Content uploaded by Judith A. Narvhus
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Judith A. Narvhus on Feb 03, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
A Review Paper: Current Knowledge of Ghee and Related Products
Abstract
Ghee is produced mainly by indigenous methods in Asia, the Middle-East and Africa and the methods of manufacture and characteristics vary. Some ambiguity in the definition of ghee occurs mainly due to regional differences and preferences for the product, commonly used for culinary purposes but also for particular social functions and therapeutic purposes. The characteristic flavour of ghee is its major criterion for acceptance. Flavour is greatly influenced by the fermentation of the cream or butter and the heating processes. Carbonyls, lactones and free fatty acids are reported to be the key ghee flavouring compounds. Ghee is fairly shelf-stable largely because of its low moisture content and possible antioxidative properties. Ghee may contain high amounts of conjugated linoleic acid, a newly reported anticarcinogen. However, it is also reported that, under certain circumstances, it may contain certain amounts of cholesterol oxidation compounds (COPS) which may cause adverse health effects.
... The human food culture is inextricably linked to milk and dairy products. As it contributes good sensory and nutritional qualities as well as economy to milk and other food products, milk fat is a very desirable and expensive substance that has been consumed all over the world since antiquity 1 . Cow ghee is a valuable dairy product which is golden yellow colour 2 and produced from cow milk. ...
Cow ghee is a nutritious food with a lot of health benefits and popular ingredient in many vegetarian diets and indigenous medical formulations. Due to high demand, the adulteration of cow ghee with more affordable and widely available vegetable oils and animal fat is common in many industries. The detection of adulteration by instrumental techniques is expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, simple, rapid and cost-effective tests are essential for the detection of adulterants in cow ghee. The aim of this study was to compare the physicochemical parameters of pure cow ghee with the market samples using the SLS 313 and detection of adulteration using chromogenic tests and conformation through GC-MS. A pure cow ghee sample (S-01) was prepared from the curd made in the laboratory. Thirteen market samples (S-02 to S-14) were purchased from Northern, Southern, Western and Central provinces and analyzed for physicochemical parameters (moisture and volatile matter content, relative density, refractive index, acid value, iodine value, saponification value and peroxide value) based on SLS 313 standard protocols. As chromogenic tests, Modified Salkowski, and furfural tests were followed. In the Modified Salkowski test, the pure sample observed a red colour, whereas the adulterated samples showed a reddish brown to dark brown colour. The pure sample showed no colour in the furfural test, while the adulterated sample showed a light pink to crimson red. In conclusion, eleven market samples (from S-02 to S-12) were adulterated in different levels with edible oils and GC-MS analysis confirmed the adulterants and the chemical composition variation from the pure cow ghee samples.
... The human food culture is inextricably linked to milk and dairy products. As it contributes good sensory and nutritional qualities as well as economy to milk and other food products, milk fat is a very desirable and expensive substance that has been consumed all over the world since antiquity 1 . Cow ghee is a valuable dairy product which is golden yellow colour 2 and produced from cow milk. ...
... Ghee is a dairy product made from cattle, sheep, goat milk, cream, or butter high in saturated fatty acids (SFA) [10]. Ghee is mostly composed of fatty acids, cholesterol, omega, saturated fats, monosaturated fats, polyunsaturated fats, and vitamins A, B, D, K, and E; it also contains very little water [11]. ...
The reproductive effects of several dietary fats (margarine, ghee, and olive oil) on female rabbits were studied. For that purpose, 40 mature female rabbits were designed into four groups of ten rabbits each. Group I was given a control diet, Group II received 10% margarine, Group III received 10% ghee, and Group IV received 10% olive oil; after two months, all rabbits were sacrificed. Lipid profile and reproductive hormones levels were assayed in serum besides ovarian antioxidant enzyme and lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, ovarian tissue was examined using hematoxylin–eosin staining and immunohistochemistry of estrogen, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor, and caspase 3. Our data revealed that the margarine significantly (p < 0.05) increased lipid profile and malondialdehyde (MDA) level, which decreased in olive oil and ghee compared to the control. In addition, serum FSH and estrogen (estradiol (E2)) were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in the group treated with margarine. Furthermore, there was a significant decrease in ovarian superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activity in the margarine-treated group. In contrast, SOD and MDA showed a significant (p > 0.05) increase in the olive oil and ghee- treated group compared to the control group. At the same time, there was a significant increase in serum FSH and (estradiol (E2)) in the ghee and olive oil groups, respectively, compared to the control. The margarine feed group showed moderate immunoreaction of estrogen, FSH, LH receptor, and strong caspase 3, while ghee and olive oil showed strong immunoreaction of estrogen, FSH, LH receptor, and mild immunoreaction of caspase 3 in ovarian tissue. Photomicrograph of rabbit ovarian tissue showed vacuolation in small and growing follicles in the margarine group but appeared normal in ghee and the olive oil-treated group. In conclusion, based on these results, olive oil and ghee have a strong capability of enhancing lipid profile, antioxidant status, and female hormonal functions.
... The Simpson and ACE indices also decreased (Figure 1e and f), which indicated that with the increase in altitude, the species richness of the microbial community in both milk and fermented ghee decreased. The community structure evolved from complex to single, which is the result of the combined effect of temperature reduction and vegetation type reduction caused by the increase in altitude [29]. This result is consistent with the results of the study [30], indicating that the experimental data are credible. ...
Ghee is a traditional Tibetan dairy product with high-fat content, low yield, plasticity, caseation, and rich nutrition. In this study, we analyzed the diversity of microbial communities in yak milk and ghee samples at high and low altitudes, especially the Lactobacillus genus, and further used metabolomic techniques to compare the differences in metabolites in yak ghee at different altitudes. The results showed that the increase in altitude had a significant and generally inhibitory effect on the microbial community diversity in milk ghee, and yak milk at high altitude was abundant in nutrients, which could antagonize the negative impact of increased altitude. Using non-targeted metabolomics, we infer the composition of flavor compounds in ghee: nine kinds of carboxylic acids, 11 kinds of esters, six kinds of ketones, two kinds of alcohols, and four kinds of alkene compounds, among which the key flavor compounds are dl-2-(acetylamino)-3-phenylephrine acid, 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-propanone, sebacic acid, Lysope 18:1, and uracil 1-beta-d-arabinofuranoside. These flavor substances are found in Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus. With the participation of Lactobacillus, it is synthesized through biosynthesis of alkaloids derived from ornithine, lysine, and nicotine acid and glyoxylate and decarboxylate metabolism, among which Lactococcus plays a key role. In this study, a variety of lactic acid bacteria related to ghee fermentation were screened out, revealing the composition of volatile flavor compounds in Gannan yak milk ghee in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and providing a reference for further key volatile flavor compounds and the formation mechanism of flavor compounds.
Abstract:
A field survey was conducted of the traditional method used in the manufacture of AlAkkah, Samn , and carob rub produced in Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region, where a
questionnaire was prepared that included 60 questions, The survey was conducted in
several areas surrounding the city of Al-Bayda in the Al-Jabal Al Akhder. The
questionnaire involved the method of making and processing the Al-Akkah, Samn ,carob
rub and its raw materials. Among the most prominent results obtained , it was found that
the raw material used in the Al-Akkah industry was the skin of goats and sheep, where
the percentage of questioners reached 59%, and the percentage of preference for storing
Samn and consuming it in the winter season was 49%.The time storage of Samn the ALAkkah from 6 month to 2 years and the percentage of questioners was 67%. As for the
results of the questionnaire for carob rub, it was found that the raw material used in the
manufacture of carob rub is carob pods, and the percentage questioners was 100%. The
shelf life of traditional carob rub was reached from 6 months to a year and percentage
questioners was 55%. As for the results of the questionnaire for Samn, it was found that
58% used butter from cows and goats’ milk in the manufacture of Samn, while the
percentage of butter produced in the Samn industry was from natural fermentation. From
the process of shaking milk 100% as for filling the Samn with the Al-Akkah , the results
were 34%, and the period of storage in the Al-Akkah ranged from one year to a year and
a half, where the percentage was 48% without spoilage.
Keywords: Carob tree - carob pods - Samn - questionnaire - traditional preparation -
preservation of Samn.
Dairy foods are important sources of nutrients, are beneficial for gastrointestinal health, the immune system and for sensory satisfaction. Sensory analysis uses the human as a measuring instrument to assess the quality of foods and materials. Therefore, it is an essential tool for the industry in the development and quality control of products. Consumers and/or recruited assessors are selected depending on the methods/tests used. However, data analysis techniques are paramount for data validation and decision- making based on sensory investigation data. Sensory data analysis can be performed using univariate and multivariate statistical techniques and algorithms that can be auto- matically improved based on previous experience.
In recent years, machine learning (ML, data analysis area inserted in artificial intel- ligence [AI]) has been applied in sensory data analysis. ML has enabled the develop- ment of algorithms and models that can be widely used to predict sensory responses and product classification as a function of sensory response patterns. This chapter deals with the use of multivariate techniques and ML for analysing data originating from the sen- sory analysis of dairy products.
Various methods to assess lipolytic as well as oxidative degradation of milk fat are discussed. For the determination of free fatty acids, extraction titration method, Bureau of Dairy Industry method and autoanalyzer give better results of lipolysis. Among various methods to evaluate oxidative rancidity of milk fat, determinations of peroxide value (by both iodometric and ferric thiocyanate methods) and carbonyl content are more useful.
Formation of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) in ghee during deep-frying was studied, as they were reported to cause arteriosclerotic lesions. COPs were formed, when ghee was used for deep-frying for 15 min. The level of COPs increased with frying time. Ghee residue, being a good antioxidant, delayed the formation of COPs during deep-frying.
We previously isolated and identified a mixture of isomeric derivatives of c-9,c-12-octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid) containing a conjugated double-bond system (designated CLA) in extracts of grilled ground beef. Synthetically prepared CLA was effective in partially inhibiting the initiation of mouse epidermal carcinogenesis by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. We now report that CLA is present in various natural and processed cheeses. A capillary GC/reversed-phase HPLC method was developed that separated nine CLA isomers from samples. Among the dairy products tested, the CLA content ranged from 28.3 ppm (raw whole milk) to 1815 ppm (Cheese Whiz), whereas grilled ground beef contained 994 ppm. Of the isomers, c-9,t-11-, t-10,c-12-, t-9,t-11-, and t-10,t-12-octadecadienoic acids accounted for more than 89% of total CLA, while the c-9,c-11-, t-9,c-11-, c-10,c-12-, c-10,t-12-, and c-11,c-13-octadecadienoic acids were minor contributors. Possible sources and mechanisms of formation of CLA are discussed.
Conjugated dienoic derivatives of linoleic acid (CLA), shown to be anticarcinogenic in several animal models, are present in many natural food sources. However, few quantitative data on CLA in food are available. An improved method for quantifying CLA was developed. The method was used to produce a data base of more than 90 food items including meat, poultry, seafood, dairy products, plant oils, and infant and processed foods. The principal dietary sources of CLA are animal products. In general, meat from ruminants contains considerably more CLA than meat from nonruminants, with veal having the lowest and lamb the highest (2.7 vs 5.6 mg CLA/g fat). Foods derived from nonruminant animals were far lower in CLA content except for turkey. Seafood contained low amounts of CLA, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 mg CLA/g fat. By contrast dairy products (milk, butter, and yogurt) contained considerable amounts of CLA. Natural cheeses were also high in CLA. Among cheeses, those which were aged or ripened more than 10 months had the lowest CLA content. CLA concentrations in an assortment of processed cheeses did not vary much (avg 5.0 mg CLA/g fat). Plant oils contained far less CLA, ranging from 0.1 mg CLA/g fat (coconut oil) to 0.7 mg CLA/g fat (safflower oil). Processed, canned, and infant foods were comparable in CLA content to similar unprocessed foods. Values for foods that contained beef, lamb, and veal were generally high in CLA. However the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer, believed to be the biologically active form, tended to be lower in cooked meats. In animal and dairy products the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer accounted for 75 and 90%, respectively, of the total CLA; in plant oils less than 50% of the total CLA was the c-9,t-1 I CLA isomer. The results show that considerable differences occur in the CLA content of common foods and indicate the possibility of large variations in dietary intakes of CLA.
Phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and p-cresol, indole and skatole have been isolated from good quality butter oil by cold-finger molecular distillation, and separated into phenolic and indolic fractions by solvent extraction and silicic-acid column chromatography. The individual compounds were quantitatively estimated by gas chromatography. When phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and; p-cresol, indole and skatole were added to volatile-free butter oil, their recoveries were 94, 47, 90, 75, 71 and 61% respectively. The technique, when applied to fresh butter oil, gave the following ranges of values for the natural levels of these compounds: phenol 0·005–0·022, o-methoxyphenol 0·002–0·10, m-cresol 0·002–0·010, p-cresol 0·002–0·004, indole 0·07–0·13, skatole 0·16–0·22 ppm of butter oil. The results, when compared with flavour threshold studies, showed that indole and skatole are important contributors to the natural flavour of butter oil, but that phenolic compounds are of only borderline significance.