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The history of waste energy recovery in Germany since 1920
Abstract
The history of waste energy utilization in Germany during the 20th century is the story of alternately significant developments and significantly missed opportunities. In spite of three waves of remarkable progress during this period, there were economic, political, scientific and societal obstructions which prevented further development and implementation of this promising energy resource.
... There are numerous Technologies available for WHR. However, there is a wide potential for their applications, which are yet to be realized in industries [18]. WHR methods include heat transfer between fluids, mechanical or electric power production, utilization of waste heat for the production of cooling or heating effects, etc. [19][20][21]. ...
... The topic of industrial excess heat utilisation has a long history. Bergmeier (2003) summarised the history of waste energy recovery in Germany starting in 1920. As early as the 1920s, numerous journals were already addressing the topic of 'heat management' and discussing measures to increase energy efficiency by harnessing industrial excess heat. ...
Industry accounts for about 30% of the final energy demand in Germany. Of this, 75% is used to provide heat, but a considerable proportion of the heat is unused. A recent bottom-up estimate shows that up to 13% of the fuel consumption of industry is lost as excess heat in exhaust gases. However, this estimate only quantifies a theoretical potential, as it does not consider the technical aspects of usability. In this paper, we also estimate the excess heat potentials of industry using a bottom-up method. Compared to previous estimates, however, we go one step further by including the corrosiveness of the exhaust gases and thus an important aspect of the technical usability of the excess heat contained in them. We use the emission declarations for about 300 production sites in Baden-Württemberg as a data basis for our calculations. For these sites, we calculate a theoretical excess heat potential of 2.2 TWh, which corresponds to 12% of the fuel consumption at these sites. We then analyse how much this theoretical potential is reduced if we assume that the energy content of sulphur-containing exhaust gases is only used up to the sulphuric acid dew point in order to prevent corrosion. Our results show that 40% of the analysed excess heat potential is corrosive, which reduces the usable potential to 1.3 TWh or 7% of fuel consumption. In principle, it is possible to use the energy of the excess heat from sulphur-containing exhaust gases even below the dew point, but this is likely to involve higher costs. This therefore represents an obstacle to the full utilisation of the available excess heat. Our analysis shows that considering corrosion is important when estimating industrial excess heat potentials.
... Although the scenarios with a large amount of waste heat utilization received favorable ratings by almost all groups, their chance of being implemented was regarded as rather unrealistic. The history of waste energy utilization in Germany during the 20th century was presented by Bergmeier [4]. The study shows that there were significant developments as well as significant missed opportunities, alternately. ...
Jordan has very limited conventional energy resources, and at present the country imports most of its energy needs in the form of crude oil and petroleum products.
This is facing major challenges in trying to satisfy its national energy-demand, and simultaneously reducing negative impacts on the economy, environment, and
social life. To meet the country’s future energy demands, a long-term plan based on a well-defined strategy should be developed. A partnership project between Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, and Department of Mechanical Engineering at the
Hashemite University (Jordan) is conducted to carry out research on reducing energy waste and energy consumption in the different sectors: industrial, power
generation, transportation, residential, and commercial. The project consists of two main divisions: energy statistics and energy waste analysis considering all types of energy in the country. A survey is conducted to identify various systems and components which are
being used by the different energy consumption processes. Energy waste and energy flow from the different sectors is modeled and presented. The study shows that the total energy waste in Jordan is about 62.7% of total national energy consumption. The major
sources of energy waste are: power generation and transportation sectors followed by residential, industrial, and commercial sectors. Residential sector is found to be typical for renewable energy applications in Jordan. The effect of replacing conventional water heaters with solar water heaters is studied to show the improvement in the reduction of national energy waste, and gas emissions.
... Cette infrastructure, développée initialement pour distribuer une énergie d'origine fossile, est en train de devenir une autoroute pour des vecteurs énergétiques renouvelables, souvent produits de manière décentralisée ; sa nature va donc s'approcher toujours plus d'équivalents homothétiques métaboliques, comme les réseaux lymphatiques par exemple, dans une approche qui voit le contenu changer de nature chimico-physique mais qui conserve essentiellement le contenant du point de vue structurel, physique et topologique. Alors que ces dernières décennies ont vu une course effrénée (Dupuis, 2011 ;Bergmeier, 2003)-mais néanmoins cohérente tant du point de vue énergétique, économique qu'environnemental -à l'extension des réseaux énergétiques et à l'augmentation de leurs capacités (DBDH, 2016), la similitude avec des réseaux au sein d'organismes vivants vient apporter une lumière intéressante sur une croissance des structures énergétiques qui ne se mesurera plus en longueurs ou en puissance, mais en services délivrés et en valeur ajoutée en termes d'efficacité énergétique accrue. Les dissemblances physiques ne doivent pas masquer le fait qu'un réseau peut être utilisé de manière efficace même sans augmentation de sa taille ; de plus, la biologie peut aider les ingénieurs à mieux comprendre quels systèmes de redondance et de contrôle sont les plus appropriés. ...
In the context of energy transition and current environmental crisis, the interest of local and systemic approaches to energy issues seems admitted today. However, despite the many advances in all technology areas both in terms of planning and development or even in terms of psycho-social and behavioral approaches, the curves of energy consumption are struggling to curb. With this in mind, we hypothesize, based on theoretical elements from thermodynamics and biology, the potential role of energy distribution networks, their characteristics, their morphology and dynamics thus promoting increasingly efficient territorial organizations and operations.
... Although the scenarios with a large amount of waste heat utilization received favorable ratings by almost all groups, their chance of being implemented was regarded as rather unrealistic. The history of waste energy utilization in Germany during the 20th century was presented by Bergmeier [4]. The study shows that there were significant developments as well as significant missed opportunities, alternately. ...
Major challenges are facing limited energy resources
countries such as Jordan in trying to satisfy their
national energy-demand, and simultaneously reducing
negative impacts on the economy, environment, and
social life. To meet the country’s future energy
demands, a long-term plan based on a well-defined
strategy should be developed. A partnership project
between Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources,
and Department of Mechanical Engineering at the
Hashemite University (Jordan) is conducted to carry out
research on reducing energy waste and energy
consumption in the different sectors: industrial, power
generation, transportation, residential, and commercial.
The project consists of two main divisions: energy
statistics and energy waste analysis considering all
types of energy in the country. A survey is conducted to
identify various systems and components which are
being used by the different energy consumption
processes. Energy waste and energy flow from the
different sectors is modeled and presented. The study
shows that the total energy waste in Jordan is about
62.7% of total national energy consumption. The major
sources of energy waste are: power generation and
transportation sectors followed by residential, industrial,
and commercial sectors. Residential sector is found to
be typical for renewable energy applications in Jordan.
The effect of replacing conventional water heaters with
solar water heaters is studied to show the improvement
in the reduction of national energy waste, and gas
emissions. This work represents the first attempt to
compile a complete energy statistics in Jordan by
adopting energy waste analysis in major thermal
processes.
... Energy recovery provides major energy efficiency and mitigation opportunities in virtual all industries. Energy recovery techniques are old, but large potentials still exist (Bergmeier, 2003). Energy recovery can take different forms: heat, power and fuel recovery. ...
Industrial sector emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) include carbon dioxide (CO2) from energy use, from non-energy uses of fossil fuels and from non-fossil fuel sources (e.g., cement manufacture); as well as non-CO2 gases.
Energy-related CO2 emissions (including emissions from electricity use) from the industrial sector grew from 6.0 GtCO2 (1.6 GtC) in 1971 to 9.9 GtCO2 (2.7 GtC) in 2004. Direct CO2 emissions totalled 5.1 Gt (1.4 GtC), the balance being indirect emissions associated with the generation of electricity and other energy carriers. However, since energy use in other sectors grew faster, the industrial sector’s share of global primary energy use declined from 40% in 1971 to 37% in 2004. In 2004, developed nations accounted for 35%; transition economies 11%; and developing nations 53% of industrial sector energy-related CO2 emissions.
CO2 emissions from non-energy uses of fossil fuels and from non-fossil fuel sources were estimated at 1.7 Gt (0.46 GtC) in 2000.
Non-CO2 GHGs include: HFC-23 from HCFC-22 manufacture, PFCs from aluminium smelting and semiconductor processing, SF6 from use in electrical switchgear and magnesium processing and CH4 and N2O from the chemical and food industries. Total emissions from these sources (excluding the food industry, due to lack of data) decreased from 470 MtCO2-eq (130 MtC-eq) in 1990 to 430 MtCO2-eq (120 MtC-eq) in 2000.
Direct GHG emissions from the industrial sector are currently about 7.2 GtCO2-eq (2.0 GtC-eq), and total emissions, including indirect emissions, are about 12 GtCO2-eq (3.3 GtC-eq) (high agreement, much evidence).
Approximately 85% of the industrial sector’s energy use in 2004 was in the energy-intensive industries: iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, chemicals and fertilizers, petroleum refining, minerals (cement, lime, glass and ceramics) and pulp and paper. In 2003, developing countries accounted for 42% of iron and steel production, 57% of nitrogen fertilizer production, 78% of cement manufacture and about 50% of primary aluminium production. Many industrial facilities in developing nations are new and include the latest technology with the lowest specific energy use. However, many older, inefficient facilities remain in both industrialized and developing countries. In developing countries, there continues to be a huge demand for technology transfer to upgrade industrial facilities to improve energy efficiency and reduce emissions (high agreement, much evidence).
Many options exist for mitigating GHG emissions from the industrial sector (high agreement, much evidence). These options can be divided into three categories:
Sector-wide options, for example more efficient electric motors and motor-driven systems; high efficiency boilers and process heaters; fuel switching, including the use of waste materials; and recycling.
Process-specific options, for example the use of the bio-energy contained in food and pulp and paper industry wastes, turbines to recover the energy contained in pressurized blast furnace gas, and control strategies to minimize PFC emissions from aluminium manufacture.
Operating procedures, for example control of steam and compressed air leaks, reduction of air leaks into furnaces, optimum use of insulation, and optimization of equipment size to ensure high capacity utilization.
Mitigation potential and cost in 2030 have been estimated through an industry-by-industry assessment for energy-intensive industries and an overall assessment for other industries. The approach yielded mitigation potentials at a cost of <100 US/tC-eq) of 2.0 to 5.1 GtCO2-eq/yr (0.6 to 1.4 GtC-eq/yr) under the B2 scenario[1]. The largest mitigation potentials are located in the steel, cement, and pulp and paper industries and in the control of non-CO2 gases. Much of the potential is available at <50 US/tC-eq). Application of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology offers a large additional potential, albeit at higher cost (medium agreement, medium evidence).
Key uncertainties in the projection of mitigation potential and cost in 2030 are the rate of technology development and diffusion, the cost of future technology, future energy and carbon prices, the level of industry activity in 2030, and climate and non-climate policy drivers. Key gaps in knowledge are the base case energy intensity for specific industries, especially in economies-in-transition, and consumer preferences.
Full use of available mitigation options is not being made in either industrialized or developing nations. In many areas of the world, GHG mitigation is not demanded by either the market or government regulations. In these areas, companies will invest in GHG mitigation if other factors provide a return on their investment. This return can be economic, for example energy efficiency projects that provide an economic payout, or it can be in terms of achieving larger corporate goals, for example a commitment to sustainable development. The slow rate of capital stock turnover is also a barrier in many industries, as is the lack of the financial and technical resources needed to implement mitigation options, and limitations in the ability of industrial firms to access and absorb technological information about available options (high agreement, much evidence).
Industry GHG investment decisions, many of which have long-term consequences, will continue to be driven by consumer preferences, costs, competitiveness and government regulation. A policy environment that encourages the implementation of existing and new mitigation technologies could lead to lower GHG emissions. Policy portfolios that reduce the barriers to the adoption of cost-effective, low-GHG-emission technology can be effective (medium agreement, medium evidence).
Achieving sustainable development will require the implementation of cleaner production processes without compromising employment potential. Large companies have greater resources, and usually more incentives, to factor environmental and social considerations into their operations than small and medium enterprises (SMEs), but SMEs provide the bulk of employment and manufacturing capacity in many developing countries. Integrating SME development strategy into the broader national strategies for development is consistent with sustainable development objectives (high agreement, much evidence).
Industry is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly to the impacts of extreme weather. Companies can adapt to these potential impacts by designing facilities that are resistant to projected changes in weather and climate, relocating plants to less vulnerable locations, and diversifying raw material sources, especially agricultural or forestry inputs. Industry is also vulnerable to the impacts of changes in consumer preference and government regulation in response to the threat of climate change. Companies can respond to these by mitigating their own emissions and developing lower-emission products (high agreement, much evidence).
While existing technologies can significantly reduce industrial GHG emissions, new and lower-cost technologies will be needed to meet long-term mitigation objectives. Examples of new technologies include: development of an inert electrode to eliminate process emissions from aluminium manufacture; use of carbon capture and storage in the ammonia, cement and steel industries; and use of hydrogen to reduce iron and non-ferrous metal ores (medium agreement, medium evidence).
Both the public and the private sectors have important roles in the development of low-GHG-emission technologies that will be needed to meet long-term mitigation objectives. Governments are often more willing than companies to fund the higher risk, earlier stages of the R&D process, while companies should assume the risks associated with actual commercialisation. The Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), and a variety of bilateral and multilateral programmes, have the deployment, transfer and diffusion of mitigation technology as one of their goals (high agreement, much evidence).
Voluntary agreements between industry and government to reduce energy use and GHG emissions have been used since the early 1990s. Well-designed agreements, which set realistic targets, include sufficient government support, often as part of a larger environmental policy package, and include a real threat of increased government regulation or energy/GHG taxes if targets are not achieved, can provide more than business-as-usual energy savings or emission reductions. Some voluntary actions by industry, which involve commitments by individual companies or groups of companies, have achieved substantial emission reductions. Both voluntary agreements and actions also serve to change attitudes, increase awareness, lower barriers to innovation and technology adoption, and facilitate co-operation with stakeholders (medium agreement, much evidence).
... Energy recovery provides major energy efficiency and mitigation opportunities in virtual all industries. Energy recovery techniques are old, but large potentials still exist (Bergmeier, 2003). Energy recovery can take different forms: heat, power and fuel recovery. ...
... Iron and steel industries were pioneers of energy recovery. In the 19th century, iron and steel industries developed and installed techniques of waste energy recovery [14], which was widely implemented around the world, producing significant economical and environmental benefits. Energy efficiency in the steel industry continues to be innovative. ...
The steel industry is one of the most energy intensive industries, contributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This research analyzes the feasibility of waste heat recovery and assesses energy efficiency at a steel company, Gerdau Ameristeel in Selkirk, Manitoba. The process heating assessment and survey tool (PHAST) determined that the overall efficiency in the reheat furnace is 60%. Flue gas losses are the biggest energy losses in the reheat furnace, accounting for 29.5% of the total energy losses during full production. Heat losses from wall, hearth and roof are also significant, being 7,139,170 kJ/h during full production. To reduce energy inefficiencies, it is recommended that billets be preheated to 315 °C in the reheat furnace. This requires 1.48 h to capture waste heat with a preheating section length of 1691.64 cm. The annual energy savings are estimated to be $215,086.12 requiring a 3.03 years payback period. This study was the first to determine the required size of a preheating box and the rate of heat transfer through billets in the preheating section.
The sharp increase in and volatility of fossil fuel prices, due in particular to the Russian–Ukrainian conflict, is a powerful incentive for cities to accelerate their energy transition. Yet urban authorities have limited power over the construction of energy policies and the management of networks, and they remain dependent on remote and mainly carbon-intensive imported sources of energy. The recovery of waste heat from waste incineration or industrial emissions and its use in heating networks represents a solution for cities to control part of their energy supply, to develop their own capacities for action and to implement local transition strategies, in addition to the development of renewable energies. Based on the analysis of four case studies in France between 2019 and 2022, in the context preceding the current energy crisis, this article examines how cities are trying to develop waste heat recovery and the role this energy resource plays in the decarbonisation of urban energy systems. The analysis highlights that the emergence of these projects is more broadly part of the renegotiation dynamics of energy, ecological and economic relationships between cities and industries, and that their implementation results in the construction of new urban energy nexuses. The use of waste heat makes it possible to improve the energy efficiency of industrial and urban energy systems, sometimes significantly, but it must be seen as a transitional solution because it can temporarily increase cities’ dependency on high-carbon and energy-inefficient industrial activities.
Promoting the use of renewable energy sources has become an important policy strategy for mitigating climate change and for providing better energy security and financial sustainability. To overcome the problems generated by non-renewable energy sources, it is essential to use new energy sources. A literature review was conducted to investigate and understand the opportunities for implementing new renewable energy sources. Agricultural residues have great potential to receive significant consideration worldwide as an alternative, sustainable, and green energy source. The use of agricultural residues for bioenergy generation is a broad and favourable scenario for exploration. This review identified potential and almost unexplored research approaches with the aim of contributing and promoting researchers to deliver technological solutions for the society and industrial sectors. For example, a potentially promising technological solution would be for industries that produce machinery and agricultural implements to adapt their harvesters for different grain crops, to collect these agricultural residues simultaneously during harvest and readily perform granulation, compaction (pressing), pelletizing or briquetting directly on the property. Further studies are required to investigate the use of agricultural residues for bioenergy generation, which can contribute to the diversification of the energy matrix. Accordingly, in this review, several challenges and future research perspectives have been presented, such as suggestions for future research on how to collect, transport, process, market and use these agricultural residues to generate bioenergy, aiming at reducing the dependence on fossil fuels.
Waste heat recovery (WHR) using conventional technologies can provide appreciable amounts of useful energy from waste heat (WH) sources, thus reducing the overall energy consumption of systems for economic purposes, as well as ameliorating the impact of fossil fuel-based CO2 emissions on the environment. In the literature survey, WHR technologies and techniques, classifications and applications are considered and adequately discussed. The barriers affecting the development and utilization of systems of WHR, as well as possible solutions are presented. Available techniques of WHR are also discussed extensively, with a particular interest in their progressive improvements, prospects, and challenges. The economic viability of various WHR techniques is also taken into account considering their payback period (PBP), especially in the food industry. A novel research area wherein the recovered WH of flue gases from heavy-duty electric generators was utilized for agro-products drying has been identified, which may be useful in the agro-food processing industries. Furthermore, an in-depth discussion on the appropriateness and applicability of WHR technology in the maritime sector is given a prominent touch. In many review works involving WHR, different areas such as WHR sources, methods, technologies, or applications were discussed, albeit not in a comprehensive way touching on all-important aspects of this branch of knowledge. However, in this paper, a more holistic approach is followed. Furthermore, many recently published articles in different areas of WHR have been carefully examined and the recent findings provided are presented in this work. The recovery of waste energy and its utilization is capable of significantly dropping the level of production costs in the industrial sector and harmful emissions to the environment. Some of the benefits derivable from the application of WHR in the industries may include a reduction in energy, capital, and operating costs, which translate to reduced cost of finished products, and the mitigation of environmental degradation through the reduction of the emission of air pollutants and greenhouse gases. Future perspectives on the development and implementation of WHR technologies are presented in the conclusions section.
The use of industrial excess heat can be an important factor for the expansion and decarbonization of district heating networks. However, the enabling factors and barriers to implement excess heat recovery projects for district heating are still uncertain. Here, drivers and barriers for the integration of excess heat into district heating networks are analysed and a public available database of 45 implemented projects in Germany, Austria and France is created. 5 hypotheses of enabling factors and barriers were formulated and tested through 13 expert interviews with excess heat producers. Unlike the current literature, expert interviews are combined with a literature review to test the hypotheses. Thus, both quantitative and qualitative data are used to verify or refute the hypotheses. The results demonstrate that projects are often implemented only thanks to individuals and that the communication and exchange between the necessary stakeholders is often insufficient. It is also evident here that relevant stakeholders are often unaware of excess heat recovery opportunities. Furthermore, the results show that financial aspects are often not the main reasons for excess heat recovery for district heating, but play an important role in the decision-making. In conclusion, there are many barriers that can be overcome through meaningful policy design or better information and support.
This book provides an analysis of the European policy approach to combined heat and power (CHP), a highly efficient technology used by all EU Member States for the needs of generating electricity and heat.
European Law on Combined Heat and Power carries out an assessment of the European legal and policy measures on CHP, evaluating how it has changed over the years through progress and decline in specific member states. Over the course of the book, Sokołowski explores all aspects of CHP, examining the types of measures used to steer the growth of cogeneration in the EU and the policies and regulatory tools that have influenced its development. He also assesses the specific role of CHP in the liberalisation of the internal energy market and EU action on climate and sustainability. Finally, by delivering his notions of "cogenatives", "cogenmunities", or "Micro-Collective-Flexible-Smart-High-Efficiency cogeneration", Sokołowski considers how the new EU energy package – "Clean energy for all Europeans" – will shape future developments.
This book will be of great interest to students and scholars of energy law and regulation, combined heat and power and energy efficiency, as well as policy makers and energy experts working in the CHP sector.
This study aims to analyse some of the most relevant issues that the energy intensive industry needs to face in order to improve its energy and environmental performance based on innovative retrofitting strategies. To this end, a case study based on the aluminium industry, as one of the most relevant within the European energy intensive industry has been thoroughly discussed. In particular, great efforts must be addressed to reduce its environmental impact; specifically focusing on the main stages concerning the manufacturing of an aluminium billet, namely alloy production, heating, extrusion and finishing. Hence, an innovative DC (direct current) induction technology with an expected 50% energy efficiency increase is used for retrofitting conventional techniques traditionally based on natural gas and AC (alternating current) induction. A life cycle assessment was applied to analyse three different scenarios within four representative European electricity mixes. The results reported reductions up to 8% of Green House Gases emissions in every country. France presented the best-case scenario applying only DC induction; unlike Greece, which showed around 150% increment. However, the suitability of the new DC induction technology depends on the electricity mix, the technological scenario and the environmental impact indicators. Finally, environmental external costs were assessed with comparison purposes to evaluate the increase of energy and environmental efficiency in existing preheating and melting industrial furnaces currently fed with natural gas.
Unitized regenerative fuel cell (URFC) is considered to be the compact solution to generate and utilize hydrogen. It possesses combined capabilities of operating in fuel cell and electrolyser modes. In the present study, the performance of a URFC in electrolyser mode is modelled and also experimentally validated. The performances are being modelled using a combination of structural and CFD analysis tool. The effect of the operating gas pressure on the variation in the contact pressure between GDL and BPP on the performances are studied. The clamping pressure, as well as the operating pressure of the electrolyser, are seen to have a high impact on the contact resistance and thereby the performance as well. It is observed that the simulated polarization behavior is in good agreement with the experimental results. To restrict the area specific resistance below 150 mΩ cm² the operating pressure should be maintained below 5.9 bar at clamping pressure of 1.5 MPa.
Waste management in Europe has experienced significant changes since the 1970s. The majority of Member State waste management regimes have shifted from policies based on the control of waste disposal activities, to include goals for waste prevention and recovery. The rapid increase of plastic packaging recycling in Germany had a number of unintended consequences. In the first years of the Packaging Ordinance, the majority of plastic packaging collected was exported to China, Eastern Europe, and other EU Member States due to lack of national capacity. The setting of high recycling targets for plastic packaging waste between 1991 and 1998 and the prohibition of incineration with energy recovery was a key driver of recycling technology innovation in Germany. When adopting new principles to serve as the foundation of belief, they should synchronize with the existing waste management myths of individual regions, as myths may differ from region to region illustrating different cultural ideals.
A new 465 page book with more than 850 references to the literature and 757 paintings, engravings, advertisement posters and cartoons to explain how did the general purpose and their complementary technologies develop as people discovered the advanced methods of energy utilization? How did the consequences of the new technology, e.g., the new industrial processes, social events, air pollution, recycling, and sustainability affected our lives? And how did the artists perceive the change?
Industry contributes directly and indirectly (through consumed electricity) about 37% of the global greenhouse gas emissions,
of which over 80% is from energy use. Total energy-related emissions, which were 9.9GtCO2 in 2004, have grown by 65% since 1971. Even so, industry has almost continuously improved its energy efficiency over the
past decades. In the near future, energy efficiency is potentially the most important and cost-effective means for mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions from industry. This paper discusses the potential contribution of industrial energy-efficiency technologies
and policies to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions to 2030.
Limited worldwide energy supplies demand the improved utilization of thermal energy, which is the dominant form of all primary energy sources used today. Large quantities of waste heat are routinely exhausted wherever thermo-mechanical energy conversion occurs, providing an opportunity to improve utilization. Two waste-heat-driven cycles are analyzed: an absorption/compression cascade cooling cycle and a coupled Rankine/compression cycle. The absorption/compression cascade provides an environmentally-sound option for a common approach to thermal energy recovery: the use of absorption cycles for cooling applications. To achieve cooling at temperatures below 0ºC, ammonia-water is the overwhelming choice for the working fluid. However, concerns about the toxicity and flammability of ammonia sometimes limit its application in sensitive arenas. In this study, a lithium bromide-water absorption cycle is coupled with a carbon dioxide vapor compression cycle to realize the benefits of high-lift cooling without the concerns associated with ammonia. This cycle utilizes a waste heat stream at temperatures as low as 150°C to provide cooling at -40°C. The topping absorption cycle achieves a coefficient of performance (COP) of about 0.77, while the bottoming cycle achieves a COP of about 2.2. The coupled Rankine/compression cycle provides a mechanical expansion and compression approach to achieve thermally activated cooling, again driven by waste heat. The power produced in the turbine of the Rankine cycle is directly coupled to the compressor of a vapor-compression cooling cycle to generate cooling to be utilized for space-conditioning. The refrigerant R245fa is used throughout the cycle. Even with low grade waste heat sources, a Rankine cycle efficiency of about 11-12 percent can be achieved. When coupled to the bottoming compression cycle with a COP of about 2.7, this yields an overall waste heat to cooling conversion efficiency of about 32 percent at nominal conditions.
Geographically, energy requirements are distributed very unevenly, and problems result from heat surplus and air pollution in the urban areas. Furthermore, the combination of power and heat generation increases these problems. The example of West Berlin is used to illustrate the heat and electricity demands of a large city, limits of combined generation in heating and power stations, problems of designing district heating supply plants and influences of power and heating on air pollution and water waste heat loading. The use of gas turbines for conventional and nuclear steam power plants is considered as an interesting possibility for the future.
With regard to the conflict between the growing electricity demands and the requirements of environmental quality, an estimate is made of the electricity consumption in the GFR until 1985, with the changed position of the energy market and recent estimates of economic growth taken into consideration. The strain on the environment resulting from energy demands through economic growth are analyzed and the basic problems of environmental policies in the electrical industry are discussed. Arguments are presented in support of a tax on sulfur dioxide emissions.
The need for long distance heating in order to lower pollution of the environment caused by individual heating is discussed. In order to efficiently maintain such a system it should be adapted to the complex problems of consumption. This can be achieved by careful city planning, giving special consideration to flow and distribution of the heat and types of energy suitable for heat production. It is also advisable to consider the use of the heat formed by incineration of home waste and refuse materials.
In considering the development of the energy economy, attention should increasingly be given to the thermal load on the environment due to the production of energy. It is necessary to examine in detail any possibilities for reducing the final energy requirements. The author considers these are to be found in improvements in the efficiency of utilization in the domestic and industrial sectors. The paper further investigates to what extent the waste heat from thermal power stations may be utilized, a problem which, for large units, appears almost insoluble.
Der Sicherstellung der Energieversorgung kommt wegen der Schlüsselrolle der Energie in der modernen Industriegesellschaft eine fundamentale Bedeutung für die Entwicklung unserer Gesellschaft zu. Neben die Forderung nach einer wirtschaftlichen Energieversorgung treten verstärkt ökologische und versorgungstechnische Aspekte, deren Bedeutung mit dem exponentiellen Wachstum des Energieverbrauchs ständig zunimmt. Dieser Aufsatz beschreibt die ersten Ergebnisse einer umfassenden Studie zur Gesamtanalyse des Systems Mensch-Energie-Umwelt. Durch die Darstellung der dynamischen Wechselwirkungen dieses komplexen Systems sowie durch die Gegenüberstellung und Wertung der positiven und negativen Effekte eines wachsenden Energiebedarfs und seiner Deckung durch alternative Energieversorgungssysteme sollen die Grundlagen für adäquate Entscheidungshilfen geschaffen werden. Dabei werden die neu entwickelten Methoden der kybernetischen Simulation angewandt.
Unter den Wissenschaftlern besteht weltweit Übereinstimmung, daß durch menschliche Tätigkeit freigesetzte Spurengase das Klima verändern. Unter diesen Spurengasen nimmt CO2 eine herausragende Rolle ein. Es gilt also, den CO2-Ausstoß zu verringern. Der Autor stellt die durch Energieumwandlungen entstehenden CO2-Emissionen vor und beschreibt mehrere Möglichkeiten einer CO2-Minderung. Hierbei geht er insbesondere auf die CO2-Reduktionsstrategien ein, wie sie für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Rahmen der Enquete-Kommission "Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre" erarbeitet wurden.
The threat to the world's climate due to CO 2 and other tracer gases is one of the major challenges which have to be overcome by the human race. As O 2 among others is produced during the combustion of fossil energy carriers, all conceivable possibilities have to be investigated which may reduce the emission. The authors investigate these possibilities for a great variety of energy developmental tendencies in energy consumption in the whole world. The presented second part of the article deals with nuclear power stations and regenerative energy carriers, and shows that an environment-preserving energy conversion is possible by the use of these energy carriers which are not connected with CO 2-emission.
The dimension figure for the 'quality' of a process is meant to indicate to what extent the process approaches the limitations stated by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. Such a dimension figure may only incorporate such parameters on which the process really depends. With the aid of simple examples (heat pump, refrigerator, combined heat and power station) to begin with it is shown numerically that there are considerable discrepancies between the quality defined by the 2nd Law and by the exergy. Then the relation between the two qualities are explicitly calculated and the reasons given for the divergencies.
Proceeding from the preliminary work already carried out in the Federal Republic of Germany on the development of a heat converter, the author describes the international cooperation in this field and the resulting outcomes. Then the author discusses, in particular, the application of the heat converter for industrial waste heat utilization, describes novel absorption systems and compares them with each other.
Recently, criticism has been made regarding the concept of exergy and the application of exergetic efficiencies. It was recommended that processes be evaluated by efficiency ratings which do not include the ambient temperature. Exergy, however, not only determines the restricted convertibility of energies due to the Second Law, but also the influence of the environment on energy-converting processes. Thus, the ambient temperature necessarily appears in all exergetic calculations. Examples of thermal power engines, refrigeration machines and heat pumps are used to explain extensively how to define exergetic efficiencies. They have proved to be thermodynamically valuable and informative evaluation figures, in contrast to the efficiency ratings recommended by the criticism which only include the losses within the plant, while the purpose and ambient conditions of the energy-converting process are not taken into account.
Unter den Wissenschaftlern besteht weltweit Übereinstimmung, daß durch menschliche Tätigkeit freigesetzte Spurengase das Klima verändern. Unter diesen Spurengasen nimmt CO2 eine herausragende Rolle ein. Es gilt also, den CO2-Ausstoß zu verringern. Der Autor stellt die durch Energieumwandlungen entstehenden CO2-Emissionen vor und beschreibt mehrere Möglichkeiten einer CO2-Minderung. Hierbei geht er insbesondere auf die CO2-Reduktionsstrategien ein, wie sie für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Rahmen der Enquete-Kommission "Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre" erarbeitet wurden.
The paper examines the impact of regenerative energy sources on the Federal Republic of Germany. Attention is given to passive systems, including a discussion of 'clearview', 'freeflow', 'sunrise' and 'sky view' systems. Also discussed are low temperature collector installations and heat pumps. Further, consideration is given to high temperature collector systems and solar cells, as well as wind energy converters. Finally, the utilization possibilities of other energy sources are surveyed.
Heizen und Kühlen sind Prozesse, bei denen einem System Energie als Wärme zugeführt oder entzogen wird, um seine Temperatur zu erhöhen, zu erniedrigen oder auf einem konstanten Wert zu halten. Diese Prozesse liegen der Heiztechnik, der Kältetechnik und der Klimatechnik zugrunde. Zu ihrer Untersuchung wenden wir insbesondere den 2. Hauptsatz an, um die thermodynamischen Grundlagen der Heiz-, Klima- und Kältetechnik zu verstehen. Die Aussagen des 2. Hauptsatzes lassen sich dabei besonders klar formulieren, wenn wir die in 3.4.3 eingeführten Größen Exergie und Anergie verwenden, vgl. hierzu [9.1–9.4].
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