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Squatting among the Neandertals: A problem in the behavioral interpretation of skeletal morphology
Abstract
The analysis of the Neandertal and Skhul hominid metric and non-metric lower limb variations which have been considered indicative of squatting suggests that squatting was a common position of repose among these Pleistocene hominids. Although the total morphological pattern of the Neandertals supports this conclusion, few of the variations commonly associated with squatting provide conclusive evidence of previous habitual squatting. It is necessary to consider each variation with reference to its etiology and its association in the total morphological pattern before deriving similar behavioral interpretations from the skeletal morphology.
... Additionally, the extension facet is described as different on the position of the fetus the in uterus or when body weight force is applied in this region. The facet is believed to take form in different types of squatting motions, but the facet shape depends on ligament variation (Morimoto, 1960;Trinkaus, 1975). Normally, the talo-calcaneal ligaments and the reticulum would stop the talus from advancing into the sinus tarsi, but in a forced partial dorsiflexion the talus can advance slightly more than usual (Smith, 1958). ...
... Normally, the talo-calcaneal ligaments and the reticulum would stop the talus from advancing into the sinus tarsi, but in a forced partial dorsiflexion the talus can advance slightly more than usual (Smith, 1958). Apart from squatting positions, which some researchers have defended for the origin of this facet extension, it appears more likely that not only squatting but high activity levels with angular ankle movements is more likely to influence the appearance of this trait (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... This trait is relevant for surgery practices, as it is related to the presence or absence of talo-calcaneal ligaments of which ankle stability depend upon. Above all, the absence or presence of this fibrous soft tissue allows certain facet extensions on the calcaneus to form (Smith, 1958;Trinkaus, 1975). ...
The usefulness of anatomical variation is determined by the knowledge of why nonmetric traits appear. Clear descriptions of the traits are a necessary task, due to the risk of confusing anatomical variants and evidence of trauma. Numerous interpretations of the appearance of calcaneal anatomical variants add to the need of an anatomical atlas of calcaneal nonmetric traits. We have analyzed a total of 886 calcanei; 559 belong to different modern and pre‐Hispanic samples, and 327 bones were studied from a reference collection from Athens. In this study, we present the anatomical variations that exist on the calcaneus bone, some of which have rarely been mentioned in previous research. The standardization of methods proposed may be useful to experts working in human anatomy, physical anthropology as well as comparative morphology, due to usefulness of this information during surgery, and bioanthropology to observe and study the lifestyle of past populations.
... Measurements in mm. I TIB-III TIB-IV TIB-VI TIB-XI TIB-XII AT-848 Maximum length M1a 341 383 329 361 354 371 impact bone morphology (Aiello & Dean, 1990;Mizushima et al., 2016;Trinkaus, 1975). However, this variation can also be attributed to several factors, ranging from nutrition to climatic adaptation and locomotor efficiency (Allen, 1877, Bogin et al., 2002Higgins & Ruff, 2011). ...
... quadriceps femoris tendon anteriorly relative to the distal femur increasing the anteroposterior distance between the patellar ligament and the primary flexion-extension axis of rotation of the knee, increasing the moment arm for the quadriceps femoris (Trinkaus & Rhoads, 1999). Besides, habitual positions and locomotion patterns during growth can affect this trait (Aiello & Dean, 1990;Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... In addition, the retroversion angle is similar to those of late Pleistocene archaic humans (15.4 ± 1.7 , n = 5), as well as many non-mechanized recent human samples (Trinkaus, 1975;Trinkaus & Rhoads, 1999). Torsion angle is also inside modern human variation range, and it is related to the way of walking (Hicks et al., 2007). ...
The analysis of the locomotor anatomy of Late Pleistocene Homo has largely focused on changes in proximal femur and pelvic morphologies, with much attention centered on the emergence of modern humans. Although much of the focus has been on changes in the proximal femur, some research has also been conducted on tibiae and, to a lesser extent, fibulae. With this in mind, we present one of the largest samples of the same population of human tibiae and fibulae from the Middle Pleistocene to determine their main characteristic traits and establish similarities and differences, primarily with those of Neanderthals and modern humans, but also with other Middle Pleistocene specimens in the fossil record. Through this study, we established that the Middle Pleistocene population from the Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain) had lower leg long bones similar to those of Neanderthals, although there were some important differences, such as bone length, which this fossil individuals resembled those of modern humans and not to Neanderthals. This fact is related to the crural index and leg length, even though we do not have any true association between femora and tibiae yet, it has implications for establishing locomotor efficiency and climate adaptation. K E Y W O R D S activity, fibula, Sima de los Huesos, tibia
... impact bone morphology (Aiello & Dean, 1990;Mizushima et al., 2016;Trinkaus, 1975). However, this variation can also be attributed to several factors, ranging from nutrition to climatic adaptation and locomotor efficiency (Allen, 1877, Bogin et al., 2002Higgins & Ruff, 2011). ...
... quadriceps femoris tendon anteriorly relative to the distal femur increasing the anteroposterior distance between the patellar ligament and the primary flexion-extension axis of rotation of the knee, increasing the moment arm for the quadriceps femoris (Trinkaus & Rhoads, 1999). Besides, habitual positions and locomotion patterns during growth can affect this trait (Aiello & Dean, 1990;Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... In addition, the retroversion angle is similar to those of late Pleistocene archaic humans (15.4 ± 1.7 , n = 5), as well as many non-mechanized recent human samples (Trinkaus, 1975;Trinkaus & Rhoads, 1999). Torsion angle is also inside modern human variation range, and it is related to the way of walking (Hicks et al., 2007). ...
The analysis of the locomotor anatomy of Late Pleistocene Homo has largely focused on changes in proximal femur and pelvic morphologies, with much attention centered on the emergence of modern humans. Although much of the focus has been on changes in the proximal femur, some research has also been conducted on tibiae and, to a lesser extent, fibulae. With this in mind, we present one of the largest samples of the same population of human tibiae and fibulae from the Middle Pleistocene to determine their main characteristic traits and establish similarities and differences, primarily with those of Neanderthals and modern humans, but also with other Middle Pleistocene specimens in the fossil record. Through this study, we established that the Middle Pleistocene population from the Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain) had lower leg long bones similar to those of Neanderthals, although there were some important differences, such as bone length, which this fossil individuals resembled those of modern humans and not to Neanderthals. This fact is related to the crural index and leg length, even though we do not have any true association between femora and tibiae yet, it has implications for establishing locomotor efficiency and climate adaptation.
... In addition to hip flexion (Hunt et al., 1996), hip abduction and lateral rotation are expected to provide balance in assisted a and non-assisted b squat (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... When the hip is flexed, considerable forces are applied to the proximal and distal aspects of the femoral head (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... A sagittally curved tibia (reflecting a retroversion of the tibial plate) has also been hypothesized to be indicative of frequent knee flexion and use of the squat posture (Boulle, 2001; but see Trinkaus, 1975). ...
Theropithecus brumpti is a primate known from numerous craniodental specimens in the Plio-Pleistocene Shungura Formation (Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia), but the anatomy of its hindlimb is documented only by a few associated and mostly incomplete postcranial specimens. The adaptations of T. brumpti are still debated, with its substrate preferences and its use of squatting postures recently discussed based on anatomical differences when compared with its extant representative, Theropithecus gelada. Here, we describe an associated femur and tibia (L 869-1 and L 869-2) of a presumed T. brumpti male and a partial foot (L 865-1r and L 865-1t) of a male T. brumpti, dated to ca. 2.6 Ma and ca. 2.32 Ma respectively. Based on univariate and bivariate morphometric analyses, we provide new data on the morphological correlates of substrate preferences and postural behaviors of this fossil species. Our results are in agreement with previous analyses and present T. brumpti as a predominantly terrestrial primate. We demonstrate the presence of osteological correlates associated with the use of squatting behaviors in T. brumpti but also point to significant anatomical differences between this paleontological species and T. gelada. These differences blur the functional value of characters previously identified as diagnostic of T. gelada and its postural behavior. We further document the postcranial distinctiveness of the Theropithecus clade in relation to the Papio clade. This study thus provides new insights into the postcranial anatomy and paleoecology of an abundant fossil primate from the Plio-Pleistocene of eastern Africa.
... In addition to hip flexion (Hunt et al., 1996), hip abduction and lateral rotation are expected to provide balance in assisted a and non-assisted b squat (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... When the hip is flexed, considerable forces are applied to the proximal and distal aspects of the femoral head (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
... A sagittally curved tibia (reflecting a retroversion of the tibial plate) has also been hypothesized to be indicative of frequent knee flexion and use of the squat posture (Boulle, 2001; but see Trinkaus, 1975). ...
Our knowledge of the functional and taxonomic diversity of the fossil colobine fauna (Colobinae Jerdon, 1867) from the Lower Omo Valley is based only on craniodental remains. Here we describe postcranial specimens of fossil colobines from the Usno Formation and Shungura Formation, and provide in-depth insights into their functional anatomy and taxonomy. Comparisons with previously described fossil colobine specimens from eastern Africa led us to identify specimens similar to Paracolobus mutiwa Leakey, 1982 and Rhinocolobus turkanaensis Leakey, 1982. Our results highlight the mixed locomotor substrate preferences of Paracolobus mutiwa and add new insights regarding its locomotor behaviors by identifying anatomical characteristics of the forelimb associated with climbing. Postcranial remains reminiscent of Rhinocolobus confirm the peculiar elbow morphology of this taxon and its apparent preference for arboreal substrates. We also document femoral, humeral, and tibial specimens with arboreal traits similar in size and morphology to extant Colobus Illiger, 1811 in Member L of the Shungura Formation. By providing these new data on the colobine paleocommunity from Shungura, our results contribute to the understanding of the biotic context surrounding Plio-Pleistocene faunas of the Turkana Depression and pave the way for future ecomorphological analyses.
... The facets located on the dorsal side of the talus bone are known as "squatting facets" as they are caused by friction. This friction can be caused by specific activities of daily life that require hyperdorsiflexion of the foot, causing the tibia bone to press against the talus bone, creating lateral, medial, or continuous (gutter-like) facets (Baykara et al., 2010;Garg et al., 2015;Trinkaus, 1975). Nevertheless, these facets have also been related to other movements, such as gait motion on uneven ground and frequent crouching (Oygucu et al., 1998). ...
... The squatting facets appear due to a repetitive, daily resting position known as squatting (Barnett, 1954;Satinoff, 1972;Trinkaus, 1975), which consists of the contact between the talus neck and the anterior border of the inferior part of the tibia. These facets may be detected in fetuses (Oygucu et al., 1998), due to the extreme hyperdorsiflexion of the foot during intrauterine life. ...
... However, it became clear that the squatting position during adult life constitutes a major factor in developing these facets (Baykara et al., 2010;Ekanem et al., 2021;Garg et al., 2015;Jeyasingh et al., 1979). Therefore, their presence has been investigated in many population groups, including Neanderthals (Trinkaus, 1975). ...
The aim of this study was assessing the prevalence of os trigonum, talo‐calcaneal facets and squatting facet variations among pre‐Hispanic individuals (around 940 ± 30 BP) placed in the collective burial cave of Punta Azul (El Hierro, Canary Islands), and to assess whether prevalence differed among sexes. A total of 149 tali (70 right and 79 left) belonging to adult individuals were found in a comingled context. Sex determination was achieved as following: genetic sexing of a subsample of 35 tali was assessed using paleogenomic procedures. Anthropometric measurements of the genetically sexed bones were used to calculate an accurate discriminant function that was later applied to the remaining 114 tali. We observed marked differences in the os trigonum pattern among male and female tali, whereas no relevant differences were observed regarding the other two traits. A very high prevalence of squatting facets was observed in both sexes, higher than the reported frequencies for other population groups. The summarized conclusions in this study are the following: a) the high prevalence of the squatting facets observed in both males and females could indicate the performance of a similar activity that requires a squatting position, such as shellfishing. b) We observed a predominance of the type C talo‐calcaneal facet configuration among the population that indicates a maximal mobility of the talar joint, well adapted to displacement and/or activities such as goat herding in the steep landscape of El Hierro. c) The statistically different os trigonum pattern among sexes may suggest a greater activity associated to jumping and climbing among males, possibly related to goat herding in the steep landscape of the island of El Hierro.
... Postcranial discrete variations consist principally of articular variations in the manual and especially pedal remains (Trinkaus 1975a(Trinkaus , 1975b(Trinkaus , 1983b. There are scattered variants elsewhere in the appendicular skeleton (e.g., scapula axillary border variation, humeral septal aperture presence, radial tuberosity orientation), plus some in the vertebral column. ...
... There is also a dearth of comparative data for similarly aged Middle and Upper Paleolithic pedal remains, known principally for the early adolescent Paglicci 12 (Mallegni & Parenti 1973). However, there are extensive osteometric and discrete trait data available for mature pedal remains from Middle Paleolithic and Early/Mid Upper Paleolithic (E/MUP) human foot bones, largely following the Martin system but expanded and modified (e.g., Matiegka 1938;McCown and Keith 1939;Trinkaus 1975aTrinkaus , 1975bTrinkaus , 1983aTrinkaus , 1983bVandermeersch 1981;Sládek et al. 2000;Trinkaus et al. 2006a;Shang and Trinkaus 2010). Therefore, a number of aspects of the Sunghir 1 pedal remains are compared graphically and in terms of trait frequencies to Late Pleistocene comparative samples, as well as to background samples of recent humans. ...
... Anterior extensions of the trochlea, medial and lateral, onto the proximal neck are present on the Sunghir 1 and 3 tali but absent from those of Sunghir 2. Medial squatting facets, from marked and persistent talocrural dorsiflexion, are rarely present in fossil or recent human tali (Trinkaus 1975b), but lateral ones are common among many recent human samples (Table 16.4). In the Late Pleistocene, lateral squatting facets are present in 55% and 64% of the E/ MUP and Neandertal samples, respectively, and in all of the smaller sample of MPMH tali. ...
In this latest volume in the Human Evolution Series, Erik Trinkaus and his co-authors synthesize the research and findings concerning the human remains found at the Sunghir archaeological site. It has long been apparent to those in the field of paleoanthropology that the human fossil remains from the site of Sunghir are an important part of the human paleoanthropological record, and that these fossil remains have the potential to provide substantial data and inferences concerning human biology and behavior, both during the earlier Upper Paleolithic and concerning the early phases of human occupation of high latitude continental Eurasia. But despite many separate investigations and published studies on the site and its findings, a single and definitive volume does not yet exist on the subject. This book combines the expertise of four paleoanthropologists to provide a comprehensive description and paleobiological analysis of the Sunghir human remains. Since 1990, Trinkaus et al. have had access to the Sunghir site and its findings, and the authors have published frequently on the topic. The book places these human fossil remains in context with other Late Pleistocene humans, utilizing numerous comparative charts, graphs, and figures. As such, the book is highly illustrated, in color. Trinkaus and his co-authors outline the many advances in paleoanthropology that these remains have helped to bring about, examining the Sunghir site from all angles.
... The Regourdou pedal remains are well known in the literature and some of them have been included in comparative samples (e.g., Trinkaus, 1975bTrinkaus, , 1983bRhoads and Trinkaus, 1977;Vandermeersch, 1981;Raichlen et al., 2011;Pablos et al., 2012Pablos et al., , 2013aPablos et al., , 2014Pablos et al., , 2017Pablos et al., , 2018aPablos et al., , 2018bBoyle and DeSilva, 2015;Pomeroy et al., 2017). However, only one comparative analysis of the Regourdou foot remains exists, an early analysis of the tali (Gambier, 1982). ...
... The Neandertal tali show large articular surfaces with large lateral malleolar facets and wide heads, the calcanei are mediolaterally expanded with a projecting sustentaculum tali, the naviculars are broad and massive, and the lateral metatarsals and the phalanges are wide and robust (Rhoads and Trinkaus, 1977;Trinkaus, 1983bTrinkaus, , 2016Pablos et al., 2012Pablos et al., , 2013bPablos et al., , 2014Pablos et al., , 2017Pablos et al., , 2018aPablos et al., , 2018bHarvati et al., 2013;Pomeroy et al., 2017;Rosas et al., 2017). All of these traits have been associated with greater general robustness of the postcranial skeleton (Trinkaus, 1975a(Trinkaus, , 1983a(Trinkaus, , 2000Rhoads and Trinkaus, 1977;Arsuaga et al., 2015;Pablos et al., 2017Pablos et al., , 2018a. ...
... Bold letters and superscript indicate significant differences with some of the samples (Z-score > 1.96 in absolute terms; Pablos et al. (2012;2013b) and present study. b ¼ These percentages include type B (partially fused) and C (completely fused) articular calcaneal facets after Trinkaus (1975b). ...
Regourdou is a well-known Middle Paleolithic site which has yielded the fossil remains of a minimum of two Neandertal individuals. The first individual (Regourdou 1) is represented by a partial skeleton while the second one is represented by a calcaneus. The foot remains of Regourdou 1 have been used in a number of comparative studies, but to date a full description and comparison of all the foot remains from
the Regourdou 1 Neandertal, coming from the old excavations and from the recent reanalysis of the faunal remains, does not exist. Here, we describe and comparatively assess the Regourdou 1 tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges. They display traits observed in other Neandertal feet, which are different from some traits of the Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca) hominins and of Middle Paleolithic, Upper
Paleolithic and recent modern humans. These Neandertal features are: a rectangular talar trochlea with a large lateral malleolar facet, a broad talar head, a broad calcaneus with a projecting sustentaculum tali, a wide and wedged navicular with a projecting medial tubercle, large and wide bases of the lateral metatarsals, and mediolaterally expanded and robust phalanges that also show hallux valgus in a
strongly built hallux.
... Independientemente de su origen, estas marcas, también llamadas carillas orientaloides, están presentes en todos los grupos de sapiens, desde neandertales (Trinkaus, 1975;Lovejoy, 1980;Rosas et al., 2017) hasta humanos modernos (Thomson, 1890(Thomson, , 1899Charles, 1893, Barnet, 1954Olivier, 1965;Singh, 1959, entre otros). A nivel arqueológico permiten conocer aspectos relacionados con el movimiento y la postura del pie, así como con el estilo de vida y el desarrollo de ciertas actividades físicas (Olivier, 1965;Singh, 1959;Trinkaus, 1975;Oygucu et al., 1998;Boulle, 2001a;2001b;Ari et al., 2003;Baykara et al., 2010 entre otros). ...
... Independientemente de su origen, estas marcas, también llamadas carillas orientaloides, están presentes en todos los grupos de sapiens, desde neandertales (Trinkaus, 1975;Lovejoy, 1980;Rosas et al., 2017) hasta humanos modernos (Thomson, 1890(Thomson, , 1899Charles, 1893, Barnet, 1954Olivier, 1965;Singh, 1959, entre otros). A nivel arqueológico permiten conocer aspectos relacionados con el movimiento y la postura del pie, así como con el estilo de vida y el desarrollo de ciertas actividades físicas (Olivier, 1965;Singh, 1959;Trinkaus, 1975;Oygucu et al., 1998;Boulle, 2001a;2001b;Ari et al., 2003;Baykara et al., 2010 entre otros). ...
... !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 No obstante, otros autores sugieren que existen otros factores biomecánicos para explicar su parición (Trinkaus, 1975;Brothwel, 1981, Boulle y Kurzenne, 1999 En cuanto a la asimetría lateral, como era de esperar, no se observan grandes diferencias, algo que también ha sido registrado en otros estudios, ya sean arqueológicos o clínicos (Jones, 2007;Baykara et al., 2010). En este caso, solo las carillas continuas parecen ser algo más frecuentes en el lado izquierdo; sin embargo, esto es posible que esté relacionado con las características de la muestra y con el escaso número de ejemplares derechos analizados. ...
... In medial view, a strong ossification and projection of posterior tibiotalar portion of deltoid ligament attachment is appreciated. In plantar view is possible to observe a sulcus tali facet (Trinkaus, 1975b) and a deformation of the posterior calcaneal facet with a small perforation, probably corresponding to an osteocondritis dissecans (smoothwalled crater caused by the infarction of the area with separation of a bone and cartilage fragment, which are reabsorbed, according to Mann & Hunt, 2005), and also a possible Steida's process (incomplete separation of the posterior talar process, following Mann & Hunt, 2005). (Figures 1-4) is an adult right talus with minor damages and the anterior calcaneal facet removed. ...
... In dorsal view, it shows a lateral squatting facet, an anterior extension of the medial side of trochlear anterior rim and anterior displacement of the anterior side of the medial malleolar facet (Barnett, 1954). In plantar view, a sulcus tali facet as SD-440b (Trinkaus, 1975b) is detected. Posteriorly, it presents a slightly marked flexor hallucis longus (FHL) groove. ...
... In lateral view, it shows a large and projected lateral malleolar facet. It also shows a sulcus tali facet (Trinkaus, 1975b) and slightly marked FHL groove, as SD-2193. ...
Objectives: The El Sidrónn tali sample is assessed in an evolutionary framework. We aim to explore the relationship between Neandertal talus morphology and body size/shape. We test the hypothesis 1: talar Neandertal traits are influenced by body size, and the hypothesis 2: shape variables independent of body size correspond to inherited primitive features.
Materials and methods: We quantify 35 landmarks through 3D geometric morphometrics techniques to describe H. neanderthalensis-H. sapiens shape variation, by Mean Shape Comparisons, Principal Component, Phenetic Clusters, Minimum spanning tree analyses and partial least square and regression of talus shape on body variables. Shape variation correlated to body size is compared to Neandertals-Modern Humans (MH) evolutionary shape variation. The Neandertal sample is compared to early hominins.
Results: Neandertal talus presents trochlear hypertrophy, a larger equality of trochlear rims, a shorter neck, a more expanded head, curvature and an anterior location of the medial malleolar facet, an expanded and projected lateral malleolar facet and laterally expanded posterior calcaneal facet compared to MH.
Discussion: The Neandertal talocrural joint morphology is influenced by body size. The other Neandertal talus traits do not covary with it or not follow the same co-variation pattern as MH. Besides, the trochlear hypertrophy, the trochlear rims equality and the short neck could be inherited primitive features; the medial malleolar facet morphology could be an inherited primitive feature or a secondarily primitive trait, and the calcaneal posterior facet would be an autapomorphic feature of the Neandertal lineage.
... The SH15A 64.12 distal right tibia displays a lateral ankle flexion (or 'squatting') facet ( Fig. 9) measuring 14.9 mm by 4.5 mm at its greatest extent. Ankle flexion facets are extensions of the distal tibial and/or talar articular surfaces due to habitual hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle joint (Trinkaus, 1975b;Capasso et al., 1999). These lateral facet extensions on the distal tibia are common among Neanderthals, affecting 83% of European and southwest Asian individuals studied by Trinkaus (1975b), and are observed on the tibiae of Shanidar 1 and 3 (although not Shanidar 2; Trinkaus, 1983b). ...
... Ankle flexion facets are extensions of the distal tibial and/or talar articular surfaces due to habitual hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle joint (Trinkaus, 1975b;Capasso et al., 1999). These lateral facet extensions on the distal tibia are common among Neanderthals, affecting 83% of European and southwest Asian individuals studied by Trinkaus (1975b), and are observed on the tibiae of Shanidar 1 and 3 (although not Shanidar 2; Trinkaus, 1983b). These facets are often considered to indicate habitual squatting behavior, although other causes have also been postulated such as locomotor stresses associated with traveling over uneven or steep terrain (Trinkaus, 1975b;Capasso et al., 1999). ...
... These lateral facet extensions on the distal tibia are common among Neanderthals, affecting 83% of European and southwest Asian individuals studied by Trinkaus (1975b), and are observed on the tibiae of Shanidar 1 and 3 (although not Shanidar 2; Trinkaus, 1983b). These facets are often considered to indicate habitual squatting behavior, although other causes have also been postulated such as locomotor stresses associated with traveling over uneven or steep terrain (Trinkaus, 1975b;Capasso et al., 1999). ...
The Neanderthal remains from Shanidar Cave, excavated between 1951 and 1960, have played a central role in debates concerning diverse aspects of Neanderthal morphology and behaviour. In 2015 and 2016, renewed excavations at the site uncovered hominin remains from the immediate area where the partial skeleton of Shanidar 5 was found in 1960. Shanidar 5 was a robust adult male estimated to have been aged over 40 years at the time of death. Comparisons of photographs from the previous and recent excavations indicates that the old and new remains were directly adjacent to one another, while the disturbed arrangement and partial crushing of the new fossils is consistent with descriptions and photographs of the older discoveries. The newly-discovered bones include fragments of several vertebrae; a left hamate; part of the proximal left femur and a heavily crushed partial pelvis; and the distal half of the right tibia and fibula and associated talus and navicular. All these elements were previously missing from Shanidar 5, and morphological and metric data are consistent with the remains belonging to this individual. A newly-discovered partial left pubic symphysis indicates an age at death of 40–50 years. The combined evidence strongly indicates that the new finds can be attributed to Shanidar 5. Ongoing analyses of associated samples, including for sediment morphology, palynology, and dating, will therefore offer new evidence as to how this individual was deposited in the cave, and permit new analyses of the skeleton itself and broader discussion of Neanderthal morphology and variation.
... 8). The femoral intercondylar line, the groove from the posterior cruciate ligament, was strongly pronounced as well as the lateral squatting facet on the distal epiphysis (Trinkaus, 1975) (Fig. 9) and tibial imprint (Kostick, 1963). On the tibia, tibial tuberosity was also very pronounced, as well as the squatting facet on the distal joint surface. ...
... On the tibia, tibial tuberosity was also very pronounced, as well as the squatting facet on the distal joint surface. Overall, non-metric traits that were found indicate habitual equine riding and squatting/ kneeling activities (Kostick, 1963;Trinkaus, 1975;Merbs and Euler, 1985;Kovacik et al., 2004;Wang et al., 2008;Andelinović et al., 2015). ...
... In this situation, the posterior cruciate ligament is pressed against the anterior wall of the intercondylar fossa and intercondylar line, but also against the lateral wall covering anterior cruciate ligament. This posture can, over time, produce a groove on the intercondylar line and on lateral condyles additional squatting facet with a smooth surface located on the attachment of anterior cruciate ligament (Trinkaus, 1975;Wang et al., 2008). An additional trait, tibial imprints, found on the femur also have a similar cause. ...
In the identification process of historical figures, and especially in cases of Saint's bodies or mummified remains, any method that includes physical encroachment or sampling is often not allowed. In these cases, one of the few remaining possibilities is the application of non-destructive radiographical and anthropological methods. However, although there have been a few attempts of such analyses, no systematic standard methodology has been developed until now. In this study, we developed a methodological approach that was used to test the authenticity of the alleged body of Saint Paul the Confessor. Upon imaging the remains on MSCT and post-processing, the images were analyzed by an interdisciplinary team in order to explore the contents beneath the binding media (e.g. the remains) and to obtain osetobiographical data for comparison with historical biological data. Obtained results: ancestry, sex, age, occupation and social status were consistent with historical data. Although the methodological approach proved to be appropriate in this case, due to the discrepancy in the amount of data, identity could not be fully confirmed. Nonetheless, the hypothesis that the remains do not belong to St. Paul was rejected, whilst positive identification receives support. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Ogden (1974aOgden ( , 1974b found an association among oblique joints (> 20°) with smaller articular surface areas and decreasing mobility, as the joints have a reduced ability to accommodate torsional forces, with a higher incidence (70%) of subluxation or dislocation. In contrast, the horizontal PTFJ enables greater mobility at the joint and is, therefore, that allow a broader range of ankle excursion in the parasagittal plane (dorsal and plantar exion) (Latimer et al. 1987;Oygucu et al. 1998;Trinkaus 1975). A horizontal PFTJ, as observed in this work in highly active hunter-gatherers (Fig. 3, Figure S1), would provide greater lateral knee stabilization through greater joint mobility in knee exion (Chang et al. 2020;Huang et al. 2021), but ultimately leading to lateral knee osteoarthritis (OA) ), as also attested by the higher incidence of OA in prehistoric populations compared to agriculturalists (Bridges 1989(Bridges , 1991Knusel 1996). ...
... Sorrentino and colleagues (2020a) found an expanded anterior mediolateral margin of the talar trochlea in hunter-gatherers and associated this feature with passive dorsi exion extremes such as in frequent and habitual squatting. Thus, we suggest that the enlargement of the malleolar fossa in mobile populations may re ect a possible elongation of the ankle collateral ligaments and frequent tightness with prolonged pressure, such as in squatting (Viidik 1966;Trinkaus 1975). Similarly, a wider malleolar fossa in great apes was indeed associated with larger collateral ligaments in great apes due to the higher frequency and magnitude of dorsi exion experienced during climbing . ...
The human fibular shape has been scarcely analyzed in anthropology. However, studies on athletes and human archaeological samples suggest the importance of including fibular structural properties to reconstruct mobility patterns in past populations. This study analyzes human fibular variation in relation to mobility patterns, environmental conditions, subsistence economies, and shoe use to further explore the role of this bone in reconstructing mobility patterns in past populations.
The sample consists of 173 individuals from archaeological and modern skeletal collections spanning the Mid-Late Upper Paleolithic to the 20th century and includes hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists, herders, and post-industrialists. Virtual three-dimensional models of left fibulae were acquired by computer tomography and surface scanning. Fibular proximal and distal epiphyseal morphologies were investigated through 3D semilandmark-based geometric morphometric methods and compared among populations and mobility categories.
Our analysis reveals a trend separating groups based on their subsistence strategy and chronology. Some fibular traits (e.g., horizontal proximal tibiofibular and tilted distal talofibular articular surfaces, robust interosseous membrane, broad malleolar fossa, projecting m. biceps femoris insertion) indicate greater mobility of fibular joints and load sharing during ankle and knee excursion in foraging groups, which are presumably highly active, frequently traversing uneven terrain with absent/minimalist foot coverings. Stiffer fibular joints (e.g., obliquely oriented tibiofibular and vertical talofibular articular surfaces) are observed in sedentary populations, which may suggest a restricted ankle excursion and limited lower limb loading and use, consistent with their sedentary lifestyle in plain urban settlements with hard-shoe coverings. Other fibular traits (e.g., shorter subcutaneous triangular surface, projecting and anteriorly-facing malleolus, concave peroneal groove and proximal peroneal insertion) might indicate for mobile groups a more everted foot posture with increased moment arm in eversion, more efficient for barefoot/minimal footwear running in a forefoot-strike gait and concurring in the stabilization of the first metatarsophalangeal ray. These results further stress the functional role of fibular morphology and its importance in studies investigating past population mobility patterns.
... The El Sidrón tali have a relatively larger and less wedge-shaped trochlea, a more projected lateral malleolar facet, and longer posterior calcaneal facet . Many Neanderthals share anterior extensions of the medial malleolus and trochlea, and facets on the talar neck, with some modern human populations (Trinkaus, 1975a). These features are thought to possibly reflect habitual hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle, associated with squatting, or high levels of activity (Trinkaus, 1975a). ...
... Many Neanderthals share anterior extensions of the medial malleolus and trochlea, and facets on the talar neck, with some modern human populations (Trinkaus, 1975a). These features are thought to possibly reflect habitual hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle, associated with squatting, or high levels of activity (Trinkaus, 1975a). ...
The genus Homo, as currently known, includes several hominin taxa that span a time period from roughly 2.8 million years ago (Ma) to the present. Nearly all of these taxa possess feet that appear, at least superficially, anatomically similar to the feet of modern humans. They possess clear adaptations for terrestrial bipedalism, and the range of morphological diversity is relatively constrained compared with that observed among earlier hominins. However, there does exist variation in foot anatomy among Homo taxa, which leads to questions regarding whether and how patterns of foot function and locomotion may have varied across fossil Homo. Here, we explore these anatomical variations, introduce some of the preliminary hypotheses regarding how foot function among Homo taxa may have varied, and highlight key areas where our current knowledge is limited and where focused studies may prove fruitful.Keywords
Homo
NeanderthalsDmanisiIleretKoobi ForaGran DolinaSima de los HuesosDinalediFlores
... Habitual squatting also has long been recognized as responsible for particular bone-on-bone pressure facets at the anterior tibiotalar joint (Ari et al. 2003;Barnett 1954;Boulle 2001aBoulle , 2001bCharles 1894;Dlamini and Morris 2005;Morimoto 1959;Oygucu et al. 1998;Thomson 1889). These facets have been observed in a wide temporal and geographic distribution of osteoarchaeological samples (e.g., Blau 1996;Boulle 2001a;Morimoto 1959;Rao 1966;Trinkaus 1975). However, very few studies have examined squatting behavior in pre-Columbian samples from the contiguous United States (e.g., Akins 1986:25-26;Downs 2015;Nelson 2011;Wilk 2014;Wilk andSmith 2014, 2017). ...
... Few archaeological studies have assessed tibial facets. Apart from late Pleistocene fossils (Trinkaus 1975), there is evidence from the Jomon period (14,000-300 B.C.) in Japan (85.2%) (Baba 1970) and in a composite Late Stone Age South Africa sample (~1000-0 B.C., 98%) (Dewar and Pfeiffer 2004). The other archaeological data (Table 5) are historic, and most postdate A.D. 1000 (Ari et al. 2003;Baba 1970;Baykara et al. 2010;Boulle 2001a;Ullinger et al. 2004). ...
Pressure facets of the ankle (tibiotalar joint) and foot (metatarsophalangeal joints) are circumscribed cortical surface concavities caused by habitual hyperdorsiflexion (e.g., squatting, kneeling, heel sitting). Many extant cultures engage in habitual squatting as a work/rest posture. In general, very little is known of habitual work/rest postures in pre-Columbian archaeological contexts. For west-central Illinois, the limited archaeological framework underscores the informational potential of bio archae ol o gi cal data for lifestyle insights such as habitual postures. Facet presence was identified and assessed on the distal tibiae, the neck of the tali, and the dorsal surface of the distal metatarsals in the adult sample of the Late Woodland (~A.D. 600-900) Schroeder Mounds (11He177) mortuary sample from the Mississippi River Valley of west-central Illinois. Approximately 73% of the adult sample (41/56) has tibial or talar squatting facets. Thirteen individuals exhibit facets on the dorsal surface of distal metatarsals. The comparatively high frequency of facet prevalence in the sample argues for habitual squatting work/rest behavior. There is no statistically significant difference in facet prevalence between males and females, suggesting that both sexes engaged in work/rest activities that routinely employed squatting and/or kneeling. Die Druckfacetten des Knöchels (Tibiotalargelenk) und des Fußes (Metarsophalangeal gelenke) werden um-schrieben als kortikale Oberflächenkonkavitäten, verursacht durch gewohnheitsmäßige Dorsalflexion (z.B. Hocken, Knien, Fersensitzen). Viele existierende Kulturen hocken gewöhnlich als Arbeits-/Ruhe-Haltung). Im Allgemeinen ist nur sehr wenig über gewohnheitsmäßige Arbeits-/Ruhepositionen in präkolumbianischen archäologischen Kontexten bekannt. Für West-Zentral-Illinois unterstreicht der begrenzte archäologische Rahmen das Informationspotential bioarchäologischer Daten für Einblicke in den Lebensstil wie gewohn-heitsmäßige Körperhaltungen. Das Vorhandensein von Facetten wurde an den distalen Tibiae, dem Talihals, und der dorsalen Oberfläche der distalen Mittelfußknochens in der erwachsenen Probe der Skelettfunde des Late Woodland (~AD 600-900) Schroeder Mounds (11He177) aus dem Mississippi Flußtal im Westen von Illinois identifiziert und bewertet. Ungefähr 73% der Stichprobe der Erwachsenen (41/56) haben tibiale oder talare Hock-facetten. Dreizehn Personen weisen Facetten auf der dorsalen Oberfläche der distalen Mittelfußknochen auf. Die vergleichweise hohe Haüfigkeit der Facettenprävalenz in der Stichprobe spricht für ein gewohnheitsmäßiges Hock-arbeits-/Ruheverhalten. Es gibt keinen statistisch signifikanten Unterschied in der Facettenprävalenz zwischen Männern und Frauen. Das weist darauf hin, daß beide Geschlechter an Arbeits-/Ruhetätigkeiten beteiligt sind, bei denen routinemäßig gekauert und/oder gekniet wird. Schroeder Mounds; präkolumbianischen; Körperhaltungen; gekniet wird
... Regarding thè frequencies of some facets generally interpreted as squatting facets, thè sulcus tali facet (Trinkaus 1975) is more frequent in females (left: M=42%, 5/12; F=57%, 4/7; righi: M=33%, 3/9; F=75%, 6/8). The frequencies of thè tibial squatting facets are similar between sexes and sides (left: M=100%, 9/9; F=90%, 9/10; right: M=92%, 12/13; F=100%, 11/11), but are very high in comparison with historical and modern skeletal series (e. g. in a Sardinian sample of thè beginning of thè 20* e. a frequency of about 25% for M and 50% for F was found, Mariotti 1998). ...
... The frequencies of thè tibial squatting facets are similar between sexes and sides (left: M=100%, 9/9; F=90%, 9/10; right: M=92%, 12/13; F=100%, 11/11), but are very high in comparison with historical and modern skeletal series (e. g. in a Sardinian sample of thè beginning of thè 20* e. a frequency of about 25% for M and 50% for F was found, Mariotti 1998). These features could be related to thè squatting position, but also to walking on irregular ground (Trinkaus 1975). ...
... They may be recognized as medial and lateral expansions of the distal tibial articular surface onto the anterior aspect of the metaphysis, and on the medial and lateral sides of the neck of the talus (Fig. 4B and D). Such facets have been related to the squatting posture where flexion of the foot places the talar neck proximal to the distal tibia [96], and are documented in ancestral skeletons, including Neanderthals, whom Erik Trinkaus [102] described as 'habitual squatters' (pg. 346). ...
Childbirth is commonly viewed as difficult in human females, encompassed by the “Obstetrical Dilemma” (OD) described by early palaeoanthropologists as an evolved trade-off between a narrow pelvis necessitated by bipedalism and a large-brained fetal head. The OD has been challenged on several grounds. We add to these challenges by suggesting humans likely squatted regularly during routine tasks prior to the advent of farming societies and use of seats. We suggest that habitual squatting, together with taller stature and better nutrition of ancestral hunter-gatherers compared with later Neolithic and industrial counterparts, obviated an OD. Instead, difficulties with parturition may have arisen much later in our history, accompanying permanent settlements, poorer nutrition, greater infectious disease loads and negligible squatting in daily life. We discuss bioarchaeological and contemporary data that support these viewpoints, suggest ways in which this hypothesis might be tested further, and consider its implications for obstetrical practice.
Lay Summary
Human childbirth is viewed as universally difficult. Evidence from physical therapies/engineering, and studies of living and ancestral humans illustrates habitual squatting widens the pelvis and could improve childbirth outcomes. Obstetrical difficulties emerged late in prehistory accompanying settled agriculture, poorer nutrition and less squatting. Specific physical exercises could improve obstetrical practice.
... The squatting facets (medial facet and squatting lateral facet) and the trochlear extensions (medial and lateral extensions) of the talus have been considered by previous authors to be highly influenced by the squatting posture and dorsiflexion of the foot (Oygucu et al. 1998). In these studies, the distribution of squatting facets and trochlear extensions appear to show considerable differences (Garg et al. 2015;Trinkaus 1975;Oygucu et al. 1998;Pandey and Singh 1990). In our study, the medial facet, lateral squatting facet and lateral extension appear to be equally distributed between the sexes. ...
The Multi-ethnicity of the 18th-19th Century Santa Cruz: A Preliminary non-metric trait study on the church burials of La Concepción in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Canarias Arqueológica, 22: 287-299. http://doi. Abstract. The 18 th-19 th century population of Santa Cruz de Tenerife held a great variety of people from different ethnic backgrounds. The origin of various traits is unknown and the aim of this ongoing study is to find more evidence suggesting the influences of the talus and calcaneus facets and Os Trigonum trait in order for them to be used in forensic identification and osteoarchaeological studies. In total, 264 bones were analyzed in this study (126 tali and 138 calcanei) and chi-square tests were completed to determine sex independence of each trait. The results show that the traits are proportionate amongst males and females. Chi-square tests were not significant with the exception of the Os Trigonum trait that appeared to be highly significant. Therefore, the talus inferior facets and calcaneus inferior facets appear to be possibly affected by genetics but the Os Trigonum appears to be highly affected by activity stress.
... 166 cm. Gli indicatori di stress da carico di lavoro rivelano la presenza di entesopatie alquanto marcate sugli arti inferiori (Mariotti et alii 2007); in aggiunta segni di squatting (accovacciamento) sono rilevabili sui femori e sulle tibie (Trinkaus 1975;Boulle 2001). Inoltre, una depressione tondeggiante con margini irregolari è stata evidenziata sul parietale destro, probabilmente esito di un trauma non mortale. ...
Il Latium vetus, la regione compresa fra il Tevere e il Circeo, offre
condizioni particolarmente favorevoli per un’indagine sull’economia di sussistenza e sulla salute e l’alimentazione
nelle fasi iniziali dell’Età del Ferro. Rispetto alle regioni confinanti – in particolare la Campania e l’Etruria
– il Lazio antico si caratterizza per la sua estensione limitata, per l’omogeneità della cultura materiale e
per la condivisione su tutto il territorio della regione dei principi fondanti dell’organizzazione delle comunità,
riconoscibili attraverso l’analisi della documentazione archeologica: l’articolazione delle comunità in gruppi
di parentela e la centralizzazione della decisione politica. Partendo da questa situazione archeologica particolarmente
favorevole, si è cercato di verificare se l’omogeneità culturale della regione possa essere estesa anche
alle abitudini alimentari e allo stato di salute delle comunità del periodo. A questo proposito sono stati presi
in esame quattro campioni, caratterizzati da una documentazione antropologica e archeologica di buon livello.
Si tratta delle necropoli del comprensorio di Gabii – Osteria dell’Osa e Castiglione – e dell’area centrale di
Roma – i gruppi di tombe del tempio di Antonino e Faustina e del Foro di Cesare
... Similarities in the trochlea among these groups include increased dorsal convexity that would allow for a broader range of dorsal and plantar flexion (Latimer et al., 1987). Higher trochlear convexity in Neanderthals (SOM Fig. S6) may indicate more frequent habitual dorsiflexion, which is in line with the high frequency of a 'squatting facet' observed on the talar neck (Trinkaus, 1975). While the broad talocrural articular surface in their tali is thought to be an adaptation to high levels of activity and biomechanical stress (Rhoads and Trinkaus, 1977), others have suggested that trochlear hypertrophy (i.e., increased overall dimension and medial and anterior extension of trochlea) results from higher body mass (Rosas et al., 2017). ...
Neanderthal foot bone proportions and morphology are mostly indistinguishable from those of Homo sapiens, with the exception of several distinct Neanderthal features in the talus. The biomechanical implications of these distinct talar features remain contentious, fueling debate around the adaptive meaning of this distinctiveness. With the aim of clarifying this controversy, we test phylogenetic and behavioral factors as possible contributors, comparing tali of 10 Neanderthals and 81 H. sapiens (Upper Paleolithic and Holocene hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists, and postindustrial group) along with the Clark Howell talus (Omo, Ethiopia). Variation in external talar structures was assessed through geometric morphometric methods, while bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy were quantified in a subsample (n = 45). Finally, covariation between point clouds of site-specific trabecular variables and surface landmark coordinates was assessed. Our results show that although Neanderthal talar external and internal morphologies were distinct from those of H. sapiens groups, shape did not significantly covary with either bone volume fraction or degree of anisotropy, suggesting limited covariation between external and internal talar structures. Neanderthal external talar morphology reflects ancestral retentions, along with various adaptations to high levels of mobility correlated to their presumably unshod hunter-gatherer lifestyle. This pairs with their high site-specific trabecular bone volume fraction and anisotropy, suggesting intense and consistently oriented locomotor loading, respectively. Relative to H.sapiens, Neanderthals exhibit differences in the talocrural joint that are potentially attributable to cultural and locomotor behavior dissimilarity, a talonavicular joint that mixes ancestral and functional traits, and a derived subtalar joint that suggests a predisposition for a pronated foot during stance phase. Overall, Neanderthal talar variation is attributable to mobility strategy and phylogenesis, while H. sapiens talar variation results from the same factors plus footwear. Our results suggest that greater Neanderthal body mass and/or higher mechanical stress uniquely led to their habitually pronated foot posture.
... A modification of the talus as indicative of habitual squatting has been reported to occur in hominids since [11] the Pleistocene era . However, few previous studies have produced data detailed enough to allow accurate comparison of different population. ...
Squatting is a resting postural complex that involves hyper-flexion at the hip and knee joints, and hyper-dorsiflexion at the ankle and subtalar joints. There are anatomical variations in talar trochlear extensions across gender, populations and races and the evaluation of these structural variations is very significant to anatomists and physical anthropologists. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of talar modifications in a Nigerian population. This study involved a sample size of 119dry tali of late adult Nigerians in the NorthEastern region in the year 2000. The tali were gotten from adult skeletal collections in the gross laboratories and museums of the medical colleges located in the study region. Parameters measured were lateral, medial and continuous trochlear extensions as well as the various squatting facets respectively, using vernier caliper calibrated in centimeters. The outcome showed that lateral squatting facets occurred most frequently (46.2%) and medial facets (15.9%) but the combined facets (0.8%) were also observed. Lateral (29.4%), medial (17.6%). Combined (lateral and medial) (6.9%) and continuous lateral/central/medial extensions (10.0%) of the trochlear surface were all present in the late Nigerian population. The result obtained from the present study was also compared with those obtained from previous study in different populations around the world. Therefore, it is unlikely that precisely the same factor determine the expression of squatting facets and trochlear extensions.
... An anterior squatting facet on the right tibia may indicate that Individual 1 often had occasion for the hyperdorsiflexion of her ankles. Although hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle is not usually necessary in daily locomotion, it is necessary for squatting positions used habitually in some societies (see Boulle, 2001aBoulle, , 2001bDlamini and Morris, 2005;Trinkaus, 1975). In this case, an additional possible explanation for the presence of squatting facets may be the steep terrain of Saba, which encourages hyperdorsiflexion when walking or standing. ...
In this article the authors present the osteobiographical analysis of a unique burial from Saba, an island in the Caribbean Netherlands. Historical, archaeological, osteological, and isotopic analysis indicate that this is the burial of a first generation enslaved African woman and her unborn child, which occurred between 1762 and 1780. These individuals probably died during protracted preterm labour possibly caused by a variety of factors including infection, malnutrition, and an extremely narrow pelvic inlet. In the past, narratives of enslavement on Saba have often been overlooked because the island did not engage in a full plantation economy. However, these skeletons are able to provide detailed first-hand evidence for the hardships of Saban enslavement, and thereby contribute to wider conversations on slavery and colonialism in the Caribbean.
... Of the 10 skeletal remains of the Kaurna Peoples talus bones examined, no medial squatting facets were clearly observed (figure 3) although it must be stated that defining [34] , which is also recorded as the sitting position of ancient Egyptian tailors [35] . Although the Kaurna People have a word "Tirdinthi" to sit like a Kaurna, to squat [36] , indicating that the Kaurna People squatted when resting. ...
Acknowledgement: I would like to acknowledge several Aboriginal communities and their representatives named below for their support and contribution to this paper. The Kaurna, Awabakal, Worimi, Biripi, Darug, Paakantji, Ngiyampaa and the Mutthi Mutthi Aboriginal communities.
... Of the 10 skeletal remains of the Kaurna Peoples talus bones examined, no medial squatting facets were clearly observed (figure 3) although it must be stated that defining [34] , which is also recorded as the sitting position of ancient Egyptian tailors [35] . Although the Kaurna People have a word "Tirdinthi" to sit like a Kaurna, to squat [36] , indicating that the Kaurna People squatted when resting. ...
Acknowledgement: I would like to acknowledge several Aboriginal communities and their representatives named below for their support and contribution to this paper. The Kaurna, Awabakal, Worimi, Biripi, Darug, Paakantji, Ngiyampaa and the Mutthi Mutthi Aboriginal communities.
... The anterior face of the distal epiphysis above the talar articular surface is preserved and bears a shallow fossa, the preserved portion of which measures 10.4mm wide by 4.7mm high. The fossa likely originally measured approximately 15mm in width and corresponds to a squatting facet (Boulle 2001a(Boulle , 2001bTrinkaus 1975b). The medial malleolus is largely preserved; it measures 13.7mm wide just distal to its junction with the distal articular surface. ...
Excavations of Amud Cave in 1991-1994 yielded 14 hominin skeletal specimens (Amud 5-19) in addition to those recovered in the 1960s. Amud 9 is a partial right distal leg and foot that preserves portions of the distal tibia, talus, first metatarsal, first proximal phalanx, and a middle and distal phalanx of digit II-IV. The bones are fairly small and likely belonged to a female. The talus features a strongly projecting fibular articular facet in common with Neandertals and many tali from Sima de los Huesos. Discriminant analysis of the talus shows that its nearest match lies among tali from Sima de los Huesos, a result primarily attributable to its moderately enlarged posterior trochlear articular breadth. The first metatarsal falls among Neandertals in discriminant space. The pedal phalan-ges are short and broad, in common with other Neandertals. The length of the first metatarsal and talus predict a female's stature of 160-166cm and the width of the talar trochlea predicts a body mass of 59.9kg. The bones were found within anthropogenic deposits dated date to 55 ka, very close in time to the proposed main pulse of Neandertal interbreeding, as inferred from living people's DNA, and slightly before the first appearance of Upper Paleolithic industries.
... While behaviors are notoriously challenging to reconstruct for past populations, fossil evidence is consistent with our hypothesis that Paleolithic populations regularly engaged in more active resting postures, like those observed with the Hadza. For example, facets on the distal tibia associated with squatting and kneeling are present in early Homo erectus (48), Neandertals (49), and early anatomically modern humans (50,51). Thus, human physiology was likely not presented with long periods of muscular inactivity until relatively recently in our evolutionary history. ...
Significance
Inactivity is a growing public health risk in industrialized societies, leading some to suggest that our bodies did not evolve to be sedentary. Here, we show that, in a group of hunter-gatherers, time spent sedentary is similar to that found in industrialized populations. However, sedentary time in hunter-gatherers is often spent in postures like squatting that lead to higher levels of muscle activity than chair sitting. Thus, we suggest human physiology likely evolved in a context that included substantial inactivity, but increased muscle activity during sedentary time, suggesting an inactivity mismatch with the more common chair-sitting postures found in contemporary urban populations.
... Homo (Bramble & Lieberman, 2004). Other notable shape differences exist between the various groups ( Figure 3 and Figure S1) (Oygucu, Kurt, Ikiz, Erem, & Davies, 1998;Trinkaus, 1975). Similarly, talar corpora, as seen in lateral view, are relatively more dorsally convex in hunter-gatherers, allowing for a broader range of ankle excursion in the parasagittal plane (dorsal and plantar flexion) (Latimer, Ohman, & Lovejoy, 1987). ...
Objectives:
The primate talus is known to have a shape that varies according to differences in locomotion and substrate use. While the modern human talus is morphologically specialized for bipedal walking, relatively little is known on how its morphology varies in relation to cultural and environmental differences across time. Here we compare tali of modern human populations with different subsistence economies and lifestyles to explore how cultural practices and environmental factors influence external talar shape.
Materials and methods:
The sample consists of digital models of 142 tali from 11 archaeological and post-industrial modern human groups. Talar morphology was investigated through 3D (semi)landmark based geometric morphometric methods.
Results:
Our results show distinct differences between highly mobile hunter-gatherers and more sedentary groups belonging to a mixed post-agricultural/industrial background. Hunter-gatherers exhibit a more "flexible" talar shape, everted posture, and a more robust and medially oriented talar neck/head, which we interpret as reflecting long-distance walking strictly performed barefoot, or wearing minimalistic footwear, along uneven ground. The talus of the post-industrial population exhibits a "stable" profile, neutral posture, and a less robust and orthogonally oriented talar neck/head, which we interpret as a consequence of sedentary lifestyle and use of stiff footwear.
Discussion:
We suggest that talar morphological variation is related to the adoption of constraining footwear in post-industrial society, which reduces ankle range of motion. This contrasts with hunter-gatherers, where talar shape shows a more flexible profile, likely resulting from a lack of footwear while traversing uneven terrain. We conclude that modern human tali vary with differences in locomotor and cultural behavior.
... Coxalarda (%75), femurda (%30), tibiada (%57), fibulada (%55), patellada (%66) ve calcaneusta (%77) tespit edilen entesopatilerin hem postur (duruş) alışkanlığı ile hem de mesleki aktivitelerle ilişkili olduğu düşünülmektedir. Araştırmalar, çömelerek duruşun kas-iskelet sistemine bindirdiği kuvvetlerin etkisiyle kalça, alt ekstremiteler ve ayak kemiklerinde entesopatik değişimlere yol açtığını gösterir (Trinkaus, 1975;Kennedy, 1989). Coxada iliac crest, retroauricular yüzey, obturator foramen kısımlarında görülen entesopatinin özel bir hareketten ziyade vücut kütleviliğiyle ilişkili olarak kalçanın her yönde hareketinde gelişebildiği, bununla beraber ischial tuberosityde görülen entesopatinin çömelme duruşunun kaslarda oluşturduğu kuvvetle bağlantılı olduğu belirtilir (Campanacho & Santos, 2013;Listi, 2016). ...
... There is an inverse relationship between the length of the talar body and the talar neck, with Neandertals possessing long talar bodies and short talar necks (Pablos et al., 2012;Pomeroy et al., 2017;Rhoads & Trinkaus, 1977), but Rosas et al. (2017) found that Neandertal talar necks are short independent of talar body length. Squatting facets, which form on the talar neck as a result of habitual dorsiflexion, are common on the talar neck (Mersey et al., 2013;Trinkaus, 1975aTrinkaus, , 1975b. There is humanlike head torsion, which would stiffen the medial midfoot (Trinkaus, 1983a, after Elftman, 1960, and the head is mediolaterally broad compared with modern human tali (Pablos et al., 2012;Pomeroy et al., 2017;Rosas et al., 2017). ...
Bipedalism is a hallmark of being human and the human foot is modified to reflect this unique form of locomotion. Leonardo da Vinci is credited with calling the human foot “a masterpiece of engineering and a work of art.” However, a scientific approach to human origins has revealed that our feet are products of a long, evolutionary history in which a mobile, grasping organ has been converted into a propulsive structure adapted for the rigors of bipedal locomotion. Reconstructing the evolutionary history of foot anatomy benefits from a fossil record; yet, prior to 1960, the only hominin foot bones recovered were from Neandertals. Even into the 1990s, the human foot fossil record consisted mostly of fragmentary remains. However, in the last two decades, the human foot fossil record has quadrupled, and these new discoveries have fostered fresh new perspectives on how our feet evolved. In this review, we document anatomical differences between extant ape and human foot bones, and comprehensively examine the hominin foot fossil record. Additionally, we take a novel approach and conduct a cladistics analysis on foot fossils (n = 19 taxa; n = 80 characters), and find strong evidence for mosaic evolution of the foot, and a variety of anatomically and functionally distinct foot forms as bipedal locomotion evolved.
... The Ein Gev 1 quantitative data (Supplementary data, Tables S1 to S11) consist of standard osteometrics (Bräuer, 1988;Trinkaus et al., 2014), pedal discrete traits (Trinkaus, 1975), and diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry (O'Neill and Ruff, 2004). The cross-sectional parameters (Supplementary data, Tables S2, S5 and S13) were generated from reconstructed diaphyseal crosssections (Figs. 1, 3 and 4) at standard percentages of "biomechanical" lengths (Ruff and Hayes, 1983;Trinkaus et al., 1994). ...
The Upper Paleolithic (Early Epipaleolithic/Kebaran; ∼ 19,000 cal BP) human skeleton, from Layer 3 of Ein Gev I on the western flanks of the Golan Heights adjacent to the Sea of Galilee, retains sufficient limb remains to permit assessment of its body size and proportions, as well as diaphyseal reflections of skeletal hypertrophy. The individual was of modest stature but average mass for a later Upper Paleolithic individual, providing it with the body mass-to-stature body proportions characteristic of later Upper Paleolithic and more recent circum-Mediterranean humans. The humeri exhibit unexceptional diaphyseal asymmetry and robustness for an Upper Paleolithic human, and the femur exhibits similar relative diaphyseal hypertrophy. The humeral midshafts are relatively round, but the femoral and tibial midshafts are pronounced anteroposteriorly. As such, Ein Gev 1 provides additional paleobiological data on the appendicular remains of these Southwest Asian humans prior to the increasing sedentism of the terminal Pleistocene.
... Posteriormente, y a lo largo del siglo XX, las investigaciones comparativas a nivel poblacional prosiguieron, aunque con un tinte menos evolucionista. Como caso, podemos mencionar aquellas centradas en la retroversión de la tibia (Trinkaus 1975;Boulle 2001aBoulle , 2001b, y las facetas de acuclillamiento en tibias y astrágalos (Singh 1959;Finnegan 1978;Oygucu et al. 1998;Ari et al. 2003;Ullinger et al. 2004), a la vez que se comenzó a tener en cuenta otras etiologías para el origen de estos cambios óseos, como por ejemplo la predisposición genética (Singh 1959). Otro elemento que fue incorporado en la consideración de las facetas y extensiones, son los datos provenientes de fuentes etnográficas (e.g. ...
Serie Tesis de Posgrado – Antropología.
E-book disponible en:
http://ffyh.unc.edu.ar/editorial/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2013/05/EBOOK_SALEGA-1.pdf
... Recorded as a nonmetric trait in Bass (2004), it is unclear whether the presence of squatting facets is due to genetic variation of the joint surface or is acquired through squatting behavior during growth; if the latter, squatting facets could be an additional indicator of activity, though early 20 th -century authors report finding these facets on fetuses and infants in Asian populations (Trinkaus 1975). The presence of squatting facets of fetuses may be due to hyperdorsiflexion of the ankle in utero, particularly after 20 weeks gestation (Boulle 2001b: 347). ...
The growing human tibia is uniquely responsive to repeated activities, resulting in identifiable morphological patterns that can be applied to ancient populations. Much of the bioarchaeological research in this area focuses on the transition to agriculture, noting a decline in bone strength and robusticity with increasing levels of sedentism. However, not all human groups adopted agriculture simultaneously or uniformly, and there continues to be variation in subsistence strategy based on climate, resource availability, and cultural practice. In Sudan, groups have continued to practice nomadic pastoralism alongside agriculture, although sedentary agricultural societies tend to be the focus of most archaeological research in the region. This work examines the difference in tibial morphology between groups utilising different subsistence practices within the same geographic region and archaeological period to explore activity-based changes to the tibia, using both cross-sectional geometry and geometric morphometrics to quantify the difference between tibial cross-sectional shapes at midshaft. The results suggest that while clear differences exist in midshaft tibial shape between the Sudanese groups practicing differing subsistence strategies, there is no one shape that is indicative of nomadism or sedentism; rather, there are general trends indicating higher mobility among more members of the nomadic group and more local movement among the members of the sedentary groups. Further, there is more similarity between females of all groups than males, problematising the idea that all individuals respond to bone remodeling activity in the same way. The conclusions presented here recommend that more research needs to be conducted on tibial shape variation in Sudan and worldwide using geometric morphometrics, as it presents a more nuanced approach than cross-sectional geometry, and that bone remodeling in response to activity must continue to be explored in light of differences in age, sex, and musculature.
... Portas (2004en Farías 2005 da cuenta de osteoartritis vertebrales y de las extremidades en siete individuos de sesenta y cinco analizados, con una leve mayoría de las afecciones articulaciones en los cúbitos y metacarpos. El mismo estudio describe también dos casos de facetas de acuclillamiento (véase no obstante Trinkaus 1975). Por parte, Rodríguez et al. (2013), a través del análisis de una muestra de cuatro individuos en la desembocadura del río Negro, describen fracturas en miembros de ambas extremidades (concretamente, una fractura de Colles del radio derecho y una fractura en el extremo distal del peroné derecho), además de osteoartritis vertebrales y un nódulo de Schmorl en la primera vértebra lumbar. ...
Las disciplinas antropológicas en el Uruguay son de desarrollo académico reciente, por lo que varias subdisciplinas no han alcanzado aún masa crítica, incluyendo a la antropología biológica. Por ello, los trabajos efectuados sobre restos esqueletales son escasos. Estos trabajos han sin embargo tenido un considerable impacto en las inferencias realizadas sobre la organización social y la economía de las poblaciones prehispánicas de nuestro territorio, en particular en el este del país. Este trabajo pretende exponer los estudios y conclusiones alcanzadas sobre aspectos culturales de las poblaciones prehistóricas del Uruguay basadas en el análisis de restos óseos, cubriendo así las definiciones más específicamente antropológicas de la bioarqueología.
... Además, varios elementos sugieren que el individuo habría realizado actividades que implicaban el acuclillamiento y/o arrodillamiento en forma reiterada, prolongada e intensa, ejerciendo mayor presión sobre el miembro derecho (e.g. Kennedy 1989;Martin 1932;Trinkaus 1975). El fémur izquierdo presenta osteocondritis producto de la hiperflexión femoro-tibial (Capasso et al. 1999), considerada como un marcador postural asociado al arrodillamiento (Lai y Lovell 1992;Ubelaker 1979). ...
El sitio Chimpay se encuentra en el valle medio del río Negro, pocos kilómetros al oeste de la isla de Choele Choel, en el centro-sur de la República Argentina. Se trata de un contexto de fines del siglo XIX conformado por el entierro doble de un hombre y una mujer adultos, asociados con un abundante y diverso acompañamiento funerario de origen europeo e indígena que sugiere que habrían gozado de cierta jerarquía y que el hombre habría portado un cargo militar en el ejército argentino. A fin de esclarecer este complejo ritual funerario, el presente trabajo parte de un enfoque osteobiográfico y busca avanzar en la identificación biológico-poblacional de los individuos e inferir condiciones generales de vida.
Entheseal changes are skeletal markers, which are often used in the reconstruction of physical activities. This study investigated patterns of entheseal changes and other activity markers, such as squatting facets and degerative signs at joints in a mortuary population of the Houtaomuga site, Northeast China. Comparisons were conducted between the early period (Neolithic to Early Bronze Age, 8000–2500 BP) and the late period (Late Bronze Age, 2300 BP). Differences between two sexes of the late period were also compared. The results demonstrated that the frequency and severity of entheseal changes and other activity markers differed between early and late populations and between males and females of the late population suggesting subsistence strategies changes and new patterns of sex‐based divisions of labor. This is the first attempt to assess activity changes in fisher–hunter–gatherer populations over a long period of time from ancient China. Results reveal that though the Houtaomuga population maintained the primary subsistence modes of fishing, hunting, and gathering, their entheses elucidate gradual shifts along with reduced activity stress due to sedentary life and intensified sex‐based divisions of labor and the advent of craft specializations, which was likely influenced by climate changes.
The human fibular shape has been scarcely analyzed in anthropology. However, studies on athletes and human archaeological samples suggest the importance of including fibular structural properties to reconstruct mobility patterns in past populations. This study analyzes human fibular variation in relation to mobility patterns, environmental conditions, subsistence economies, and shoe use to further explore the role of this bone in reconstructing mobility patterns in past populations.
The sample consists of 173 individuals from Italian archaeological and modern skeletal collections spanning the Mid-Late Upper Paleolithic to the twentieth century and includes hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists, herders, and post-industrialists. Virtual three-dimensional models of left fibulae were acquired by computer tomography and surface scanning. Fibular proximal and distal epiphyseal morphologies were investigated through 3D semilandmark-based geometric morphometric methods and compared among populations and mobility categories.
Our analysis reveals a trend separating groups based on their subsistence strategy and chronology. Some fibular traits (e.g., horizontal proximal tibiofibular joint and tilted distal talofibular articular surface, robust interosseous membrane, broad malleolar fossa, projecting m. biceps femoris insertion) indicate greater mobility of fibular joints and load sharing during ankle and knee excursion in foraging groups, which are presumably highly active, frequently traversing uneven terrain with absent/minimalist foot coverings. Stiffer fibular joints (e.g., obliquely oriented tibiofibular and vertical talofibular articular surfaces) are observed in sedentary populations, which may suggest a restricted ankle excursion and limited lower limb loading and use, consistent with their sedentary lifestyle in plain urban settlements with hard-shoe coverings. Other fibular traits (e.g., shorter subcutaneous triangular surface, projecting and anteriorly-facing malleolus, concave peroneal groove and proximal peroneal insertion) might indicate for mobile groups a more everted foot posture with increased moment arm in eversion, more efficient for barefoot/minimal footwear running in a forefoot-strike gait and concurring in the stabilization of the first metatarsophalangeal ray. These results further stress the functional role of fibular morphology and its importance in studies investigating past population mobility patterns.
Bir Özgürlük Biçimi Olarak Estetik AlımlamaYıldırım Onur ERDİRENSinema Filmlerinde Postmodern Anlatı: “Ucuz Roman” (Pulp Fiction)Ali ÖZTÜRKGörüntü Dilinin Noktalama İşaretleriErkan ÇİÇEKOyun Kuramı ile İlişkili Tezlerin İçerik Analizi ile İncelenmesiNebiye KONUKFrancis Poulenc’in Üflemeli Çalgılar İçin Yazmış Olduğu Eserlerin İncelenmesiZerrin TANÇocuk ve Çevre EğitimiEsra DEMİR ÖZTÜRKBurcu COŞANAYErken Çocukluk Döneminde Özel Gereksinimli Çocuklara Yönelik Yapılan Araştırmaların İncelenmesiZeynep APAYDIN DEMİRCİPersonel Güçlendirmenin Örgütsel Özdeşleşmeye Etkisi Üzerine Bir Alan AraştırmasıGökhan ULUDAĞMesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi Muhasebe ve Finansman Alanı Öğrencilerinin İşletmelerde Beceri Eğitimi Uygulaması: Van İli ÖrneğiRahmi AKINReha SAYDANAkış Deneyimi Üzerine Kavramsal Bir ÇalışmaSerpil KÖSETahsin AKÇAKANATEylem BAYRAKÇIBakırçay Yöresi Kültürel CoğrafyasıSuna DOĞANERTurizm Bölgesi İmajı ve Turistik Talebi Etkileyen İmaj BoyutlarıHakan AKYURTODTÜ Toplum ve Bilim Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Bilim ve Teknoloji Koleksiyonu: Arkeolojik Sergilerden Detaylarİlker KOÇ Kalıcı Afet Konutlarında Konut Memnuniyeti Üzerine: Van-Kalecik Kalıcı Afet Konutları DeneyimiEbru KAMACI KARAHANSerkan KEMEÇHavayolu Müşterilerinin Memnuniyet – Beklenti Düzeylerinin ve Tercihlerini Etkileyen Faktörlerin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Saha AraştırmasıMustafa Kemal YILMAZAnalitik Hiyerarşi Prosesi ile Moda Tasarımı Programı Öğrencilerinin Program Seçimlerinin İrdelenmesiEvrim KABUKCUModa Girişimciliğinin Analitik Olarak DeğerlendirilmesiEvrim KABUKCUNadir Toprak Elementleri Üzerine Jeopolitik ve Jeoekonomik Bir DeğerlendirmeBülent GÜNERAksu Nehri Su Kalitesinin Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Kullanılarak DeğerlendirilmesiKerem HEPDENİZİ. İskender SOYASLANPisidia Antiokheia Antik Kenti Aedılıcus ve Kuzey Kiliseleri İskeletlerinde EntesopatilerN. Damla YILMAZ USTA
During their activities of daily living, humans run, walk, stand, sit, and lie down. Recent changes in our environment have favored sedentary behavior over more physically active behavior to such a degree that our health is in danger. Here, we sought to address the problem of excessive time spent seated from various theoretical viewpoints, including postural control, human factors engineering, human history and health psychology. If nothing is done now, the high prevalence of sitting will continue to increase. We make a case for the standing position by demonstrating that spending more time upright can mitigate the physiological and psychological problems associated with excessive sitting without lowering task performance and productivity. The psychological literature even highlights potential benefits of performing certain tasks in the standing position. We propose a number of recommendations on spending more time (but not too much) in the standing position and on more active, nonambulatory behaviors. There is a need to inform people about (i) harmful consequences of excessive sitting and (ii) benefits of spending more time performing active, nonambulatory behaviors. One clear benefit is to reduce detrimental health consequences of excessive sitting and to provide potential additional benefits in terms of productivity and performance.
As part of a reassessment of the Mid Upper Paleolithic human remains from Cro-Magnon (Dordogne, France), a morphological description and paleobiological consideration of the Cro-Magnon lower limb long bone (femoral, tibial and fibular) remains is presented. Following the reassociation of the lower limb remains (Thibeault and Villotte, 2018, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 21, 76–86), the preserved bones are presented in terms of the Alpha (Cro-Magnon 1), Beta and Gamma older adult individuals.
Morphologically the Cro-Magnon femora, tibiae and fibulae fall comfortably within the ranges of variation of other earlier (Early and Mid) Upper Paleolithic human remains in most aspects. Their diaphyseal discrete morphologies follow the early modern human pattern of clear femoral pilasters and large gluteal buttresses, discrete tibial pilasters, and prominent tibial and fibular longitudinal sulci. Their femoral diaphyses exhibit levels of hypertrophy similar to those of other Late Pleistocene remains, although the Alpha and Beta ones are among the most robust, and Gamma is more gracile. The primary contrasts are in their body proportions, in that Alpha and Beta appear to have had linear proportions overall, yet Alpha and Gamma exhibit the low crural proportions usually associated with stocky bodies. As such, the Cro-Magnon lower limb remains both reinforce the E/MUP patterns but also extend the ranges of variation for the sample. These morphological aspects are joined by minor, age-related lesions in Beta and Gamma, but they are associated with a prominent femoral lesion and multiple other abnormalities (principally enthesopathies) in Alpha. The latter are likely part of a systemic disorder in Alpha (Cro-Magnon 1) of uncertain etiology.
The seventeen human pedal remains from Cro-Magnon (2 tali, 7 subtalar tarsals, 7 metatarsals, and a proximal phalanx) can be grouped into three individual sets of bones, based on articular congruence, symmetry, size, and pathology. They correspond to the previously identified (Thibeault and Villotte, J. Arch. Sci. Rep. 21, 76–86, 2018) Alpha (Cro-Magnon 1), Beta and Gamma postcranial individuals. The Alpha and Gamma pedal remains are of average size for the Mid Upper Paleolithic, whereas the Beta talus is relatively small. The Gamma pedal length proportions are similar to other Late Pleistocene and recent humans, including foot length to femur length. The tarsal articulations are unexceptional for Late Pleistocene and recent humans, notable only for the evidence for habitual talocrural dorsiflexion, as is indicated by distal trochlear extensions, a squatting facet and large sulcus tali facets. The Alpha first metatarsophalangeal articulations indicate normal hallucal orientation. The Alpha metatarsals 4 and 5 and hallucal phalanx distal pathological alterations provide further evidence of the Cro-Magnon 1 systemic abnormalities.
The Archaeology of Human Bones provides an up to date account of the analysis of human skeletal remains from archaeological sites, introducing students to the anatomy of bones and teeth and the nature of the burial record. Drawing from studies around the world, this book illustrates how the scientific study of human remains can shed light upon important archaeological and historical questions. This new edition reflects the latest developments in scientific techniques and their application to burial archaeology. Current scientific methods are explained, alongside a critical consideration of their strengths and weaknesses. The book has also been thoroughly revised to reflect changes in the ways in which scientific studies of human remains have influenced our understanding of the past, and has been updated to reflect developments in ethical debates that surround the treatment of human remains. There is now a separate chapter devoted to archaeological fieldwork on burial grounds, and the chapters on DNA and ethics have been completely rewritten. This edition of The Archaeology of Human Bones provides not only a more up to date but also a more comprehensive overview of this crucial area of archaeology. Written in a clear style with technical jargon kept to a minimum, it continues to be a key work for archaeology students.
As stipulated in the MOA, an archeological data recovery plan for the Amaknak Bridge site in Unalaska, Alaska was developed by the Museum, pursuant to Section 110(b) of the National Historic Preservation Act, and was developed in consultation with and accepted by FHWA, SHPO, OC, Tribe, Commission, and ADOT&PF. This report summarizes the findings of the data recovery project undertaken in the summer of 2003 by the Museum. The report addresses four research questions that were pursued through the excavation and analysis of the Amaknak Bridge Site to advance the current state of knowledge of Eastern Aleutian prehistory: (1) culture history, (2) subsistence ecology, (3) household archaeology, and (4) adaptation to environmental change.
The monastic site of St. Stephen’s in Byzantine Jerusalem (fifth to seventh centuries AD) provides an excellent example of the strength of a biocultural approach, synthesizing evidence from skeletal, archaeological, and written records in a holistic reconstruction of daily life. The bones of the monks themselves provide biomechanical evidence of excessive kneeling resulting in severe degeneration of the knees and feet, including extensive arthritis, pronounced musculoskeletal markers, and the formation of nonmetric traits associated with repetitive motion. Historical and liturgical texts from the region and period indicate that hundreds of genuflections per day may explain these pathological responses. Such behavior would have led to chronic pain, from which the monks could not have escaped whether standing, sitting, or lying down. And yet, long after the onset of such pain, the degree of degeneration confirms they continued the very practices that led to worsening conditions. This allowed us to use the biological record to explore social phenomenon such as deference to authority, the genesis of prayer posture, and the symbolic meaning of suffering. Pious adherence to a regimented daily monastic schedule defined by prayer led to degeneration of the joints of the lower body that resulted in severe, chronic pain. Individuals were well aware that their knees and feet hurt during genuflection, increasingly so with time; however, they continued the activity well beyond marked indications of pathology.
The vertebral column is the fundamental body part that determines locomotion and function in vertebrates. Understanding spinal posture, kinetics and kinematics is of great importance to the study of the paleobiology of extinct species. When discussing the biomechanics of the spine of extinct hominins, arguments are based solely on osseous material, as soft tissues are basically absent from the fossil record and because there is no living representative of these species to track and measure movement and function. In this article, we tried to determine the interactions between spinal posture and biomechanics within modern humans and translate the results to extinct hominins. Our main findings indicate that each group/lineage of hominins had special biomechanical characteristics. Early Homo sapiens and Homo erectus with moderate to high spinal curvatures, similar to the posture of modern humans, probably had similar spinal biomechanical characteristics as modern humans. Neanderthal lineage hominins (NLH) with small spinal curvatures might have had somewhat different biomechanics characterized by more stable spine, with reduced shock attenuation abilities compared to modern humans. NLH probably also preferred to squat rather than stoop and had better overhead throwing kinematics compared to modern humans. Australopithecus probably had lumbar biomechanical characteristics within the range of modern humans together with stable cervical spine and a small cervical range of motion (ROM).
This represents one of several sections of "A Bibliography Related to Crime Scene Interpretation with Emphases in Geotaphonomic and Forensic Archaeological Field Techniques, Nineteenth Edition" (The complete bibliography is also included at ResearchGate.net.). This is the most recent edition of a bibliography containing resources for multiple areas of crime scene, and particularly outdoor crime scene, investigations. It replaces the prior edition and contains approximately 10,000 additional citations. As an ongoing project, additional references, as encountered, will be added to future editions.
We are defined, in part, by life experiences. Some of these experiences become part of our physical being. Obviously, injuries which fracture bones or surgeries to install medical applicances, are used to uniquely identify questioned remains. To narrow the population of possible identities, forensic anthropologists also examine remains for evidence of disease or illness. Conditions such as osteoarthritis or tuberculosis typically leave skeletal lesions which identify the afflictions long after death. More subtle may be patterns of wear or stress on skeletal elements supporting possible dominant handedness, or repeated motions and loads required by different physically demanding trades.
Articles on paleopathology are abundant in this section. In disciplines which rely predominantly on surviving skeletal elements, archaeologists and physical anthropologists have originated or advanced the analyses of diseases, illnesses, and physical abnormalities reflected in human remains. They have also advanced considerations of diet and nutrition from the chemical composition of bones as well as their physical size and condition. For this reason, the researcher interested in this section should also check out that on Stable Isotope Analyses. Just as the isotopic record is stored in our skeleton, hinting at the locations we’ve lived throughout our lives, so does the chemical composition of our remains suggest dietary deficiencies or access to more or better resources. Such considerations should draw on interest into the decedent’s cultural background or influences. For this the reader is directed to applicable citations within the Criminal and Cultural Behavior section of this bibliography.
Záchranný archeologický výzkum v jihozápadní části obce Holubice (okr. Praha-západ) na ppč. 64/70 odkryl hrob kultury se zvoncovitými poháry. Některé konstrukční detaily zde prezentovaného hrobu z Holubic potvrzují naše dosavadní představy o vnitřní
konstrukci komorových hrobů v závěru eneolitu a přináší zcela nové zjištění
dvouvaznicových sloupových jamek. Jde zřejmě o konstrukční detail dokládající sedlovou střechu. Také drobné kůlové jamky u severní a jižní stěny dokládají zřejmě upevnění srubové konstrukce stěn. Hrob z Holubic je v tomto ohledu výjimečným a zcela zásadním objevem.
Trabecular bone structure has been used to investigate the relationship between skeletal form and locomotor behavior on the premise that trabecular bone remodels in response to loading during an animal's lifetime. The aim of this study is to characterize human distal femoral trabecular bone structure in comparison to three non‐human primate taxa and relate the patterns of trabecular structural variation in the distal femur to knee posture during habitual locomotor behavior. A whole‐epiphysis approach was applied using microCT scans of the distal femora of extant Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus, and Papio spp. (N = 48). Bone volume fraction (BV/TV) was quantified in the epiphysis and analyzed with both whole‐condyle and a novel sector analysis. The results indicate high trabecular bone structural variation within and between species. The sector analysis reveals the most distinctive patterns in the stereotypically loaded human knee, with a pattern of high BV/TV distally. In general, Pan, Pongo, and Papio show evidence of flexed knee postures, typical of their locomotor behaviors, with regions of high BV/TV posteriorly within the condyles. The pairwise comparisons confirm the unique pattern in Homo and reveal a shared high BV/TV region in the patellar groove of both Homo and Papio. The distinct pattern found in Homo relative to the other primate taxa suggests a plastic response to unique loading patterns during bipedal locomotion. Results may facilitate resolving the antiquity of habitual bipedality in the hominin fossil record. This analysis also presents new approaches for statistical analysis of whole‐epiphysis trabecular bone structure. Anat Rec, 2018. © 2018 American Association for Anatomy.
The dispersal of the genus Homo out of Africa approximately 1.8 million years ago (Ma) has been understood within the context of changes in diet, behavior, and bipedal locomotor efficiency. While various morphological characteristics of the knee and ankle joints are considered part of a suite of traits indicative of, and functionally related to, habitual bipedal walking, the timing and phylogenetic details of these morphological changes remain unclear. To evaluate the timing of knee and ankle joint evolution, we apply geometric morphometric methods to three-dimensional digital models of the proximal and distal tibiae of fossil hominins, Holocene Homo sapiens, and extant great apes. Two sets of landmarks and curve semilandmarks were defined on each specimen. Because some fossils were incomplete, digital reconstructions were carried out independently to estimate missing landmarks and semilandmarks. Group shape variation was evaluated through shape–and form-space principal component analysis and fossil specimens were projected to assess variation in the morphological space computed from the extant comparative sample. We show that a derived proximal tibia (knee) similar to that seen in living H. sapiens evolved with early Homo at ∼2 Ma. In contrast, derived characteristics in the distal tibia appear later, probably with the arrival of Homo erectus. These results suggest a dissociation of the morphologies of the proximal and distal tibia, perhaps indicative of divergent functional demands and, consequently, selective pressures at these joints. It appears that longer distance dispersals that delivered the Dmanisi hominins to Georgia by 1.8 Ma and H. erectus to east–southeast Asia by 1.6 Ma were facilitated by the evolution of a morphologically derived knee complex comparable to that of recent humans and an ankle that was morphologically primitive. This research sets the foundation for additional paleontological, developmental, and functional research to better understand the mechanisms underlying the evolution of bipedalism.
Major osteosynthetic procedures have been practised for a sufficiently long time to allow us to look critically at the results. The analysis at present is usually limited to the examination of the characteristics and the behaviour of the living bone under normal and pathological conditions. This lately has been extended to the analysis of the implant from the biomechanical and metallurgical point of view. In the course of the last twenty years the compatibility of various plastic and metallic materials has been investigated although a criterion for compatibility has yet to be determined. When dealing with load bearing bones this usually has been supplemented by a static stress analysis with assumed values of loads due to gravitational and muscular forces. However, despite all this, clinical experience seems to indicate that success with massive osteosynthetic implants is only moderate, and very often the failures are attributed to mechanical problems. The rather disappointing results with the use of plastics in the Judet type of hip joint reconstruction brought into the picture the consideration of the unexpectedly large forces which that joint transmits. The failures here were of two kinds — either the prosthesis failed mechanically or if the strength of the implant proved satisfactory in many instances a large degree of atrophy of bone led towards a very unsatisfactory situation because of pain and lack of stability.
The effects on articular cartilage of continuous and intermittent excessive pressures have been studied in the knees of rabbits. Severe degenerative changes in the cartilage were observed; these resembled the typical lesions seen in osteoarthritis in man. They included fibrillation of cartilage, death of chondrocytes, eburnation of joint surfaces, sclerosis of bone and the production of "bone cysts." Regeneration of cartilage was common and it was brought about either by the deeply situated chondrocytes which had escaped death or by metaplasia of young connective tissue cells of the bone marrow.
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A study of the squatting facets of the talus and tibia of 300 male and female ancient Egyptian skeletons in the collection at the Institute of Anthropology at the University of Turin is described. A classification of the different forms of squatting facets of the tibia and talus is reported. The examination of the extensions of the medial articular surface and the trochlear surface of the talus is reported too. The results of the survey are described and the incidence of the facets and the extensions of the medial articular surface and of the trochlear surface in this series of ancient Egyptian skeletons is reported. Finally, the natural history and aetiology of squatting facets is discussed; the two main theories to account for their presence are outlined—that they are either acquired features modified by the squatting posture, or that they are inherited as genetic traits. Further detailed studies and research are required to test both the hypotheses; in particular to clarify the possible role hereditary factors may play, further research on living populations and more extensive foetal studies are suggested.
One type of discontinuous variation, genetic polymorphism, has been studied frequently, in animal populations. This paper deals with another type, here called epigenetic polymorphism, which is developmental in origin and due to the action of a threshold on underlying continuous variation. Both genetic and environmental factors are important in causation. This type of polymorphism is known to be common in wild mouse populations with respect to many skeletal characters. The present survey is concerned with the situation in the rodents as a whole, samples of the following species being classified for forty-nine variants: Sciurus carolinensis, Cavia porcellus, Peromyscus maniculatus, Lemmus lemmus, Microtus agrestis, Micromys minutus, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus and Rattus exulans. All show extensive polymorphism, some variants being ubiquitous while others are confined to one or a few species. A rare variant in one species is sometimes present in all representatives of another species. There is some association between the frequency of a few variants and overall size, but none was found with respect to domestication. The genetic and evolutionary aspects of this kind of polymorphism are discussed, as well as its possible use in systematic studies. Various types of epigenetic polymorphism (transient etc.) seem to occur, some probably being important in micro-evolution. Changes in the frequencies of variants may often be due entirely to chance, but selective forces may also operate and are probably best envisaged on the lines of Waddington's (1953 a, 1961) concept of genetic assimilation. However, their relative importance cannot be assessed in the present investigation.
Descriptions of Southwest Asian Neandertal os coxae have stressed the supero-inferior flattening and acetabulo-symphyseal elongation of the superior pubic rami. Further analysis of Neandertal pubes, including two European specimens. La Ferrassie I and Krapina 208, indicates that Neandertal pubes are distinguished primarily by a relative elongation of the superior rami. The supero-inferior flattening of the pubic rami with the formation of a distinct ventral border, present among the Southwest Asian Neandertals, is less pronounced among the European Neandertals. Neither sexual dimorphism nor biomechanical hypertrophy appears adequate to explain this morphological pattern of Neandertal pubic bones.
The Neanderthal populations of the Upper Pleistocene have been regarded by a number of anthropologists as direct ancestors to modern man. Results of multivariate analyses conducted in this study suggest that early Neanderthal crania were morphologically more like modern Homo sapiens than were the later Neanderthals. The implications of these results are discussed in the light of archaeological evidence and comparative studies of Pleistocene crania from outside Europe.
Thesis--Columbia University. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 68-73). Photocopy of typescript. Ann Arbor :
An engineering study of the forces acting at the human knee joint during walking up ramps and stairs, and during level walking using high heeled shoes, has been made. The work has application in studies of the forces acting in the artificial and natural joints of amputees.