for victims and observers, as they feel moral outrage (Hechler & Kessler, 2018), psychologically distance themselves from offenders and their decisions (e.g., Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Feinberg, 1965), and demonstrate their personal and their group's moral standards (e.g., Hofmann et al., 2018;Hutchison et al., 2008). ...
Retributive theories predominantly focus on third party’s motives for punishment, which are rather affected by the offender’s malicious intentions than the actual outcome of the offense. However, victims experience an offense from a different perspective. The value/status approach argues that an offense has two facets that produce different threats: the intentional violation of values and status imbalance between offender and victims. We suggested that third parties and victims punish unfair intentions, whereas victims also punish because of the outcome inequality. In the present study, we orthogonally crossed the factors offender’s intention with the actual outcome and perspective of punisher (third-party versus victim). Results show that victims punish harsher than third parties. However, there are no qualitative differences of third-party punishment and punishment by victims. Rather, both punish malicious intentions and outcome inequality. We discuss how the findings relate to retributivism and other psychological theories of punishment.
... More specifically, events violating norm-based expectations can lead to disidentification. For example, research suggests that group members disidentify when they are confronted with another member violating the group's norms and see no other way of distancing themselves from this person or when their group is continuously discriminated (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Jasinskaja-Lahti, Liebkind, & Solheim, 2009). These studies, however, base their conclusions on low levels of identification, which is problematic because -much as for example the absence of positive emotions does not imply the presence of negative emotions (e.g., Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) -weak identification does not imply strong disidentification: Disidentification reflects "a negative self-defining relation to a relevant group" (Matschke & Sassenberg, 2010, p. 892), whereas low identification reflects the absence of a relation to the group (for a detailed discussion, see Becker & Tausch, 2014). ...
... Regarding research on disidentification, a noteworthy strength of our study is that we employed actual measures of disidentification instead of basing our conclusions on low levels of identification. We found that events within a group that are perceived as violating expectations are positively related to disidentification, thereby conceptually replicating previous findings (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Jasinskaja-Lahti et al., 2009;Matschke & Sassenberg, 2010) in a very different setting. ...
One consequence of the EU-referendum’s pro-Brexit outcome was a renewed call for Scottish independence. Supporting this call can be construed as a form of collective action Scots may engage in. However, Scots may also consider individual mobility strategies including - in extreme cases - emigration. The current research investigated how identity-dynamics relate to these identity management strategies in post-referendum Scotland. We found a positive association between perceiving the EU-referendum as having violated expectations and considering individual mobility responses, mediated by identity subversion (i.e., the perception that the referendum results fundamentally changed the UK’s identity). Furthermore, we found that perceiving the EU-referendum as having violated expectations was related to higher collective action intentions, mediated by disidentification from UK citizens. Taken together, these findings underscore the pervasive role social identity processes play in shaping political decisions and individual behaviour.
... Research on non-fan groups provides ample reason to predict this association. For example, people are motivated to maintain a positive sense of self-esteem through the groups they belong to (Baumeister and Leary 1995;Tajfel and Turner 1979) and, as such, oppose group members who might threaten the group's esteem-boosting function (Eidelman and Biernat 2002;Ojala and Nesdale 2004). And within the context of fandoms, Shirky (2003) suggests that gatekeeping or establishing undesirable outgroups creates external enemies which can bolster fandom cohesion. ...
... Shirky 2003) and that group members tend to dislike other group members who threaten the group's esteem-boosting function (e.g. Eidelman and Biernat 2002;Ojala and Nesdale 2004). As such, insofar as elitism involves seeing other fans as below oneself, we predict that elitism should be positively correlated with pro-gatekeeping attitudes and behaviour. ...
In the present article we discuss three studies aimed at better understanding elitism in the context of fan groups. The studies assess different facets of elitism, predictors of elitism and the potential outcomes associated with holding elitist beliefs. The survey studies were conducted on members of three distinct fan groups: furries (fans of media featuring anthropomorphized animal characters), bronies (adult fans of the television series My Little Pony) and anime fans (fans of Japanese animation). Elitism was found to include both self-inflation and other-derogation and is predicted by two components of fan identity (fanship and fandom). Elitism was also significantly associated with pro-gatekeeping attitudes and behaviours. Practical and theoretical implications for fan culture are discussed. We also discuss the limitations of the studies and their ability to contribute to a discussion about creating inclusive fan spaces.
... evaluations from other ingroup members. Research about the "black sheep effect" suggests that group members reject ingroup criticism and devaluate ingroup critics (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques & Paez, 1994). On the other hand, negative evaluations from the outgroup result in ingroup favoritism. ...
... Our findings expand the connotations of SIT by examining how individuals react to the negative evaluation made by an authoritative third party. SIT mainly explains that when experiencing criticism from the ingroup or outgroup, group members try to restore the positive image of their ingroup by devaluing the critic (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003) or displaying ingroup favoritism (Hunter et al., 2005(Hunter et al., , 2004. However, the current research suggests that such reactions may only occur when the negative evaluation (from the ingroup or outgroup) is regarded skeptically. ...
Research suggests people try to protect their social self-esteem from threats from the ingroup or the outgroup. However, how members react to a threat to social self-esteem from a third party remains unclear. Three studies were conducted to examine the influence of a threat to social self-esteem from an authoritative third party on ingroup favoritism. We explored the effect of negative (versus positive) evaluation from the testing system on explicit and implicit ingroup favoritism in Study 1 and Study 2 respectively. We compared the effect of negative evaluation posed by the testing system or the competitive outgroup on ingroup favoritism in Study 3. Results suggested that individuals experiencing a threat to social self-esteem from an authoritative third party manifested less ingroup favoritism than those experiencing no threat or outgroup threat. The theoretical implications of this research on social identity theory and the practical implications of reducing intergroup bias are discussed.
... Cognitive dissonance will push politicians to feel less distant from their party in order to resolve the discrepancy between beliefs and behaviour. This is also in line with a black sheep effect: Threatened by an association with the switchers, which could have been similar to them, potential defectors that chose to stay inside can fear retaliation and, as an individual protection strategy (Eidelman and Biernat, 2003), they will try to distance themselves from the switchers by expressing the perception of a better match between their ideological position and that of the party. This effect will be stronger, the larger the share of rebels who actually left; the cognitive dissonance should be higher, given that most of the colleagues who retained similar dissenting views and were analogously dissatisfied with the party's internal life, have left the group. ...
... If, for those who stay, observing someone switching reinforces the sense of belonging, then political institutions can foster non-abandonment norms (Van Vugt and Hart, 2004) to preserve party unity, thereby reducing political instability and strengthening the chain of responsiveness that extends from voters and parties to elected MPs. The present article also addresses the wide literature on the black sheep effect (Marques and Paez, 1994;Rullo et al., 2015), arguing that this effect can be expressed in terms of a stronger closeness between members of the threatened group, particularly when there is a direct identification with the threatened group (the parliamentary party group) and when individual politicians that can be somewhat associated with the defectors will try to distance themselves from the switchers (Eidelman and Biernat, 2003). These mechanisms can also help parties to prevent a downward spiral, avoiding further waves of switching and limiting the electoral losses due to out-switching, by invoking (and highlighting) internal cohesion and coherence, while blaming the black sheep. ...
What are the effects of party defections on the attitudes of politicians who remain loyal to the party? We answer by combining multiple sources of data into a comprehensive novel data set on parliamentary party switching, to estimate how this affects the perceived distance between a politician and his party. Focusing on the theory of cognitive dissonance and the black sheep effect, we hypothesize that politicians perceive themselves closer to their parties when those parties recently suffered defections. The effect should be greater among incumbent politicians as they directly experience divisions, but also among officials dissatisfied with the leadership as their dissonance should be stronger. Statistical analyses of data from two elite surveys, on a sample of 13,256 politicians belonging to 92 parties that ran in 28 elections held between 2005 and 2015 in 14 countries, provide support for our hypotheses and shed light on the consequences of intra-party defections.
... SGDT interprets the black sheep effect as a group-protective strategy designed to maintain positive group identity (Hutchison et al., 2008; but see Eidelman & Biernat, 2003) and hence assumes it will be stronger under some conditions than others (see Levin e & Kerr, 2007). As predicted, the effect is more pronounced when evaluators identify strongly with the ingroup, particularly when their own prototypicality is threatened; when deviance occurs in an intergroup context; and when the deviate challenges prescriptive ingroup norms. ...
This is one of the last two pieces of collaborative writing between Dominic Abrams and John Levine and was published just before John's death on February 25th 2025 (see https://www.easp.eu/news/itm/in_memoriam__john_m__levine-2039.html). The chapter explores the intertwined roles of intergroup and intragroup relationships for people's identity and sense of meaning and significance.
... First, we suggest that socially responsible firms led by conservative chief executive officers (CEOs), compared with socially responsible firms led by nonconservative CEOs, are more likely to receive less positive coverage from conservative news organizations. This is because CSR activities at firms led by conservative CEOs can trigger the black sheep effect, which describes how members of a group react strongly to an in-group member's behavior that threatens the group's cohesion, identity, or goals (Marques et al. 1988(Marques et al. , 1998Eidelman and Biernat 2003;Pinto et al. 2010). That is, CSR activities at conservative-led firms violate the expectations of conservative observers (Burgoon 2015) that a fellow conservative occupying the highest organizational position of power will refrain from instilling progressive values at his or her firm through CSR activities. ...
Although prior research attributes news media coverage of firms to the alignment of firm behavior with societal expectations of appropriateness, the appropriateness of firm behavior is judged through an ideological lens. Therefore, the influence of a firm’s behavior on its news media coverage is likely to be contingent on news organizations’ ideology. Focusing on corporate social responsibility (CSR) as the focal firm behavior, we argue that conservative news organizations are less likely to consider CSR an appropriate firm behavior because conservatives view CSR as privileging progressive ideals and as undermining shareholder interests. As such, we hypothesize that compared with other news organizations, conservative news organizations are less likely to cover socially responsible firms positively. This relationship is likely to be strengthened for firms led by conservative chief executive officers and for firms with poor stock market performance. We examined the coverage of the S&P 1500 firms from 2002 through 2011 in U.S. newspapers and found support for our hypotheses that compared with other newspapers, conservative newspapers report less positively about socially responsible firms and that this effect is strengthened for conservative-led firms. In contrast to what we expected, however, we found some evidence that socially responsible firms with a strong stock market performance are, in fact, covered less positively in conservative newspapers. Taken together, our theory and findings contribute to an understanding of how the news media’s ideological heterogeneity shapes the relationship between firm behavior (in our case, CSR) and news media coverage of firms.
Funding: Y. Dewan received funding from HEC Foundation.
Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2022.17237 .
... If straight/effeminate John was evaluated negatively because of his violation of ingroup norms, we would expect him to be most disliked by participants who strongly identify as a "man" or a "straight man." However, we did not include a measure of how strongly participants identified as a member of those groups (see Eidelman & Biernat, 2003), so that hypothesis cannot be tested with our data. ...
The purpose of this study was to determine how violation of gender-based expectancies might influence straight men’s attitudes toward men who differ by sexual orientation (i.e., straight or gay). This study was specifically designed to avoid methodological issues that may have been present in similar research. Hypotheses were informed by Expectancy-Violation Theory (EVT) and the Black Sheep Effect (BSE), which together suggest that an effeminate straight man should be evaluated by other straight men more negatively than an effeminate gay man because the former target negatively violated expectations. Additionally, EVT suggests that a masculine gay man should be evaluated more positively than a masculine straight man because the former positively violates expectations, while the BSE instead suggests the latter should be evaluated more positively than the former due to ingroup bias. Self-identified straight men evaluated a male target whose sexual orientation and gender conformity were manipulated through a photo and vignette. A moderated mediation analysis was performed to determine if perceived expectancy violation mediated the relationship between sexual orientation and evaluations for both effeminate and masculine men. Straight effeminate targets were evaluated more negatively than gay effeminate targets; however, straight masculine targets were evaluated more favorably than gay masculine targets, a finding more consistent with the BSE. In addition, perceived expectancy violation did not mediate the relationship between sexual orientation and evaluations regardless of gender expression. More research should be conducted to identify the mechanisms through which evaluations of straight and gay targets differ based on gender expression.
... One possible explanation for this finding being opposite to expectations might be the black sheep effect, which suggests that deviant ingroup members are judged more harshly than outgroup members in order to protect the positive ingroup identity from damage through association with rule-violating behavior (see Marques & Paez, 1994, for a review). The results obtained in our study might reflect a distancing (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003) from the deviant (rated) ingroup member. On the other hand, participants may have a more complex perception of their ingroup, rather than viewing the group as a homogeneous entity. ...
Problem: In many countries, a new road user group, e-scooter riders, share the existing cycling infrastructure. The study aimed to investigate if an individual’s status as a cyclist or e-scooter rider affects their social identity and whether it results in ingroup favoritism or outgroup discrimination. Method: An online experiment involving 179 cyclists and 64 e–scooter riders was conducted, where they rated the behavior of ingroup or outgroup members in six traffic scenarios. Results: Participants rated dispositional attributions as more causally relevant than situational ones across all traffic scenarios. Cyclists and e–scooter riders were inclined to judge ingroup members' rule violations more harshly than those of outgroup members in terms of dispositional attribution ratings and punishment severity. For situational attributions, few indications of ingroup favoritism were observed for the e–scooter rider group. Summary: Findings suggest initial indications of considerate coexistence, from the perspective of social identity theory, between the two modes of transport, supporting current regulations on the use of cycling infrastructure by e–scooter riders. Indications of ingroup discrimination, however, suggest that safety campaigning may target to promote courtesy within the cyclist and e-scooter rider groups.
... More often, when discussing about group members who feel derogated, prejudiced, or negatively treated (see e.g., Ditrich et al., 2017;Eidelman & Biernat, 2003), participants will decide to "leave the group" and view the group in a negative way. However, we see that this is not always the case. ...
Indonesia gained its independence in 1945, and in the 1960 s, Papua was approved, de jure, by the United Nations as part of Indonesia. However, since its integration to Indonesia, racism, stigmatization, and violence have been part of Papua’s history. The present study was designed to understand the meaning of Indonesia and being Indonesian as perceived by indigenous Papuans, and how they perceive social change. We interviewed 63 Papuans who lived in Papua, North Sulawesi, and Java Island, and used thematic analysis to organize and describe the data. We found that, despite feelings of disappointment found among Papuan participants how the majority of Indonesians treat and negatively perceive the Papuans, many of them still consider themselves as Indonesians. Their concern is that, if Papua is indeed considered part of Indonesia, and Papuans are also called Indonesians, they asked to be treated like other citizens equally. In terms of social change, there is an improvement in Papuan infrastructures, but this development is considered slower compared to other regions. We suggest that in order to build trust, peace, and justice in Papua, it is better to start treating the Papuans like other Indonesians equally, consider criticism as a reminder to treat them better, and investigate seriously human rights violations.
... The third contribution is the proposed mechanism. Prior work on responses to internal threats easily allowed the identification of a few clearly responsible ("deviant") people who are then marginalized and discredited ("the black sheep effect," Eidelman and Biernat 2003;Marques, Yzerbyt and Leyens, 1988). However, our conceptualization suggests the presence of a more intraindividual process. ...
People demonstrate indirect support for a nation’s identity by consuming products representing their nationality. In such context, this paper focuses on how people react toward brands with national associations when the nation faces threats perpetrated by institutions. Institutions are important as they are one of the core elements defining national identity. Institutional threats to national identity can come from within the nation (internal threat) and from outside (external threat).
Weekly supermarket scanner data from 2004 showed that sales of American-sounding brands declined in counties that saw higher coverage of the Abu Ghraib torture scandal (internal threat), and sales of American-sounding brands increased in counties with more war casualties (external threat). Seven additional experiments demonstrated that: (a) self-enhancement derived from national identity mediates these main effects, (b) advertisements that refocus attention on how the brand helps to cope with external threats mitigate the negative effects of internal threats for American brands, and (c) such advertisements do not mitigate the negative effects of internal threats for non-American brands. Qualitative surveys (N=218), surveys (N=1603), experiments (N=3123), and secondary data analyses (encompassing sales of over 8,000 brands across more than 1,100 US stores) were used to triangulate the results.
... Similarly, another study revealed that other members excluded the members who were inconsistent with the group norms . In many other studies, it has been observed that there are more positive attitudes towards in-group members who are perceived as compatible with group norms when compared to in-group members who are perceived as deviant (Castano et al. 2002, Eidelman and Biernat 2003, Lewis and Sherman 2010, Pinto et al. 2010. After all, the social creativity strategy, with its general definition, means making social identity positive through features unrelated to status. ...
The primary gender stereotypes accepted in mainstream social psychology describe women as low in competence and high in warmth, men as having low warmth and high competence. Women who are incompatible with stereotypes are exposed to negative attitudes. Exposure to negative attitudes damages the psychological well-being of these group members. Stereotypes and negative attitudes towards members of social groups contribute to the persistence of their low status. Explaining the causes of gender stereotypes and negative attitudes towards women incompatible with stereotypes is an overlooked topic in mainstream social psychology. In order to change the ongoing gender system, where women have a disadvantageous status compared to men, it is necessary to understand the reasons for negative attitudes towards women who are incompatible with stereotypes. Based on the suggestions and findings of Social Identity Theory, explanations about negative attitudes towards women who are incompatible with gender stereotypes are presented in this study. It is concluded that most men reveal negative attitudes towards these women because women with high competency threaten men who can affirm their social identity through competency. Most men define their social identity through status-related traits such as competency. Due to the threat to men's social identity by women with high competence, it is concluded that negative attitudes towards these women are revealed by most of the men, based on theoretical suggestions. It is necessary to understand the identity management strategies to explain women's negative attitudes towards their fellows who are incompatible with stereotypes. According to the theoretical suggestions and related studies, it is concluded that the adoption of individual mobility and social creativity strategies reveal negative attitudes toward fellows who are incompatible with stereotypes. Although it is expected that women who adopt the social competition strategy have positive attitudes towards their fellows who are inconsistent with gender stereotypes, the level of adoption of this strategy is low. When theoretical suggestions and study findings are brought together, it is possible to understand the reasons for the negative attitudes towards women who are incompatible with gender stereotypes.
... However, unlike White participants, Black participants as a member of a racial minority may also be motivated to protect the identity of their underrepresented racial group. When Black participants watched a Black target engage in deviant behavior, they may have responded by ostracizing or derogating him to protect their racial group from stigmatization or reduced public regard (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Pinto et al., 2010;Rullo et al., 2015). Future research should systematically explore, control for, and vary the nature of social group membership within the context of probing for the relationships between visual confirmation bias and belief polarization. ...
Video evidence depicting physical altercations has polarized public opinions and courtroom decisions about social issues including race relations and police use-of-force, we believe, in part because of the way people process dynamic visual stimuli across repeated viewing opportunities. We reanalyzed two studies that covertly collected eye-tracking data to quantify and model visual confirmation bias (VCB) – the degree to which eye movements replicate previous patterns of looking across multiple viewing opportunities. We tracked the location of eye gaze when participants (N1 = 320; N2 = 212) watched the same video twice depicting an altercation between an officer and a civilian (Study 1) or a Black and a White actor (Study 2). In pilot tests, we provided evidence regarding the construct validity of statistical measures of concordance tracking similarities in where perceivers directed eye gaze across viewings as an index of VCB. In our pre-registered analytic plan, we used these metrics to probe for relationships with punishment decisions made about targets after the first and second viewings. Contrary to predictions, our pre-registered analyses found no associations between VCB, consistency, and polarization in punishment. We present exploratory analyses probing potential moderators of the association between VCB and these outcome measures. We offer practical suggestions for researchers measuring and modeling eye gaze during the presentation of dynamic stimuli across multiple viewings, particularly in the context of intergroup decision research.
... However, for those on the right-wing, the willingness to disidentify with their workplace background will lead ex-bureaucrats to double down on their preferences toward market liberalization. Considering different contexts, Eidelman and Biernat (2003) find that in-group disidentification occurs when other in-groups are presented in a derogatory manner: the black sheep effect. This is especially true when stereotypes stigmatize members of a certain group, who then may have incentives to disidentify from it (Shapiro and Neuberg 2007). ...
The failure of political parties to adequately voice the preferences of their constituents leads voters to look for alternative heuristics when selecting their favourite candidates. Descriptive representation is one of them. Yet, most scholars focus only on the social characteristics of representatives. Is it also possible to talk about a workplace descriptive representation? In this paper, I rely on a longitudinal survey conducted with 2,527 legislators from 18 Latin American countries to assess whether the preferences of those representatives with a background in the public service differ from those held by other congressmen. The results show that former public employees adequately represent their professional group only when they self-place in the left or highly identify with the civil service. Yet, when they do not, their preference for the maximisation of the state's budget and power is even lower than that of rightist legislators who have never worked for government.
... In regard to a speech delivered by a group member, the findings of studies 1a and 1b may be because the speakers are considered as respected figures. It might not be the case if the speech is coming from the un-respected figure of ingroup members, which perhaps may lead to a black sheep effect (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003) whereas ingroup members are judged more harshly compared to outgroup members. In Study 2, we used a speech from Ahok, a non-Muslim Chinese Indonesian. ...
We tested how Muslim participants identify speeches as hate speech or not, and whether they thought an apology from the speakers is needed. In Studies 1a (N = 209) and 1b (N = 183), participants were asked about a speech delivered by a prominent ingroup figure showed that hate, meta‐hate, and collective narcissism tended to identify a prejudiced speech about outgroup members as not related to hate speech, and thus no apology is needed. Nonetheless, the resulting path was in contrast to participants who believe the outgroup nature as good. With similar predictors of Study 1, Study 2 (N = 191) showed that when participants were asked to identify a (non‐harmful) speech about ingroup delivered by a minority outgroup member, there was an opposite path compared to Study 1. Across all findings, we argue that in the real‐world setting, how a speech, with or without harmful contents, is identified depends on positive or negative views about ingroup and outgroup members by which it can dictate people's understanding and denial.
... Much of the evidence supporting ingroup regulation so far has been derived from research on second-party punishment, when unfairness is directed at oneself (McLeish & Oxoby, 2011;Mendoza, Lane, & Amodio, 2014), as well as the black sheep effect. For example, as illustrated by literature on the black sheep effect, people evaluate ingroup deviants more harshly than outgroup members who behave in the same way, in order to preserve and protect a positive image of their own group (e.g., Castano, Yzerbyt, Paladino, & Sacchi, 2002;Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Martinez-Taboada, 1998). What remains scarce, however, is work that fills the gap as to whether and when ingroup regulation motivates third parties to dispense punishment. ...
Third-party punishment (TPP) is critical for promoting cooperation and maintaining societal stability by deterring norm violations. Research has shown that TPP is influenced by ingroup bias, whereby people punish outgroup norm violators more severely than ingroups. The current study examined the social-cognitive mechanisms of the ingroup bias in TPP using a dual-process framework from a cross-cultural perspective. We asked whether people from different cultures were predisposed to ingroup bias, and whether this bias would change through reflection. To investigate this issue, we conducted five experiments employing economic games in Chinese and Western adults (total n = 1300) and a single-paper meta-analysis. Participants observed that ingroup and outgroup members allocated resources unfairly, and then decided how much money to deduct as punishment toward allocators in the reflexive or reflective modes (by manipulating response time constraint or cognitive load). Across a range of experimental designs, results provided converging evidence that Chinese and Western participants both exhibited ingroup favoritism in the reflexive mode, but behaved differently in the reflective mode: Chinese participants remained punishing ingroups less than outgroups, although they felt guilty and spent longer time dealing with ingroup violations; by contrast, ingroup favoritism decreased in the Western sample, especially among high group identifiers. These findings suggest that ingroup favoritism during TPP is reflexive and culturally universal, but it is manifested in different ways to meet specific cultural expectations when punishers make decisions in the reflective mode. This study thus deepens our understanding of how and why TPP is group-biased.
... This reaction has become known as the Black Sheep Effect (Marques & Yzerbyt, 1988) and has been extensively studied using different paradigms and operationalisations (e.g. Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Hutchison et al., 2008;Marques, Abrams, & Serôdio, 2001;Pinto et al., 2010). ...
Group members frequently face group-related discrepancies, such as other group members violating group norms or outgroup members criticising the ingroup. In response, they often engage in confrontational reactions like expressing disapproval or excluding the person causing the discrepancy. The present work tests the often voiced but rarely studied idea that group-related discrepancies are met with such confrontational responses because discrepancies elicit feelings of threat. Our approach is inspired by research on threat-regulation, which links certain negative emotions to the activation of specific threat-regulatory systems. Three experiments (Ntotal = 680) provide evidence suggesting that group-related discrepancies foster emotions consistent with an activation of the Fight-Flight-Freeze-System (especially anger-related emotions tied to fight-tendencies), emotions consistent with an activation of the Behavioural Inhibition System (i.e. anxiety-related emotions), and confrontational intentions. The effect of discrepancies on confrontational intentions was mediated by heightened anger-related emotions. This supports the idea that confrontational reactions are driven by experienced threat and that these reactions are rightfully called confrontational. We discuss our results in relation to research on ingroup norm-violations, outgroup criticism, and threat perception.
... The latter may reflect the desire to punish or distance oneself from uncooperative individuals to avoid future exploitation (Boyd & Richerson, 1992). It may also reflect the desire to uphold a positive self-or group image or ensure successful future cooperation within the group (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques & Paez, 1994). Though our measure cannot distinguish between these possibilities, it does highlight the reparative functions of remorse and the importance of forgiveness in maintaining cooperation and group cohesion. ...
Forgiveness helps repair ruptured relationships and maintain cooperation. It may most usefully serve these functions when it is preferentially directed toward better cooperators. We examined this proposal in two studies with young children. Study 1 asked whether children forgive in-group members (whom people generally expect to be more cooperative) more than out-group members. When a novel in-group member and out-group member both transgressed against the child and both showed remorse, 5-year-old children (N = 20) were more forgiving of the in-group member. In Study 2, when only the out-group transgressor was remorseful whereas the in-group transgressor was unremorseful (and did not demonstrate cooperative intent), 5-year-olds (N = 20) were more forgiving of the remorseful out-group transgressor. Children also judged the unremorseful in-group transgressor negatively and wanted her to leave their group. Together, these results reveal that from early in life, forgiveness is preferentially directed so as to maximize successful cooperation while reducing the risk of exploitation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... For women, one factor may be internalized sexism (Fischer et al., 2000;Piggot, 2004); women who internalize sexist beliefs may be more likely to use the slur to derogate other women. Related, women may be motivated to label other women as a way to dissociate themselves from unfavorable group members and avoid being labeled themselves (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). For heterosexual men, romantic or sexual rejection may be an important predictor. ...
Gender harassment is prevalent in contexts where women are underrepresented and negatively stereotyped, yet instances of gender harassment are often discounted as unimportant and inconsequential. The current research presents an examination of gender harassment operating on a male-majority university campus in the form of a sex-based slur known as the “Princess Syndrome.” Across two studies, the present research investigated the prevalence, meaning, and adverse consequences of the label. Study 1 indicated that the label was widespread at the university: 70% of participants had heard of the label, nearly half had used the label, and 1 out of 4 female participants had been targeted by the label. Inductive content analysis of open-ended responses revealed that the label was a derogatory term used to insult and degrade women by stigmatizing women as manipulative, exploitative, and stuck up. In Study 2, participants read about and rated a female student who was either labeled with the “Princess Syndrome” or not. Consistent with predictions, participants were more likely to discount the female student’s success in an engineering course as due to external factors (e.g., luck), rated her as less competent, and were less likely to choose to work with her on a team project when she was labeled with the “Princess Syndrome” than when she was not labeled. Results contribute to a growing body of literature demonstrating that sex-based slurs matter and suggest that slurs such as the “Princess Syndrome” may constitute a consequential yet understudied source of gender harassment for undergraduate women in STEM that reinforces and maintains gender inequity.
... For example, threats towards the individual self trigger stronger reactions, result in more psychological avoidance, and affect participants' mood more strongly than those aimed at the other two selves (Gaertner et al., 1999(Gaertner et al., , 2002(Gaertner et al., , 2012. This individual self-primacy means that even relational and collective self processes are often used to defend against threats to the individual self (e.g., Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Gebauer et al., 2012;Pinter & Wildschut, 2012;Rusbult et al., 1988;Sherman & Kim, 2005;Seta & Seta, 1996;Skitka, 2003). Accordingly, research shows that interpersonal bonds (Aron et al., 1992) and groups (Abrams & Hogg, 1988) gain psychological value the more they are incorporated into the individual self. ...
Recent empirical and theoretical developments suggest that endorsement of conspiracy theories can arise from the frustration of social motives. Taking this further, the current review integrates theorising on processes relating to three selves—the individual, relational, and collective self and outlines their associations with conspiracy beliefs. In doing so, we argue that motives pertaining to the individual self (e.g., narcissism, need for uniqueness) are linked to belief in conspiracy theories to deflect blame from personal shortcomings and protect the self‐image. Motives responding to threats to the relational self (e.g., social exclusion) increase endorsement of conspiracy theories to regain a sense of social support through exchanging shared concerns. Finally, collective self motives (e.g., collective narcissism, perceived ingroup victimhood) foster conspiracy beliefs to defend the group image by blaming outgroups for ingroup misfortunes and placing one's group in a morally superior victim role. Taken together, endorsement of conspiracy theories appears to be borne out of attempts to manage these three selves. Potential consequences for each of the selves, future directions, and theoretical implications are discussed.
... People differentiate among groups in a manner that reinforces the in-category norm and defends its subjective validity. Eidelman and Biernat (2003;Eidelman et al., 2006) posit that derogation of deviants is due to an individual protection strategy. They suggest that the self (subordinate) is primary to the group (superordinate). ...
Six experiments examined responses to groups whose attitudes deviated from wider social norms about asylum and immigration (in the United Kingdom), or about taxation levels (in the U.S.). Subjective group dynamics (SGD) theory states that people derogate in-group individuals who deviate from prescriptive in-group norms. This enables members to sustain the subjective validity of those norms and, hence, a positive social identity. Research also shows that in-group deviants who accentuate the difference between the in-group and out-group norm (e.g., extremists) are derogated less than deviants who attenuate that difference (e.g., a member who veers toward the outgroup's norm; Abrams et al., 2000). We hypothesize that these effects and the associated group dynamics should scale up when people evaluate deviant groups that are part of larger in-categories. Consistent with SGD theory, participants in Experiments 1, 2, and 3 derogated an in-category attenuating deviant group and upgraded an out-category attenuating deviant group relative to groups that consolidated or accentuated the respective norms of those categories-thereby reinforcing in-category norms relative to out-category norms. Across all experiments, this pattern of differential evaluation was associated with greater subjective validity of the in-category norm. We also hypothesized a novel Deviant Ingroup Protection (DIP) effect, wherein people should curtail derogation of an in-category deviant group when that group is their own. Consistent with this hypothesis, participants in Experiments 4, 5, and 6 evaluated an accentuating in-group, or an attenuating in-group, equally to or more positively than other in-category groups. Implications for political and organizational entrenchment are discussed.
... In line with research about the black sheep effect, people are usually very sensitive to the wrongdoings of ingroup members (Marques & Yzerbyt, 1988). Because the counter-normative behavior of an ingroup member can damage the whole group's reputation and by extension their personal identity, people are motivated to symbolically distance themselves from the deviant by pushing him/her outside of the group's boundaries (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Eidelman et al., 2006). Witnessing an ingroup member exhibiting counter-normative behaviors elicits negative emotions like shame (Nugier et al., 2010), and witnessing discrimination elicits negative emotions, like anger (Dickter & Newton, 2013). ...
Teachers are caught between the injunction of an inclusive school for all students and the logistic difficulties of such prescriptions. As a consequence, they might be tolerant toward a discriminating peer when they justify the exclusion of students with disability with benevolent arguments. Indeed, people are more likely to accept discriminatory behaviors covered by benevolent justifications rather than by hostile ones. The aim of this experimental study ('N' = 134) was to test if teachers’ willingness to distance themselves from a colleague discriminating against students with disability depends on the justification he/she provided and if attribution to prejudice mediates this relationship. Active teachers read vignettes depicting situations of elementary school student inclusion at school. Through three versions, we manipulated the inclusion of a student with disability by a colleague in his/her classroom (inclusion, exclusion with benevolent justification, or exclusion with hostile justification). Results showed that teachers expressed less backlash and willingness to distance themselves from the colleague when he/she included, rather than excluded, the student and when the reasons for exclusion were benevolent rather than hostile. Finally, attribution to prejudice to the perpetrator mediated the effects of the justification on the distancing measures. These results replicated previous findings regarding the impact of the type of justification on the attribution to prejudice to the case of ableism and show its side effect of willingness to distance from an ingroup perpetrator.
... incompetent) individuals are more likely to be rejected by other group members, because they are perceived as different from the group (van der Lee, Ellemers, Scheepers, & Rutjens, 2017). It could be that those who scored low in collective narcissism were especially willing to distance themselves from ingroup members who acted in a morally ambiguous way (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). ...
In this article, we examine how group identity and protection of group interests shape morality judgments. We argue that actions serving ingroup interests are more likely to be judged as moral (or less immoral) than the same actions that do not serve ingroup interests. However, this group-interest bias should be especially strong among those high in collective narcissism—a defensive belief in ingroup greatness that is not appreciated by others. In Studies 1 (N = 185, Polish and British participants) and 2 (N = 404, British participants), participants judged actions favouring interests of outgroup members as less moral than similar actions favouring interests of their ingroup. However, this effect was only present for those high in national collective narcissism. In Study 3 (N = 400, American participants), moral judgements of the US Senate’s decision about Brett Kavanaugh’s nomination depended on partisanship, but this effect was strengthened by partisan collective narcissism. Finally, in Study 4 (N = 711, American participants), the association between national collective narcissism and morality judgments of President Trump’s decision to remain an ally of Saudi Arabia was especially strong when national interest was salient (vs. not). None of the studies observed similar moderating effects of conventional ingroup identification. Overall, these results suggest that ingroup interests shape moral judgments, but this bias is most prevalent among those who are defensive about their group identity.
... In substance, high identifiers who have positive attitude to heavy drinking are more prone to exclude non-drinkers. However, social rejection could be considered as a last resort as studies on deviance usually offer this only solution to participants in order to deal with deviant members [50]. In fact, before being rejected, deviant members may first come under scrutiny or be at the center of the attention as other group members may try to convince them to follow the norm [48]. ...
Alcohol is an ancestral beverage. Both divinized and demonized, it is nowadays at the heart of a great controversy at health and social levels. Its consumption is subject to great control, consumption thresholds are instituted (i.e. WHO), limits imposed. However, it must be admitted that the consumption of alcohol is regulated by culture, contexts and identity. This article aims to show that the terms ‘use’ and ‘abuse’ conventionally mobilized to speak of good and bad consumption are not able to exhaust the range of possibilities in terms of alcohol drinking behaviors understanding. Indeed, only the consideration of contextual and identity dynamics can allow us to understand with accuracy the relationship to this substance.
... Alternatively, because people are motivated to maintain a positive social identity and bolster their in-group's image, they judge deviant in-group members more negatively than comparable out-group members (i.e., the black sheep effect, Marques, Abrams, & Serôdio, 2001). Because an in-group member expressing a contrary view may threaten one's personal and social identity (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003), people could avoid him or her more strongly than an out-group member expressing discrepant views, who-in turn-could validate the dislike for the out-group and indirectly bolster the in-group's image. Given these scenarios, this project asks whether people prefer counter-attitudinal political content featuring in-group or out-group members (Research Question 1 [RQ1]). ...
The online environment offers nearly unlimited sources and information, giving people unprecedented agency over selection. This article offers a test of three factors predicting selective exposure to opinionated news online—prior political attitudes, source credibility, and individual social identity based on race (Study 1) and gender (Study 2)—testing their independent and interactive effects. Two original selection studies on samples of adult Americans offered articles that were (1) pro- or counter-attitudinal with regard to individual attitudes on two political issues, (2) from high- versus low-credibility sources conceptualized in two different ways, and (3) featuring participants’ social in-group or out-group. Unobtrusively logged behavioral selection data suggest that prior political attitudes, and their strength and importance in Study 1, more strongly predict pro-attitudinal exposure than both source credibility and the demographically based social identity. Both studies additionally reveal nuanced interactions between the tested factors.
... Pinto, Marques, & Páez, 2016), as research suggests they may otherwise opt to actively distance themselves from the group (cf. Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). These findings again suggest that the social identities formed deductively may be somewhat different from the social identities formed inductively; homogeneity of group members strengthens deductive social identity formation (Jans et al., 2012, Postmes et al., 2005b, and, as a consequence, deductively formed groups may remain more appreciative of similarity, than inductively formed groups. ...
When someone expresses a morally deviant opinion, this person is likely to face derogation by their group. We examined whether people reacted more positively to opinion deviance when social identity was induced from individual expressions, rather than deduced from ingroup similarities. Participants (n = 155 divided over 41 groups) engaged in small-group conversations. We manipulated social identity formation (induction vs. deduction) and the presence of deviance (vs. agreement), without using confederates. We directly compared reactions to opinion deviance for both normative positions (i.e., for the deviant and the normative group members). Questionnaires assessed group-members' belongingness and personal value to the group. Innovatively, we also tracked moment-to moment levels of belongingness throughout the conversation. We tested whether the responses of the deviant compared to normative group members differed depending on social identity formation. Overall, deviants experienced lower belongingness after opinion deviance than normative group members. However, the trajectories over time suggest that deviants began to recover their belongingness in inductively formed groups, but not in deductively formed groups. Furthermore, in inductively formed groups deviants were perceived to be more valuable to the group, than they were in deductively formed groups. Exploratory analyses on the effect of social identity formation on normative group members' trajectories of belongingness further suggest that being normative may be particularly beneficial when social identity is deduced. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical implications and the value of dynamic tracking as a methodology to examine small group processes.
... As leaving the Facebook group does not have the same effect as leaving one's university, it might be doubted whether the leaving intentions we measured are meaningful. We assume that they are, as group leaving represents a reaction that primarily aims at avoiding being (publicly) associated with a group one no longer feels comfortable about (for a similar argument, see Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). Nonetheless, we employed a more elaborate, multi-item measure of leaving intentions in Study 3. ...
Group members, even central ones like group leaders, do not always adhere to their group's norms and show norm-violating behavior instead. Observers of this kind of behavior have been shown to react negatively in such situations, and in extreme cases, may even leave their group. The current work set out to test how this reaction might be prevented. We assumed that group-norm affirmations can buffer leaving intentions in response to group-norm violations and tested three potential mechanisms underlying the buffering effect of group-norm affirmations. To this end, we conducted three experiments in which we manipulated group-norm violations and group-norm affirmations. In Study 1, we found group-norm affirmations to buffer leaving intentions after group-norm violations. However, we did not find support for the assumption that group-norm affirmations change how a behavior is evaluated or preserve group members' identification with their group. Thus, neither of these variables can explain the buffering effect of group-norm affirmations. Studies 2 & 3 revealed that group-norm affirmations instead reduce perceived effectiveness of the norm-violator, which in turn predicted lower leaving intentions. The present findings will be discussed based on previous research investigating the consequences of norm violations.
... According to this theory, the groups to which people belong are an important source of self-esteem, giving them a sense of social identity (i.e., a portion of an individual's self-concept which is based on perceived group(s) membership and identification; Turner, & Oakes, 1986;Turner, & Reynolds, 2010). Therefore, if people are motivated to protect and bolster a positive image of their ingroup (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987;Worchel, & Austin, 1979) they will derogate ingroup members who deviate from a relevant group norm and threaten their positive social identity more harshly than deviants of an outgroup (Eidelman, & Biernat, 2003;Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Hogg, 2002) resulting in more negative perceptions, evaluations and attitudes towards unlikeable and deviant ingroup members. ...
The impact of race on criminal-sentencing decisions has been investigated before (e.g. Eberhardt, Davies, Purdie-Vaughns, & Johnson, 2006). However, this research has never considered the influence of a social norm previously identified as important in several group-based distinctions – the norm of Meritocracy (e.g. Costa-Lopes, Wigboldus, & Vala, 2017). Although seen as an important social norm that regulates society, descriptive Meritocracy - i.e. the belief that people are rewarded based on their efforts - is however associated with intolerance and dislike of members of low status groups and may therefore be logically associated with more unfavourable decisions towards low status groups such as racial minorities. In the current study, the influence of Meritocracy on criminal-sentencing decisions was examined using a mock-jurors paradigm, while also examining the degree to which a defendant’s race affects those same decisions. A total of 143 participants responded to two critical cases within a total of six criminal cases that were presented, after performing a Scrambled Sentence Task either priming Meritocracy tenets or a neutral content (McCoy & Major, 2007). We hypothesized that mock-jurors’ criminal-sentence recommendations are influenced by defendants’ race and that when Meritocracy is made salient participants tend to recommend longer sentences to Black defendants only for Black-stereotyped crimes. Results show that participants attributed longer sentences to the Black defendant (vs. White defendant) and that this effect was magnified when he committed a Black-stereotyped crime. However, this effect was not more pronounced in the Meritocratic condition (vs. neutral condition). Implications are discussed in terms of further studies.
... Some have posited that the black sheep effect is ultimately indicative of in-group favoritism, since ostracizing the 'black sheep' could protect the identity of the group (Marques & Paez, 1994), whereas others have proposed that it is the means through which individuals protect their own identities and distance themselves from unfavorable group members (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). ...
In the current work, we open the black box of third-party non-intervention in response to mistreatment. We propose that the cognitive mechanisms employed by third parties to resolve internal conflict stemming from inaction have lasting effects that contribute to the perpetuation and intensification of mistreatment. We also consider the influence of social identity on third-party experiences, illustrating how third-party justification may reinforce informal social identity hierarchies within organizations. This theory considers third-party non-intervention from a new perspective, shedding light on the social mechanisms that contribute toward widespread mistreatment of marginalized groups, and providing new avenues for future research.
... On the other hand, the fact that the youngest (20-29 years) women were less sympathetic toward the female driver could perhaps be explained by the "black sheep effect," where in-group members are judged harshly if they exhibit more deviant behavior in relation to a relevant group norm (i.e., we young girls do not drink and drive; Eidelman and Biernat 2003). For example, in a study with university students, there was an interaction between a social drinking context (alone/anti normative vs. social/pronormative) and group membership (student/in-group vs. older employee/ out-group), such that alcohol consumption of an in-group member was evaluated less favorably than that of an outgroup member in the antinormative context, whereas the opposite was the case in the pronormative context (Lo Monaco et al. 2011). ...
Objective: It is well established that young men are the riskiest group of all drivers, while men in general more often drive under the influence of alcohol. However, potentially oversimplified representations such as a “young male problem” and “drunk driving as a male problem” can influence action and reinforce existing attitudes by selectively directing attention to stereotypically consistent behavior. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis of possible bias towards young male drivers in the context of drunk driving.
Methods: We have created a scenario study investigating whether the sex of an imaginary young drunk driver would be associated with a different perceived negligence (ranging from 0 = not negligent at all to 10 = extremely negligent) among our participants. These participants were a representative sample of Finnish female driver license holders. The data for the study were gathered as part of a larger survey study on women’s drinking and driving culture.
Results: Perceptions of how negligent a person was depended on the age of the respondents such that the older the respondent, the higher the perceived negligence. Perceived negligence was similar for male and female drivers in the scenario; however, there was an interaction effect between driver sex and the age of respondents. The youngest (20-29 yrs) and two oldest (50-69 yrs) groups of our respondents found the young woman to be more negligent, while the opposite was the case for the other two groups.
Conclusions: The results of our imaginary scenario study of a representative sample of Finnish female driver license holders do not support a hypothesis that there would be a negative bias towards young male drivers in the context of drunk driving behavior.
... In particular, work on the "black sheep effect" shows that people will denigrate and distance themselves from ingroup members who exhibit deviant behavior (e.g., Marques & Yzerbyt, 1988). Eidelman and Biernat (2003) argue that devaluing a deviant ingroup member is not simply a means of group protection, but a means of reducing the likelihood that one will be viewed similarly. ...
Objectives: Three studies explored interpersonal consequences of engaging in interracial interactions after witnessing racial ingroup members’ stereotypical behavior. Method: Study 1 used experience-sampling methodology to assess ethnic minority students’ (n = 119) intergroup anxiety, metastereotypes, and anticipatory behaviors following one of three types of interpersonal interactions: (a) a White person and a racial ingroup member who had behaved stereotypically, (b) a White person and a nonstereotypical ingroup member, or (c) neither. Studies 2 (n = 273) and 3 (n = 379) experimentally examined whether witnessing an ingroup member’s stereotypically negative behavior in interracial interactions, compared to stereotypically positive (Study 2) or nonstereotypically negative behavior (Study 3) differentially affected anxiety, metastereotypes, and anticipatory behaviors in interracial versus intraracial interactions among Black Americans. Results: In Study 1, minorities reported greater anxiety, metastereotypes, and motivation to disprove stereotypes, but less interest in future interracial contact, following interracial interactions involving stereotype-confirming ingroup members compared to other interactions. In Studies 2 and 3, adverse interaction consequences were most severe when ingroup behavior was both negative and stereotypical compared to neutral, stereotypically positive, and nonstereotypically negative ingroup behavior. Additionally, metastereotypes (and, to a lesser degree, anxiety) mediated individuals’ motivation to disprove stereotypes and desire future interactions with White witnesses following stereotypically negative ingroup behavior in interracial (vs. intraracial) interactions. Conclusions: This research highlights the emotional, metaperceptual, and motivational outcomes following ingroup members’ stereotypical behavior in intergroup contexts that extend beyond dyadic encounters.
... They then completed the team identification scale (α= .84) a second time. This was done to ensure that participants would not distance themselves from the team after reading about an unfair team member (Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Martinez-Taboada, 1998). All of the dependent variables were measured on 7-point scales (1= does not apply; 7= completely applies). ...
Moral violations seem to elicit moral outrage because of the wrongfulness of the deed. However, recent studies have questioned the existence of moral outrage, because moral violations are confounded with the harm done to victims. Such harm elicits empathic anger rather than moral outrage (Batson et al., 2007; Batson et al., 2009). Thus, moral outrage is triggered by the wrongfulness of an action (i.e., a perpetrator's intention to harm), whereas empathic anger is triggered by its harmfulness (i.e., the actual harm done). Four studies (N = 1065) in varying contexts orthogonally crossed these antecedents of anger to differentiate between moral outrage and empathic anger. The results demonstrate that anger mainly emerged from the intention to harm, rather than the actual harm done. In contrast, the actual harm elicited empathy with victims. The findings suggest that anger about moral violations emerges separately from empathic reactions, although these reactions are difficult to distinguish in most instances. Likewise, the intention to harm provoked a willingness to punish the perpetrator much more than the actual harm did. Moral violations thus elicit moral outrage independently of their harmful consequences, even though such anger may often overlap with concern for others.
... To the extent that perceptions of social change threaten SI in this fashion, they may heighten epistemic needs for order, certainty, and control (Jost, Federico, & Napier, 2009), which are precursors to conspiracy thinking (e.g., Marchlewska et al., in press). Because CTs function to satisfy these needs by providing meaning to otherwise complex and threatening phenomena (Miller et al., 2016;Sunstein, 2014), they may serve to reduce the uncertainty and threat that surround the belief that one's society is changing for the worse, and to bolster the perception that the root cause of this change is external to the self (e.g., Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Hogg, 2001). ...
Conspiracy theories about government officials and the institutions they represent are widespread, and span the ideological spectrum. In this study, we test hypotheses suggesting that system identity threat, or a perception that society's fundamental, defining values are under siege due to social change will predict conspiracy thinking. Across two samples (N=870, N=2,702), we found that system identity threat is a strong predictor of a general tendency toward conspiracy thinking and endorsement of both ideological and non‐ideological conspiracy theories, even after accounting for numerous covariates. We also found that the relationship between system‐identity threat and conspiracy‐theory endorsement is mediated by conspiracy thinking. These results suggest that conspiracy‐theory endorsement may be a compensatory reaction to perceptions that society's essential character is changing.
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... Since the initial work by Marques and colleagues , the black sheep effect was found in a wide variety of social contexts, under a range of different experimental conditions (e.g., Biernat, et al., 1999;Branscombe, Wann, Noel, & Coleman, 1993;Breakwell, Vignoles, & Robertson, 2003;Eidelman & Biernat, 2003;Hichy, Mari, & Capozza, 2008;Jetten, Summerville, Hornsey, & Mewse, 2005;Khan & Lambert, 1998;Lewis & Sherman, 2010;Nesdale & Brown, 2004). In this line of research, some authors proposed alternative accounts for the occurrence of the black sheep effect. ...
Purpose
This study aims to explore how witnessing a hospitality employee mistreating a customer impacts observers’ revenge-seeking behavior, directed not only at the offending employee but also at innocent employees.
Design/methodology/approach
This study conducts four online experiments to test the proposed relationships involving 881 UK adults.
Findings
Observing hospitality employees mistreating customers prompts observers to view the guilty employee as harmful, triggering revenge-seeking behavior. This perception of harmfulness also extends to innocent employees, leading observers to seek revenge against them. However, empowering fellow customers during the recovery process reduces observers’ intent to seek revenge against both guilty and innocent employees. In addition, the results reveal the black sheep effect, where shared group membership between the observing customer and the guilty employee results in harsher punishment for the latter, particularly when the mistreatment targets an out-group customer.
Practical implications
The findings offer practical guidance for hospitality companies on how observers’ perceptions of employees can reshape service evaluations and influence restorative approaches. Service recovery efforts should extend beyond directly affected customers to include those who witnessed the incident.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to explain how observers appraise the mistreatment of fellow customers and how this influences their perceptions and revenge-seeking behavior toward both guilty and innocent employees.
Les auteurs présentent un modèle explicatif du processus par lequel l’hostilité des individus à l’égard des déviants de leur propre groupe concourt au maintien d’une identité sociale positive. Ce modèle intègre trois approches théoriques complémentaires : la psychologie sociale des petits groupes, l’approche de l’identification sociale (y compris la théorie de l’identité sociale et la théorie de l’auto-catégorisation) et l’approche durkheimienne du contrôle social. Les auteurs présentent un programme de recherches concernant les effets de différents facteurs cognitifs (focalisation prescriptive ou descriptive des individus), contextuels (menace des normes endogroupales, statut des déviants) et socioculturels (partage de valeurs individualistes ou collectivistes) sur les jugements émis par les individus à l’égard d’individus déviants appartenant à l’endogroupe ou à l’exogroupe.
The social identity approach to health argues that well‐being depends on the psychosocial circumstances of the groups to which individuals belong. However, little is known about how the average level of identification in the group – ‘the identification environment’ – buffers the negative health consequences of stressors. We used multilevel modelling to investigate whether identification environment in a school modified the association between the students' perceptions of the quality of their school's physical environment and their reported levels of anxiety. In two representative samples of Finnish school students ( N = 678 schools/71,392 students; N = 704 schools/85,989 students), weak identification environment was related to increased anxiety. In addition, in schools where identification environment was weaker, the student level relationship between perceived physical environment and anxiety was stronger, and students were more anxious. Our results provide evidence that identification environment needs to be considered when we analyse how group membership affects well‐being.
Claims of discrimination made by high‐status groups (e.g., White people, men) have become increasingly more common. To understand ingroup support for such claims, we examined perceivers’ group identification (GID) and perceived social costs as contributing factors. In addition, we examined the impact of the claimant blaming 'diversity' as a source of discrimination to see if this may influence perceptions of social costs and ultimately support. Across three experiments, we found that GID predicted support for the claimant among Whites and men when the claim blamed diversity, which was mediated by perceptions of group‐level social costs, suggesting that mentioning diversity as part of their claim may influence support for the claimant. We found similar patterns of results for liking and behavioral intentions. Results suggest that it is important to examine aspects of the claim and perceivers’ perceptions of social costs when examining support for discrimination claimants.
Les recherches passées sur les réactions de femmes envers une autre femme discriminée présentent des résultats inconsistants. Deux expériences examinent l’impact du sort commun sur les réactions de soutien ou de dénigrement de femmes envers une autre femme victime de discrimination. Des participantes observent un acte sexiste ambigu (Expérience 1) ou non ambigu (Expériences 1 et 2) émis envers une cible femme avec qui elles partagent ou ne partagent pas de sort commun. Les résultats mettent en évidence que lorsque les participantes partagent un sort commun avec la victime, elles minimisent plus la discrimination envers cette dernière, que la discrimination soit ou non ambiguë, et la dénigrent en la jugeant plus négativement si elle reconnaît la discrimination. Ces comportements de dénigrement envers la victime n’apparaissent pas dans un contexte où les observatrices ne partagent pas de sort commun avec elle.
This paper proposes to make an inventory of knowledge on the process of vicarious dissonance, describing the possibility of individuals experiencing cognitive dissonance vicariously when they observe a member of their group acting inconsistently with their own attitudes (Cooper & Hogg, 2007). After identifying different factors necessary for or conducive to the development of vicarious dissonance, and after reviewing the nature of vicarious dissonance, this article will explore the reasons why an individual may be compelled to change their attitude under conditions of vicarious dissonance. We will conclude our argument by presenting new findings on this phenomenon in line with several theories. According to the cognitive dissonance theory, the reduction is linked to a decrease in arousal which leads to a decrease in inconsistency. While the social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and self-categorization (Turner et al., 1987) allows us to think of cognitive dissonance as a vicarious process, the uncertainty theory (Hogg, 2000, 2007) proposes brand new interpretations for answering the question “what are the functions of vicarious dissonance reduction?”, at both individual- and group-level.
In diesem Kapitel wird zunächst auf das Selbstkonzept, das aus multiplen Selbstaspekten besteht, und die Wege der Aktivierung von Teilen des Selbstkonzepts eingegangen. Anschließend werden die Funktionen des Selbst, hier vor allem die strukturierende, die motivational-emotionale und die handlungsregulierende Funktion, beschrieben. Des Weiteren werden Wege der Selbsterkenntnis (Introspektion, Selbstbeobachtung und Vergleich mit anderen Personen) erklärt. Das Kapitel endet mit einer Darlegung von Strategien, die vor allem bei der Bedrohung des Selbst eingesetzt werden, um ein positives Selbstbild aufrechtzuerhalten (Selbstwertbestätigung, selbstwertdienliche soziale Vergleiche und selbstwertdienliche Attributionen).
Collective responsibility processes have been investigated from the perspectives of the outgroup (e.g. collective blame) and the ingroup (e.g. collective guilt). This paper extends theory and research on collective responsibility with a third perspective, namely that of the individual actor whose behavior triggers the attribution of collective blame. Four experiments (N = 78, 118, 208 and 77, respectively) tested the hypotheses that collective responsibility processes influence the individual actors’ appraisals, emotions and behavior. The possibility of collective blame for their individual action prompted more prosocial behavior among participants (Experiment 1). Participants also experienced more ingroup reputation concern and in turn more negative emotions (Experiment 2‐4) for a past wrongdoing if it could reflect negatively on the ingroup in the eyes of outgroups. The increased negative emotions then motivated participants to improve the ingroup's image (Experiment 4). The effects were moderated by perceived ingroup entitativity, in that activating collective blame increased ingroup reputation concern and negative emotions only for ingroups perceived as highly entitative (Experiment 3).
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In six studies, we examined how properties of families as ingroups (i.e., group value, entitativity, and identification) enhance well-being, leveraging the Model of Ingroups as Social Resources (MISR). In correlational studies involving college students (Study 1) and older adults (Study 2), people experienced greater well-being when they reported that their families were greater in group value, entitativity, and identification. Studies 3–5 manipulated each of these three family ingroup properties, respectively, and we observed causal evidence that each one improves well-being. Study 6 replicated Study 3, and it ruled out a mood-based alternative account. These studies contribute to our understanding of how families affect people’s mental and physical health, and they provide an initial empirical test of these three ingroup constructs concurrently and in a manipulated fashion.
In four studies, effects of self-perceived or public-perceived threats to group status or group distinctiveness on self-stereotyping (defined as similarity to prototypical in-group members) were investigated for people with high or low in-group identification. The main prediction was that high and low identifiers will respond differentially when their group's status or distinctiveness is threatened such that self-stereotyping is reduced for low identifiers but enhanced for high identifiers. Although the four studies investigated different comparison groups and different kinds of group threat, the results of all studies provided support for the prediction, and this was confirmed by a meta-analysis. This supports the authors' argument that the initial level of group identification determines whether group members are likely to set themselves apart from the rest of their group or to show group solidarity when their identity as group members is threatened.
Some researchers have found that out-group members are responded to more extremely than in-group members; others have found the reveres. The pre authors hypothesized that when importance of group membership was low, out-group extremity would be observed. That is, when the target's actions have few or no implications for the perceive's identity, out-group extremity will occur. In-group extremity was expected when perceivers are high in identification with the in-group. The presence of a threat to one's identity was predicted to intensity the in-group extremity effect for highly identified persons only Evaluations of a loyal or disloyal in-group or out-group member were made by highly identified or weakly identified in-group participants under threatening or nonthreatening conditions. The results confirmed the predicted pattern of effects. Implications for sports spectators and other self-selected group members are discussed.
In this chapter we review evidence on the ‘black sheep effect’: subjects judge likable ingroup members more positively than similar outgroup members, while judging unlikable ingroup members more negatively than similar outgroup members. We attempt to relate these findings to traditional research on group uniformity (Cartwright & Zander, 1968; Festinger, 1950), and to more recent research on social identity (Hogg & Abrams, 1988), and outgroup homogeneity (Park, Judd, & Ryan, 1991). The general idea is that the black sheep effect operates to preserve a positive social identity. It is an outcome of subjective representations of a normative pressure towards ingroup uniformity.
The tendency to "bask in reflected glory" (BIRG) by publicly announcing one's associations with successful others was investigated in 3 field experiments with more than 300 university students. All 3 studies showed this effect to occur even though the person striving to bask in the glory of a successful source was not involved in the cause of the source's success. Exp I demonstrated the BIRG phenomenon by showing a greater tendency for university students to wear school-identifying apparel after their school's football team had been victorious than nonvictorious. Exps II and III replicated this effect by showing that students used the pronoun we more when describing victory than a nonvictory of their school's football team. A model was developed asserting that the BIRG response represents an attempt to enhance one's public image. Exps II and III indicated, in support of this assertion, that the tendency to proclaim a connection with a positive source was strongest when one's public image was threatened. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Experimental research on intergroup discrimination in favor of one's own group is reviewed in terms of the basis of differentiation between in-group and out-group and in terms of the response measure on which in-group bias is assessed. Results of the research reviewed suggest that (a) factors such as intergroup competition, similarity, and status differentials affect in-group bias indirectly by influencing the salience of distinctions between in-group and out-group, (b) the degree of intergroup differentiation on a particular response dimension is a joint function of the relevance of intergroup distinctions and the favorableness of the in-group's position on that dimension, and (c) the enhancement of in-group bias is more related to increased favoritism toward in-group members than to increased hostility toward out-group members. Implications of these results for positive applications of group identification (e.g., a shift of in-group bias research from inter- to intragroup contexts) are discussed. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two image-maintenance processes by which people manipulate their association with others were tested: the tendency to bask in reflected glory as a means of increasing one's association with successful others and the tendency to cut off reflected failure as a means of decreasing one's association with unsuccessful others. 102 undergraduates were initially involved in a group task and were then assigned to 1 of 3 group-performance feedback conditions: failure, no information, or success. Self-report and behavioral (taking and wearing of team badges) dependent measures of distancing showed that Ss in the failure group manifested less association with their group than did Ss in the no-information feedback and success groups; there was a tendency on behavioral but not self-report measures for Ss in the success group to manifest more association with their group than for Ss in the no-information feedback group. Therefore, more support was found for the cutting-off-reflected-failure process than for the basking-in-reflected-glory process as an image-maintenance tactic. Because Ss truly identified with their group's relative sense of failure or success, it is suggested that it was this identification process that appeared to have driven Ss' distancing behaviors in relation to their groups. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the hypothesis that an experience that simply affirms a valued aspect of the self can eliminate dissonance and its accompanying cognitive changes. Three experiments were conducted using the conventional forced-compliance procedure. In Study 1, some of the 76 college student Ss were allowed to affirm an important, self-relevant value (by completing a self-relevant value scale) immediately after having written unrelated dissonant essays and prior to recording their attitudes on the postmeasure. Other Ss underwent an identical procedure but were selected so that the value affirmed by the scale was not part of their self-concept. The value scale eliminated dissonance-reducing attitude change among Ss for whom it was self-relevant but not among Ss for whom it was not self-relevant. This occurred even though the value scale could not resolve or reduce the objective importance of the dissonance-provoking inconsistency. Study 2, conducted with 24 Ss with a strong economic and political value orientation, showed that the self-affirmation effect was strong enough to prevent the reinstatement of dissonance. Study 3, testing generalizability with 24 Ss, replicated the effect by using a different attitude issue, a different value for affirmation, and a different measure of dissonance reduction. Results imply that a need for psychological consistency is not part of dissonance motivation and that salient, self-affirming cognitions may help objectify reactions to self-threatening information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Placed each S with a discussion partner who was made to appear either similar or dissimilar to him. Moreover, the partner (an experimental accomplice) was either obnoxious or pleasant to the E. It was predicted that Ss whose partners were obnoxious but otherwise similar to them would be prompted to change their opinions on an attitude questionnaire in order to show their distinctiveness from the accomplice. Obnoxiousness would have no such effects when the partner was obviously dissimilar. Results supported the hypothesis and are offered as evidence for the use of opinion dissent as a self-presentational strategy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments examined 5 hypotheses of social identity theory ( H. Tajfel & J. C. Turner, 1979 ) concerning social mobility and social creativity strategies and how permeability of group boundaries affects strategy use. As predicted, members of negatively distinctive in-groups distanced themselves psychologically from the in-group (social mobility), rated the distinguishing dimension as less undesirable (social creativity), and rated the in-group more favorably on other dimensions (social creativity) than did members of nondistinctive in-groups. Also as predicted, social creativity strategies were more likely to be used when group boundaries were impermeable rather than permeable. Permeability effects on social mobility strategies were more complex than predicted. Additional findings shed light on relationships among identity-enhancement strategies and on how dimensions are chosen to flatter a negatively distinctive in-group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies compared the relative strength of motivational assumptions drawn from SIT (e.g. Tajfel, 1978) and memory-based assumptions drawn from the differential familiarity hypothesis (Linville, Fischer and Salovey, 1989) in explaining ingroup bias and the black sheep effect (Marques, 1986, 1990). In Study 1, 15 subjects estimated member distributions and gave overall ratings of an ingroup and two outgroups. In Study 2, 42 subjects performed similar tasks for ingroup or outgroup, and evaluated likeable and unlikeable group members. Results showed, first, that overall group ratings account better for ingroup bias than do central tendencies of group distributions. In addition, likeable and unlikeable ingroup members were, respectively, upgraded and downgraded relative to their outgroup counterparts. Finally, whole ingroup ratings as well as judgements of likeable and unlikeable ingroup members proved more independent from variability and central tendency of underlying distributions than did similar outgroup judgements. Results are discussed in light of motivational and knowledge-based determinants of group judgements.
The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ‚minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their esthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ‚real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity.
It was found that, as soon as the notion of ‚group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ‚group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects' decisions.
The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social‐cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour.
The present study proposes an extension to the phenomenon of ingroup favouritism, based on the hypothesis that judgments about ingroup members may be more positive or more negative than judgments about similar outgroup members. It contrasts predictions issued from the complexity-extremity hypothesis (Linville, 1982; Linville and Jones, 1980), from the ingroup favouritism hypothesis (Tajfel, 1982) and from Tesser's (1978; Millar and Tesser, 1986) attitude polarization model. Our main prediction, based on Social Identity Theory, is that judgments about both likeable and unlikeable ingroup members are more extreme than judgments about outgroup members. This phenomenon, coined the Black Sheep Effect, is viewed as due to the relevance that ingroup members'behaviour, as compared to that of outgroup members, has for the subjects' social identity. Three experiments supported our predictions. Experiment I additionally showed that inter-trait correlations were stronger for the ingroup than for the outgroup. Experiment 2 showed that the black sheep effect occurs only when the judgmental cues are relevant for the subjects' social identity, and Experiment 3 showed that levels of information about the target of the judgment were ineffective in generating judgmental extremity. Results are discussed in light of a cognitive-motivational alternative explanation to a purely cognitive interpretation of outgroup homogeneity.
There are currently a large number of models which identify self-evaluation (self-esteem) as an important source of motivation. However, these models often posit qualitatively different antecedents and consequences. The present studies focus on the questions of whether these qualitatively different behavioral systems affect the same or different mediating variables, and whether the motivation is to maximize or simply maintain a particular level of self-evaluation. In Study 1 we found that providing subjects a “self affirmation” (Steele, 1988) opportunity reduced their propensity to engage in self-evaluation maintenance behaviors (SEM; Tesser, 1988). In Studies 2 and 3 we found that making salient positive SEM scenarios reduced the propensity to engage in dissonance reduction whereas making salient a threatening SEM scenario did not. These results were interpreted as indicating that these hypothetical self-systems affect the same mediating variable and that the motive is to maintain rather than maximize self-evaluation.
This chapter discusses social behavior through self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model. It describes several studies to provide a feel for the kind of research that has been completed in an attempt to explore the predictions of the model. The SEM model is composed of two dynamic processes. Both the reflection process and the comparison process have as component variables the closeness of another and the quality of that other's performance. These two variables interact in affecting self-evaluation but do so in quite opposite ways in each of the processes Model establishes the comprehensiveness of the research and the interactive quality of its predictions. Next, the SEM model is fit into the perspective of related work, including self-theories, social comparison theory, and Cialdini's BIRGing research. The chapter reviews the epistemological status of the model. It discusses some of the implications of the research for a variety of areas in psychology.
The Role of Group Norms in Judgments and BehaviorReactions to Deviance in Small GroupsSocial Identification and Derogation of Ingroup DeviantsSubjective Group DynamicsThe Impact of Norm Awareness on Evaluations of Ingroup DeviantsConcluding Comments
Administered the cpi to 66 female undergraduates. Ss then interacted with a female confederate who was represented as either similar or dissimilar to them and who behaved in either a pleasant or obnoxious manner. It was predicted that a pleasant similar other would be liked more than a pleasant dissimilar other, but that an obnoxious similar other would be disliked more than an obnoxious dissimilar other. Results support the hypotheses. The effect was found to be mediated in part by fear of possessing the undesirable trait and in part by the greater affective potency of a similar partner. Results are discussed in terms of anxiety reduction and the greater salience of a similar person's characteristics in the social comparison process.
The authors predicted that derogation of group deviants depends on the extent to which in-group norms or values are validated or undermined in a social context. In Experiment 1 participants were less tolerant and derogated in-group deviants more when other in-group members opposed the norm. In Experiment 2 participants derogated in-group deviants more than out-group deviants and than noncategorized individuals, but only when normative in-group members lacked uniformity. In Experiment 3 participants derogated in-group deviants more when there was uncertainty about in-group superiority. These results are consistent with previous research on the black sheep effect (J. M. Marques, V. Y. Yzerbyt, & J. -P. Leyens, 1988) and with the model of subjective group dynamics (D. Abrams, J. M. Marques, N. J. Bown, & M. Henson, 2000; J. M. Marques, D. Abrams, D. Paez, & C. Martinez-Taboada, 1998).
Social identity theory as developed by Tajfel and Turner argues that there are two distinct aspects of the self-concept: personal identity and social identity (in American terminology, collective identity). Although many self-esteem measures are available in the literature, they allfocus on individuals'evaluation of their personal identity, whether in private or interpersonal domains. No scale currently exists that assesses the positivity of one's social, or collective, identity. A scale was constructed to assess individual differences in collective, rather than personal, self-esteem, with four subscales (Membership esteem, Public collective self-esteem, Private collective self-esteem, and Importance to Identity). Evidence for reliability and validity of the scale was provided by three studies, suggesting that the scale can be a useful research tool. Implications for research and social identity theory are discussed.
The stigmatization process might differ as a function of whether "marked" individuals are viewed within a context of other marked individuals or in the context of positively viewed "normals. "Several alternative impression outcomes seem plausible the destigmatization by association of marked individuals, the stigmatization by association of normal individuals, a contrast effect, or no influence of context. Two experiments produced evidence only for stigma-by-association effects-heterosexual male targets were denigrated when viewed with their homosexual friends. Moreover, this effect survived attempts both to make the heterosexual target similar to the subjects and to present him as an individual of high achieved status. More generally, these data highlight the risk of researching social cognitive phenomena within circumscribed social contexts: Crucial naturally occurring processes are too easily overlooked.
Tajfel and Turner's (1979, 1986) social identity theory, the minimal group paradigm with which the theory is associated and two core findings stemming from that paradigm are the focus of this paper. The development of the social identity concept is reviewed, and particular detail is devoted to the empirical basis of the theory, given that the theory was constructed to account for these data. It is found that the data are replete with weaknesses-confounds and susceptibility to alternative explanations-and that these weaknesses have gone largely unheeded. A careful inspection of the theory reveals that it is a reductionistic approach to individual identity or self: the theory specifies in no manner the psychological state of the individual prior to entry into the `ingroup', and in turn the individual's social identity is then equated with physical presence in a group, whereby membership is brought about not by psychological forces, but by arbitrary assignment. Two alternative, social-psychological theories are reviewed that serve as riper candidates for the generating of psychological hypotheses regarding the individual's approach towards and avoidance of, identification with and distancing from, other individuals and groups. It is concluded that social identity theory is little more than its own minimal paradigm, and is superfluous as an account of systematic social-psychological phenomena.
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• As the title suggests, this book examines the psychology of interpersonal relations. In the context of this book, the term "interpersonal relations" denotes relations between a few, usually between two, people. How one person thinks and feels about another person, how he perceives him and what he does to him, what he expects him to do or think, how he reacts to the actions of the other--these are some of the phenomena that will be treated. Our concern will be with "surface" matters, the events that occur in everyday life on a conscious level, rather than with the unconscious processes studied by psychoanalysis in "depth" psychology. These intuitively understood and "obvious" human relations can, as we shall see, be just as challenging and psychologically significant as the deeper and stranger phenomena. The discussion will center on the person as the basic unit to be investigated. That is to say, the two-person group and its properties as a superindividual unit will not be the focus of attention. Of course, in dealing with the person as a member of a dyad, he cannot be described as a lone subject in an impersonal environment, but must be represented as standing in relation to and interacting with another person. The chapter topics included in this book include: Perceiving the Other Person; The Other Person as Perceiver; The Naive Analysis of Action; Desire and Pleasure; Environmental Effects; Sentiment; Ought and Value; Request and Command; Benefit and Harm; and Reaction to the Lot of the Other Person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book presents a new theory of the social group which seeks to explain how individuals become unified into a group and capable of collective behaviour.
The book summarizes classic psychological theories of the group, describes and explains the important effects of group membership on social behaviour, outlines self-categorization theory in full and shows how the general perspective has been applied in research on group formation and cohesion, social influence, the polarization of social attitudes, crowd psychology and social stereotyping. The theory emerges as a fundamental new contribution to social psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper reports the results of a meta-analytic integration of the results of 137 tests of the ingroup bias hypothesis. Overall, the ingroup bias effect was highly significant and of moderate magnitude. Several theoretically informative determinants of the ingroup bias effect were established. This ingroup bias effect was significantly stronger when the ingroup was made salient (by virtue of proportionate size and by virtue of reality of the group categorization). A significant interaction between the reality of the group categorization and the relative status of the ingroup revealed a slight decrease in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in real groups, and a significant increase in the ingroup bias effect as a function of status in artificial groups. Finally, an interaction between item relevance and ingroup status was observed, such that higher status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on more relevant attributes, whereas lower status groups exhibited more ingroup bias on less relevant attributes. Discussion considers the implications of these results for current theory and future research involving the ingroup bias effect.
Two experiments were conducted to investigate some of the factors affecting social identification. In Experiment 1 ingroup identification was measured for subjects who were members of high or low status groups with either permeable or impermeable boundaries, and who received high, average or low ability feedback. The main results are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups (2) members of low status groups with permeable boundaries identify less with their group than members of low status groups with impermeable boundaries and (3) in low status groups ingroup identification decreases as group members have higher individual ability. In Experiment 2, in addition to manipulating group status and individual ability, permeability was further differentiated into separate possibilities for upward and downward mobility. The most important results of Experiment 2 are that (1) members of high status groups show more ingroup identification than members of low status groups and (2) group members with high individual ability identify less with their group when upward mobility is possible than when upward mobility is not possible. These results are discussed in relation to social identity theory.
48 MALE AND 48 FEMALE UNDERGRADUATES TOOK PART IN A STUDY OF "IMPRESSION FORMATION," DURING WHICH THEY EVALUATED A "PARTNER" PRESENTED AS EITHER SIMILAR OR DISSIMILAR TO THEMSELVES, AND WHO WAS FURTHER PRESENTED AS EITHER NORMAL OR EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED. SS RATED THE PARTNER'S ATTRACTIVENESS, SIMILARITY TO THEMSELVES, AND INDICATED THEIR WILLINGNESS TO INTERACT WITH HIM. WHEN THE PARTNER WAS BELIEVED TO BE NORMAL, SS INDICATED A GREATER DESIRE TO INTERACT WITH A SIMILAR THAN A DISSIMILAR PARTNER. HOWEVER, WHEN THE PARTNER WAS PERCEIVED AS DISTURBED, SS SHOWED GREATER WILLINGNESS TO INTERACT WITH A DISSIMILAR VS. SIMILAR PARTNER. (25 REF.)
Results of experiments dealing with the consequencies of deviation from a group standard are described. The effect of degrees of cohesiveness and relevance of the issue on the degree of rejection of a deviate is considered. The effects of these variables on communication and induction within the groups are studied in detail. 18 references.
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