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A Review Paper: Current Knowledge of Ghee and Related Products
Abstract
Ghee is produced mainly by indigenous methods in Asia, the Middle-East and Africa and the methods of manufacture and characteristics vary. Some ambiguity in the definition of ghee occurs mainly due to regional differences and preferences for the product, commonly used for culinary purposes but also for particular social functions and therapeutic purposes. The characteristic flavour of ghee is its major criterion for acceptance. Flavour is greatly influenced by the fermentation of the cream or butter and the heating processes. Carbonyls, lactones and free fatty acids are reported to be the key ghee flavouring compounds. Ghee is fairly shelf-stable largely because of its low moisture content and possible antioxidative properties. Ghee may contain high amounts of conjugated linoleic acid, a newly reported anticarcinogen. However, it is also reported that, under certain circumstances, it may contain certain amounts of cholesterol oxidation compounds (COPS) which may cause adverse health effects.
... The heat treatment applied to butter leads to the denaturation of the proteins surrounding the fat globules, which allows the release of fat. Phase separation enables the removal of a significant amount of water and non-fat solids from the butter, resulting in a product with low water activity (Das et al., 2023;Fındık & Andiç, 2017;Sserunjogi et al., 1998). The low water activity of butter oil makes it chemically and microbiologically more stable than butter. ...
... This is because ghee has lower water activity compared to butter, and the enzymatic activity is limited due to the heat treatment applied during production. Therefore, the acid levels of butter oil were lower than those of butter (Gundogdu et al., 2020;Nawar, 1996;Sserunjogi et al., 1998). It is known that volatile acids, especially the ones with short and medium chains, significantly contribute to the flavor of butter and butter oil (Yadav & Srinivasan, 1985). ...
In this study, the effects of different raw materials, different processing temperatures, and storage temperatures on some properties of butter oil were investigated. Two different kinds of butter were produced from cream containing 40% milk fat. Both butter samples were processed into butter oil at three different temperatures (60, 90, and 120°C). Butter and butter oil samples were stored at +4°C and analyses were performed at 0, 30, and 60 days of storage. There are no significant differences between the atherogenicity index and the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid composition of butter and butter oil samples. Free fatty acid values of all samples increased during storage. Also, in all three storage periods, it was determined that free fatty acids were higher in butter samples than in butter oil samples. During storage, saturated and unsaturated free fatty acid values are generally higher in butter oil processed at 60°C than in butter oil processed at 90°C and 120°C. In total, 40 volatile compounds were detected, which included 8 ketones, each of 6 aldehydes, alcohols, acids, and hydrocarbons, 5 terpenes, and 3 esters in butter and butter oil samples. Aldehydes and ketones were generally highest in butter oil processed at 120°C.
... Ghee's culinary versatility is evident in its utilisation as a frying medium, spread, and topping, adding texture and structure to various dishes like Mysore pak (2,3). With an average daily energy expenditure of 5.5% on a 2400 caloric diet, the average person's intake of Butter and ghee increased to 4.48 out of 5 kg/yr (12.3 g/person/day) from 2020 onward (4,5). This represents an increase of 120 calories per individual daily. ...
... Ghee's culinary versatility is evident in its utilisation as a frying medium, spread, and topping, adding texture and structure to various dishes like Mysore pak (2,3). With an average daily energy expenditure of 5.5% on a 2400 caloric diet, the average person's intake of Butter and ghee increased to 4.48 out of 5 kg/yr (12.3 g/person/day) from 2020 onward (4,5). This represents an increase of 120 calories per individual daily. ...
Background: Recent research has brought attention to the bioactive properties of dairy fats, leading to a shift in the scientific community’s perspective. Ghee, a clarified butter integral to Indian culture and cuisine, has been extensively documented in Ayurveda for its therapeutic benefits. Objective: To examine the health benefits of ghee as described in Ayurvedic texts and modern scientific literature, identifying areas of alignment and divergence. Methods: Ayurvedic Review: Analysis of 11 classical texts spanning 3000+ years, identifying 4000 references to milk derivatives, including 774 mentions of ghee. Benefits were categorised into 15 clusters. Modern Literature Review: Examination of studies published between 1990 and 2023, focusing on ghee’s therapeutic applications. Results: Ayurvedic Insights: Ghee is highlighted for cognitive enhancement, gastrointestinal health, and nourishment, with 2913 references to the benefits of milk derivatives. Modern Insights: Research primarily emphasises ghee’s role in wound healing, skin health, and cardiovascular benefits. Discussion: Ayurvedic and modern perspectives offer complementary insights. While modern science has explored ghee’s topical and cardiovascular applications, Ayurveda underscores its systemic benefits, including cognitive and digestive health. Conclusion: The integration of Ayurvedic knowledge and modern science could unlock ghee’s therapeutic potential, addressing chronic and age-related diseases. Future interdisciplinary research is crucial for validating traditional applications and discovering innovative treatments.
... Combination of temperature and time of heating are known to influence the presence of volatile components in ghee. This is due to the fact that processing at low temperature retains more volatile compounds whereas, high temperatures and extended heating time results in loss (Sserunjogi et al. 1998). It has been reported that duration and temperature of ghee clarification alters the phospholipid content owing to the migration of phospholipids from GR to ghee at higher clarification temperatures (Santha and Narayanan, 1979). ...
Many by-products of the dairy industry contain nutritive and commercial value, which with appropriate technological interventions can be exploited for improving the profitability of the industry. Ghee residue (GR) is one such by-product reported to contain considerable amount of polar lipids dominated by phospholipids (PLs). An attempt was made to develop a stepwise protocol to enhance the PL content in ghee residue, to facilitate its efficient and economical extraction from the residue matrix. As a first step, remnant ghee (about 13%) in the residue was expelled by pressing the ghee residue matrix at 5 kg/cm 2 for 5 min. This was followed by treating the ghee residue with two solvents, namely n-hexane and water. Treatment with n-hexane at solvent to solid ratio of 1:4, 1:3 and 1:2, for a contact time of 30 min, resulted in a PL content 26.22, 24.68 and 21.29% (on lipid basis), respectively, in the ghee residue samples. Steeping of the ghee residue in hot water (boiled to 100 o C) at a solid to water ratio of 1:4 for 60 min resulted in retention of 27.03% lipids in the residue, corresponding to a removal of 16.93% fat with the solvent stream. This resulted in an appreciable enrichment of phospholipids in the ghee residue matrix to the tune of 30.56% on lipid basis; corresponding to the initial PL content of 8.26%. Increase of surface area of the solid matrix through size comminution was also explored to enhance the efficacy of solvent treatment. When the ghee residue was ground to a particle size of 0.25 mm and 0.30 mm and then subjected to hot water treatment, its PL content was found to increase to 9.56% and 9.32% (ghee residue basis), respectively. Thus, the physical and chemical interventions significantly improved the phospholipid content of ghee residue.
... It is typically produced from the milk of cows, buffaloes, or a blend of both. 14,15 Due to its exceptional capacity to penetrate deeply into bodily tissues, ghee is considered an ideal base for formulating Ayurvedic preparations targeted at specific organs or body systems. Medicated Ghee, known as 'Ghrita' in Ayurveda, involves the processing of ghee with herbal decoctions and fresh herb pastes, selected according to Ayurvedic texts or the Ayurvedic Formulary of India. ...
Ghrita is a popular milk product prepared indigenously in most households and is widely available commercially. It has high nutraceutical values. Ghrita by its nature has; Madhura rasa (sweetish taste), Madhura vipaka (post-digestion sweet taste), Laghu (easy to digest), Sheet virya (cold in potency). Ayurveda proposes certain rules for its consumption and specifies some adjuvant to contradict its ill effects. It is used as Pathya (diet) aahar in diseases as well as, an important ingredient in various medicinal formulations. With the advent of Urbanisation, Industrialisation and increasing work culture, human lifestyle and food habits have been drastically changed. Because of thesechanges, the population is gradually suffering from many nutritional deficiencies leading to a large number of metabolic and degenerative diseases. In recent years, an innovative pharmaceutical product, “Nutraceutical” has made a special place in the field of nutritional supplementation which can be correlated to Pathya Kalpana in Ayurveda. It not only provides health benefits but is also used forthe prevention and treatment of acute and chronic diseases. The present study aims to reveal the Ayurvedic perspective of Nutraceuticals with special reference to Ghrita by carrying out the pharmaceutical procedure and qualitative analysis.
... In the direct cream method, the ghee is prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from the cream, skimming impurities from the surface, and then collecting the ghee in liquid form Kwak et al., 2013). Ghee contains large amounts of saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid) and low amounts of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linolenic acids) (Sserunjogi et al., 1998). Traditional ghee contains large quantities of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, 0.9%-1.8% in cow and 0.7%-1.6% in buffalo ghee) compared to ghee prepared by the direct cream method (0.6%-0.7%). ...
Edible oils and fats are derived from plants and animals and have several health benefits. Edible oils and fats consist of many health-promoting bioactive compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytosterols, vitamins, and inorganic compounds. The chemical compounds present in edible oils and fats are known for their possible health risks such as coronary heart disease and metabolic diseases, which is why there is a need to check the quality, purity, and safety of edible oils and fats. Bioactive Compounds of Edible Oils & Fats: Health Benefits, Risks, and Analysis provides an overview of different edible oils and fats, health benefits, associated risks, and analytical techniques for qualitative and quantitative guidelines for ensuring their quality and safety using modern analytical tools and techniques. This book will provide an important guideline for controlling quality, safety, and efficacy issues related to edible oils and fats.
Key Features:
Provides a detailed overview of different edible oils and fats of plant and animal origin, chemistry, and identification methods.
Describes their health benefits, risks, and the use of different analytical techniques in quality control.
Describes the applicability of sophisticated analytical techniques such as GC-FID, GC-MS, and HPLC for quality control of edible oils and fats.
Emphasizes the use of recent techniques such as LC-MS and FTIR-chemometrics in the analysis and quality control of edible oils and fats.
... In the direct cream method, the ghee is prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from the cream, skimming impurities from the surface, and then collecting the ghee in liquid form Kwak et al., 2013). Ghee contains large amounts of saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid) and low amounts of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linolenic acids) (Sserunjogi et al., 1998). Traditional ghee contains large quantities of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, 0.9%-1.8% in cow and 0.7%-1.6% in buffalo ghee) compared to ghee prepared by the direct cream method (0.6%-0.7%). ...
... In the direct cream method, the ghee is prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from the cream, skimming impurities from the surface, and then collecting the ghee in liquid form Kwak et al., 2013). Ghee contains large amounts of saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid) and low amounts of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linolenic acids) (Sserunjogi et al., 1998). Traditional ghee contains large quantities of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, 0.9%-1.8% in cow and 0.7%-1.6% in buffalo ghee) compared to ghee prepared by the direct cream method (0.6%-0.7%). ...
Bioactive natural compounds possess several health benefits in humans. Edible oils and fats are a major source of bioactive compounds, and these compounds are mainly categorized into triglycerides, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, polyphenolics and phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytosterols, phospholipids, vitamins, minerals, etc. These bioactive compounds have several health benefits in humans; however, excess consumption of saturated and trans fatty acids poses a risk for cardiovascular diseases. Unsaturated fatty acids such as omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids specifically linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are known for their cardioprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Edible oils and fats are obtained from seeds of many plant species such as olive oils, peanut oils, canola oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, flaxseed oil, corn oil, mustard oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and linseed oil, and animal products such as fish oils, ghee, and butter also contain edible oils and fats. The current book chapter comprehensively compiles data on different plant and animal sources of edible oils and fats. The chapter also focuses on different classes of bioactive compounds present in these edible oils and fats.
... Ghee, a form of clarified butter traditionally used in South Asian cuisine, prized for its rich flavor, high smoke point, and numerous health benefits [1]. Made by simmering butter to remove water content and milk solids, pure ghee is compose mainly of saturated fats and contains essential fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and antioxidants [2]. Despite its nutritional value and culinary significance, the growing demand for ghee has led to the emergence of unbranded varieties in the market [3]. ...
Analysing unbranded ghee is critical for authenticating its purity and quality using various physiochemical analyses and fatty acid profiling methods. In order to conduct the analysis, 30 unbranded ghee samples were collected from six districts: Chennai, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Thiruvannamalai, Vellore, and Madurai. The adulteration of the ghee can be analysed by the BR value, RM value, polenske value, saponification value, and iodine value. Cow's ghee samples collected from Vellore districts show a lower saponification value is 187.44 ±0.03, RM value (21.9 ±0.4 and 20.4 ±0.20), polenske value (3.61 ±0.02 and 3.58 ±0.30), and BR value (39.8 and 45.7), which doesn't comply with FSSAI 2011 regulations. Vanaspati, a substance containing trans-fat, contaminated 12 samples. Trans-fat extracted from linoleic acid in Madurai district found to have the highest level of 0.2954 ±0.02 by GC-FID. Vegetable oil (Soybean and sunflower oil) detected in six samples using RP-HPLC. This study could have an impact on providing insightful reports on the quality, safety, integrity, and authenticity of unbranded ghee, which does not fulfil FSSAI requirements.
In the present study, the samples of clarified milk fat (CMF) of yak species (Arunachali yak and yak-cow hybrid) were collected and analysed for physicochemical parameters, colour values, fatty acid composition and triglyceride profile, and FT-IR characteristics. The obtained results showed that CMF contains a variable amount of moisture (0.25%–20.28%), free fatty acid (0.12-2.03% oleic acid), peroxide values (0.30-1.20 meq.O2/kg fat), Reichert Meissl value (19.06-23.54) and Butyro-Refractrometer reading (43.03-44.47). The colour value (L*, a*, b*) varied with altitude level and region significantly (p<0.05). The regional variations in triglycerides and fatty acid profile of CMF were also found significantly (p<0.05). The preliminary data of FT-IR spectra of all samples showed almost similar functional groups but slight difference in the absorbance as well as peaks in the finger print region.
Various methods to assess lipolytic as well as oxidative degradation of milk fat are discussed. For the determination of free fatty acids, extraction titration method, Bureau of Dairy Industry method and autoanalyzer give better results of lipolysis. Among various methods to evaluate oxidative rancidity of milk fat, determinations of peroxide value (by both iodometric and ferric thiocyanate methods) and carbonyl content are more useful.
Formation of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) in ghee during deep-frying was studied, as they were reported to cause arteriosclerotic lesions. COPs were formed, when ghee was used for deep-frying for 15 min. The level of COPs increased with frying time. Ghee residue, being a good antioxidant, delayed the formation of COPs during deep-frying.
We previously isolated and identified a mixture of isomeric derivatives of c-9,c-12-octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid) containing a conjugated double-bond system (designated CLA) in extracts of grilled ground beef. Synthetically prepared CLA was effective in partially inhibiting the initiation of mouse epidermal carcinogenesis by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. We now report that CLA is present in various natural and processed cheeses. A capillary GC/reversed-phase HPLC method was developed that separated nine CLA isomers from samples. Among the dairy products tested, the CLA content ranged from 28.3 ppm (raw whole milk) to 1815 ppm (Cheese Whiz), whereas grilled ground beef contained 994 ppm. Of the isomers, c-9,t-11-, t-10,c-12-, t-9,t-11-, and t-10,t-12-octadecadienoic acids accounted for more than 89% of total CLA, while the c-9,c-11-, t-9,c-11-, c-10,c-12-, c-10,t-12-, and c-11,c-13-octadecadienoic acids were minor contributors. Possible sources and mechanisms of formation of CLA are discussed.
Conjugated dienoic derivatives of linoleic acid (CLA), shown to be anticarcinogenic in several animal models, are present in many natural food sources. However, few quantitative data on CLA in food are available. An improved method for quantifying CLA was developed. The method was used to produce a data base of more than 90 food items including meat, poultry, seafood, dairy products, plant oils, and infant and processed foods. The principal dietary sources of CLA are animal products. In general, meat from ruminants contains considerably more CLA than meat from nonruminants, with veal having the lowest and lamb the highest (2.7 vs 5.6 mg CLA/g fat). Foods derived from nonruminant animals were far lower in CLA content except for turkey. Seafood contained low amounts of CLA, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 mg CLA/g fat. By contrast dairy products (milk, butter, and yogurt) contained considerable amounts of CLA. Natural cheeses were also high in CLA. Among cheeses, those which were aged or ripened more than 10 months had the lowest CLA content. CLA concentrations in an assortment of processed cheeses did not vary much (avg 5.0 mg CLA/g fat). Plant oils contained far less CLA, ranging from 0.1 mg CLA/g fat (coconut oil) to 0.7 mg CLA/g fat (safflower oil). Processed, canned, and infant foods were comparable in CLA content to similar unprocessed foods. Values for foods that contained beef, lamb, and veal were generally high in CLA. However the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer, believed to be the biologically active form, tended to be lower in cooked meats. In animal and dairy products the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer accounted for 75 and 90%, respectively, of the total CLA; in plant oils less than 50% of the total CLA was the c-9,t-1 I CLA isomer. The results show that considerable differences occur in the CLA content of common foods and indicate the possibility of large variations in dietary intakes of CLA.
Phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and p-cresol, indole and skatole have been isolated from good quality butter oil by cold-finger molecular distillation, and separated into phenolic and indolic fractions by solvent extraction and silicic-acid column chromatography. The individual compounds were quantitatively estimated by gas chromatography. When phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and; p-cresol, indole and skatole were added to volatile-free butter oil, their recoveries were 94, 47, 90, 75, 71 and 61% respectively. The technique, when applied to fresh butter oil, gave the following ranges of values for the natural levels of these compounds: phenol 0·005–0·022, o-methoxyphenol 0·002–0·10, m-cresol 0·002–0·010, p-cresol 0·002–0·004, indole 0·07–0·13, skatole 0·16–0·22 ppm of butter oil. The results, when compared with flavour threshold studies, showed that indole and skatole are important contributors to the natural flavour of butter oil, but that phenolic compounds are of only borderline significance.