No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Personality traits associated with decision-making deficits
Abstract
This aim of the study was to identify personality correlates of poor decision-making—the latter defined by performance on two versions of the Iowa Gambling Task. We used a large sample of healthy adults (n = 245) and multiple performance measures in our investigation. Higher scores on measures of impulsivity, sensitivity to reward and to punishment, and addictive personality were all significantly associated with some measures of performance deficits on the A′B′C′D′ task. These results suggest that different and independent psychological processes may lead to the same qualitative decision-making deficits across individuals. Contrary to expectation, however, none of the personality traits were related to the E′F′G′H′ performance measures; nor did the two tasks have an interactive relationship with the personality factors. One reason for these null findings might relate to our lack of counterbalancing the order of task presentation.
... However, due to the bottom-up processing and impulsivity characteristics of individuals in recovery from a substance use disorder, consequences are not viewed as the primary factor in rehabilitation (Davis, Patte, Tweed & Curtis, 2007;Evans, Li & Hser, 2009;Staiger et al., 2014). ...
... One contributing factor for relapse is the personality trait of impulsivity (Gullo, Loxton & Dawe, 2014). Individuals with an alcohol or substance use disorder tend to choose actions that bring immediate reward, even when this leads to adverse outcomes at some later time (Davis, Patte, Tweed & Curtis, 2007). Various impulsivity-related models have been developed and applied to understand how this personality factor increases vulnerability to addiction, however, the exact number of facets of impulsivity required to provide the most explanatory power is to be determined (Gullo et al., 2014). ...
... Various impulsivity-related models have been developed and applied to understand how this personality factor increases vulnerability to addiction, however, the exact number of facets of impulsivity required to provide the most explanatory power is to be determined (Gullo et al., 2014). Davis et al. (2007) studied the poor decision-making (impulsivity) in individuals by examining the performance on two versions of the Iowa Gambling Task. Participants were additionally assessed for levels of impulsivity, sensitivity to reward and punishment and addictive personality using previously validated measures. ...
While psychiatric medications have been categorized as the same as substances of abuse in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), medications for common medical disorders were not affected by this disapproval of medication. It may be time for a new dialogue (Woody, 2015). According to Gjersing and Bretteville (2018), there has been a concerning increase in overdose deaths in the last decade. This includes a threefold increase in overdose deaths from prescription narcotics and six-fold increase in overdose deaths from heroin in the United States. When prescription opioid users find difficulty in obtaining pills, they may move on to heroin, which is much more readily available on the streets, in an effort to avoid painful opioid withdrawal. For this study, individuals who had previously achieved long-term abstinence from alcohol or substance use but relapsed after a significant amount of time sober were interviewed in order to better understand their experience with relapse as well as their experience returning to at least partial remission. Thematic analysis was conducted on interview data. The results from this phenomenological analysis of interviews with eight participants identified several themes regarding the experience of being a long-timer, relapsing after a substantial amount of time abstinent, and challenges to as well as factors in returning to AA. These themes are organized as long-term recovery, relapse, and a new beginning. Long-term recovery is further explored as acute treatment only, treatment did not utilize evidence-based interventions, treatment did not address emotional issues, contact with mental health, long-timer, and complacency and drifting. Relapse is further explored as medical issues, new trauma, and justification of the use of medication or marijuana. A new beginning is further explored as recovery challenges such as feelings of ostracism, age-related issues, and shame as well as recovery factors such as finding acceptance and love within the fellowship, cognitive reframing, and re-engaging the program with enthusiasm. This Dissertation is available on Open Access at AURA: Antioch University Repository and Archive, http://aura.antioch.edu and OhioLink ETD Center, http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd.
... Não obstante, a impulsividade tem sido associada às decisões desvantajosas no IGT, porque dificulta a aprendizagem, torna os indivíduos mais sensíveis à recompensa e é um sintoma de outras perturbações associadas ao mau desempenho na tarefa (Cackowski et al., 2014;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Kertzman, Kagan, Vainder, Lapidus, & Weizman, 2013;Takano, Takahashi, Tanaka, & Hironaka, 2010;Upton, Bishara, Ahn, & Stout, 2011;Stevens et al., 2015). A investigação sobre a importância dessa variável no desempenho no IGT, no entanto, tem mostrado resultados inconsistentes (Davis et al., 2007;Le Bas, Hughes, & Stout, 2015;Upton et al., 2011), particularmente em amostras não clínicas Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Penolazzi, Leone, & Russo, 2013), podendo inclusive estar relacionada com os ciclos menstruais / balanços hormonais (Derntl, Pintzinger, Kryspin-Exner, &, Schöpf, 2014, Evans & Hampson, 2014Iannello, Biassoni, Nelli, Zugno, & Colombo, 2015) ou até perceções subjetivas de fome (de Ridder, Kroese, Adriaanse, &Evers, 2014). ...
... Não obstante, a impulsividade tem sido associada às decisões desvantajosas no IGT, porque dificulta a aprendizagem, torna os indivíduos mais sensíveis à recompensa e é um sintoma de outras perturbações associadas ao mau desempenho na tarefa (Cackowski et al., 2014;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Kertzman, Kagan, Vainder, Lapidus, & Weizman, 2013;Takano, Takahashi, Tanaka, & Hironaka, 2010;Upton, Bishara, Ahn, & Stout, 2011;Stevens et al., 2015). A investigação sobre a importância dessa variável no desempenho no IGT, no entanto, tem mostrado resultados inconsistentes (Davis et al., 2007;Le Bas, Hughes, & Stout, 2015;Upton et al., 2011), particularmente em amostras não clínicas Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Penolazzi, Leone, & Russo, 2013), podendo inclusive estar relacionada com os ciclos menstruais / balanços hormonais (Derntl, Pintzinger, Kryspin-Exner, &, Schöpf, 2014, Evans & Hampson, 2014Iannello, Biassoni, Nelli, Zugno, & Colombo, 2015) ou até perceções subjetivas de fome (de Ridder, Kroese, Adriaanse, &Evers, 2014). ...
... Provavelmente, por essa razão, os estudos com dependentes de substâncias evidenciam uma grande variabilidade nos resultados (e.g., Bechara & Damasio, 2002;Bechara et al., 2001;Bechara & Martin, 2004). Nesse caso, as dificuldades podem ser relativas às adaptações neuroquímicas e neurocerebrais associadas ao abuso de drogas, particularmente à ativação diferenciada da região préfrontal dorsolateral direita e do striatum ventral; a primeira associando-se a maiores comportamentos de risco e a segunda a um maior evitamento desses comportamentos (Yamamoto, Woo, Wager, Regner, & Tanabe, 2015), ou mesmo a ativações específicas associadas ao transporte da serotonina (5-HT) em alcoólicos (Lovallo et al., 2014); aos fatores de risco causais, anteriores ao consumo das substâncias (Davis et al., 2007), ou, ainda, à forte comorbilidade associada a esses comportamentos. ...
RESUMO O Iowa GamblingTask (IGT), apesar de amplamente utilizado na avaliação da tomada de decisão, apresenta uma grande variabilidade nos resultados. Pretende-se com este trabalho proceder a uma revisão integrativa da literatura que relacione a personalidade com o desempenho no IGT, de modo a identificar o papel dessa variável nesse desempenho. Para o efeito, foram selecionados e analisados 74 estudos referenciados na Web of Science e na b-on. Os resultados evidenciam alguma inconsistência e algumas relações não lineares entre variáveis, embora o mau desempenho no IGT surja associado mais frequentemente à dimensão neuroticismo, ansiedade, impulsividade, variáveis socioeconômicas e ao fator antissociabilidade na psicopatia e dependência de substâncias. À luz desses resultados, sugerem-se algumas orientações para a pesquisa na área.
... Não obstante, a impulsividade tem sido associada às decisões desvantajosas no IGT, porque dificulta a aprendizagem, torna os indivíduos mais sensíveis à recompensa e é um sintoma de outras perturbações associadas ao mau desempenho na tarefa (Cackowski et al., 2014;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Kertzman, Kagan, Vainder, Lapidus, & Weizman, 2013;Takano, Takahashi, Tanaka, & Hironaka, 2010;Upton, Bishara, Ahn, & Stout, 2011;Stevens et al., 2015). A investigação sobre a importância dessa variável no desempenho no IGT, no entanto, tem mostrado resultados inconsistentes (Davis et al., 2007;Le Bas, Hughes, & Stout, 2015;Upton et al., 2011), particularmente em amostras não clínicas Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Penolazzi, Leone, & Russo, 2013), podendo inclusive estar relacionada com os ciclos menstruais / balanços hormonais (Derntl, Pintzinger, Kryspin-Exner, &, Schöpf, 2014, Evans & Hampson, 2014Iannello, Biassoni, Nelli, Zugno, & Colombo, 2015) ou até perceções subjetivas de fome (de Ridder, Kroese, Adriaanse, &Evers, 2014). ...
... Não obstante, a impulsividade tem sido associada às decisões desvantajosas no IGT, porque dificulta a aprendizagem, torna os indivíduos mais sensíveis à recompensa e é um sintoma de outras perturbações associadas ao mau desempenho na tarefa (Cackowski et al., 2014;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Kertzman, Kagan, Vainder, Lapidus, & Weizman, 2013;Takano, Takahashi, Tanaka, & Hironaka, 2010;Upton, Bishara, Ahn, & Stout, 2011;Stevens et al., 2015). A investigação sobre a importância dessa variável no desempenho no IGT, no entanto, tem mostrado resultados inconsistentes (Davis et al., 2007;Le Bas, Hughes, & Stout, 2015;Upton et al., 2011), particularmente em amostras não clínicas Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Penolazzi, Leone, & Russo, 2013), podendo inclusive estar relacionada com os ciclos menstruais / balanços hormonais (Derntl, Pintzinger, Kryspin-Exner, &, Schöpf, 2014, Evans & Hampson, 2014Iannello, Biassoni, Nelli, Zugno, & Colombo, 2015) ou até perceções subjetivas de fome (de Ridder, Kroese, Adriaanse, &Evers, 2014). ...
... Provavelmente, por essa razão, os estudos com dependentes de substâncias evidenciam uma grande variabilidade nos resultados (e.g., Bechara & Damasio, 2002;Bechara et al., 2001;Bechara & Martin, 2004). Nesse caso, as dificuldades podem ser relativas às adaptações neuroquímicas e neurocerebrais associadas ao abuso de drogas, particularmente à ativação diferenciada da região préfrontal dorsolateral direita e do striatum ventral; a primeira associando-se a maiores comportamentos de risco e a segunda a um maior evitamento desses comportamentos (Yamamoto, Woo, Wager, Regner, & Tanabe, 2015), ou mesmo a ativações específicas associadas ao transporte da serotonina (5-HT) em alcoólicos (Lovallo et al., 2014); aos fatores de risco causais, anteriores ao consumo das substâncias (Davis et al., 2007), ou, ainda, à forte comorbilidade associada a esses comportamentos. ...
Although Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has been widely used in decision making evaluation, results show a large variability in this task. The aim of this study is to proceed an integrative review relating personality with IGT performance, in order to clarify the role of personality in this variability. For this purpose 74 studies referenced in Web of Science and the b-on in June 2016, were analyzed. The results show some inconsistency and a nonlinear association in some variables, although poor performance in IGT arises more often associated with neuroticism, anxiety, impulsivity, and socioeconomic variables. Patients with psychopathy and substance abuse reveal major relevance of anti-sociability factor in IGT performance. In light of these results, orientations for future research are suggested.
... Scholars have demonstrated that a person's willingness to share knowledge is influenced by psychological traits such as personality (Cabrera et al., 2006;Martzler et al., 2011;Borges et al., 2019). Yet, there have been a dearth of studies conducted on personality in public management (Davis et al., 2007;Oberfield, 2009;Filiz and Battaglio, 2017). This is despite the fact that some research has shown that different personalities of managers can impact upon the efficacy of government decision-making (Davis et al., 2007;Filiz and Battaglio, 2017). ...
... Yet, there have been a dearth of studies conducted on personality in public management (Davis et al., 2007;Oberfield, 2009;Filiz and Battaglio, 2017). This is despite the fact that some research has shown that different personalities of managers can impact upon the efficacy of government decision-making (Davis et al., 2007;Filiz and Battaglio, 2017). It is believed that further studies on personality have the potential to enable managers to understand worker identity and to explain how managers behave and respond to social interactions differently in various contexts (Maynard-Moody and Musheno, 2003). ...
Purpose
This study aims to identify differences in knowledge-sharing mechanisms and personality among expert, typical and novice managers within the Malaysian public sector. Strengthening knowledge sharing function is essential for enabling public institutions around the world to be more productive.
Design/methodology/approach
This quantitative study involves 308 employees from management and professional groups within 98 local authorities in the Malaysian local government. Stratified random sampling techniques were used and the sampling frame comprised 1,000 staff using postal surveys. Data analyses were carried out using analysis of variance and correlations to test the research hypotheses.
Findings
The findings reveal that expert managers are more proactive in sharing their knowledge, particularly those with the personality traits of conscientiousness and openness. These two personality traits were also related to expert behaviours such as thoroughness, responsibility and persistence, which led to work competency and managerial success.
Originality/value
This study provides theoretical insights into how managerial tacit knowledge differs and can accumulate, depending on the personality traits of middle managers. The paper shows the different mechanisms of knowledge sharing, tacit knowledge and personality among expert, typical and novice managers. Practically, this study is important for guiding senior managers in their attempts to identify the most appropriate personalities of their middle managers. This study found that the expert group was higher in conscientiousness, openness and overall personality traits compared with the typical and novice groups. The paper also highlights the value of sharing managerial tacit knowledge effectively.
... The influence of personality traits on decision-making and various choices is well supported by previous research (Davis et al. 2007;Fletcher, 1987;Kulas and Stachowski, 2012;Roozmand et al. 2011;Nassiri -Mofakham et al. 2008, 2009a, 2009bSkare and Kostelic, 2015;Kostelic, 2017). It is expected that personality traits and general attitudes as independent variables will significantly correlate to advisory choices. ...
... Personality traits represent a relatively steady and permanent combination of all individual's characteristics and forms unique behavior pattern that denotes the individual's adjustment to environment. It is also used to predict the individual's behavior, and Davis et al. (2007) identified the link between personality traits and flawed decisionmaking. The most commonly used models are five-factor model and Myers -Briggs Type Indication model (MBTI). ...
While decision-making process and influences are extensively researched, linking those insights
to real-life choices opens various research questions that have yet to be answered. The purpose
of this paper is to examine the correlation of personality traits to advisory first-choice in two context
situations: solving a financial and a legal issue. The goal is to identify individual’s choices, as well
as personality traits that correlate to specific advisory choice and offer theoretical and practical
insights, as well as to implicitly examine the base for further research regarding the connection of
personality traits and general attitudes to biases. Personality traits, value scales and advisory
choice preferences were collected online and analyzed using logistic binomial regression models
to determine statistically significant variables and possibility of choice prediction. Respondents’
answers are also observed regarding biases occurrence, where overconfidence, anchoring,
familiarity and trust biases are discussed. Although advisor first–choice models offer a correlation
of the personality traits and general attitudes with moderate and high prediction, which enables
specific and practical implications; they also indicate a theoretical contribution: it is not possible
to outline generalization of influencing variables on similar observed choices. This can mean that
two seemingly similar questions represent completely different decision-making contexts for
individuals. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Despite the IGT's wide use in research and clinical practice, recent research has called into question its use as a stand-alone tool for investigating clinical decision making. Some have argued that the IGT can be influenced by different factors, including age (Blair et al., 2001;Kerr and Zelazo, 2004;Denburg et al., 2006;Fein et al., 2007;Garon and Moore, 2007), gender (Reavis and Overman, 2001;Bolla et al., 2005;Davis et al., 2007;Goudriaan et al., 2007;Businelle et al., 2008;van den Bos et al., 2013), personality (Addison and Schmidt, 1999;van Honk et al., 2002;Crone et al., 2003;Franken and Muris, 2005;Suhr and Tsanadis, 2007;Buelow and Suhr, 2013), extra learning trials Lin et al., 2013), and mood (Must et al., 2006;Suhr and Tsanadis, 2007;. It is important to acknowledge that contextual factors likely affect many clinical measures. ...
... College student participants may exhibit the prominent Deck B phenomenon, as has been shown in some of the previous research (e.g., Caroselli et al., 2006). In addition, students may have multiple friends or family members experiencing financial strain-or may be experiencing this strain themselves-thus leading to a greater emotional investment in decisions made for close friends in Study 2. We also had more females than males in Study 1, and gender may have played a role in deck selections (e.g., Bolla et al., 2005;Davis et al., 2007;Businelle et al., 2008). ...
Recent research has identified a number of factors that can influence performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) when it is used in clinical or research settings. The current studies examine the effects of construal level theory (CLT) on the IGT. Study 1 suggests that when primed with a high construal mindset (i.e., thinking abstractly versus concretely), individuals learned to avoid Deck A more than those primed with a low construal mindset. Study 2 suggests that when construal level is manipulated through psychological distance (i.e., selecting for a close versus distant friend), individuals in a high construal mindset instead showed a preference for Deck A compared to individuals in a low construal mindset or a control group. Taken together, these studies suggest that IGT performance is impacted by the manner in which one construes the task. Implications for decision making research and use of the IGT as a clinical and research instrument are discussed.
... We have learnt from the IGT that there are both neuropsychological and personality variables that relate to individuals' performance in EBDM tasks. Future studies should consider this literature and explore how traits such as impulsiveness, sensation seeking (Buelow & Suhr, 2009;Crone et al., 2003;Davis et al., 2007;Franken et al., 2008), negative mood (Miu et al., 2008;Must et al., 2007;Suhr & Tsanadis, 2007) and executive ability (Gansler et al., 2011;Toplak et al., 2010) relate with participants' performance during the exploratory/learning (initial blocks) and inhibiting phases of the task (last blocks). A computerized version such as the one presented here will facilitate both the collection of large sets of data and the analysis of the task structure and its relationship with other variables of interest. ...
Emotion-based decision making (EBDM) is the capacity to make decisions based on prior emotional consequences of actions. Several neuropsychological tasks, using different gambling paradigms and with different levels of complexity, have been designed to assess EBDM. The Bangor Gambling Task (BGT) was created as a brief and simple card gambling-task to assess EBDM. BGT contains a single-card deck and requires participants to decide whether to gamble or not, which can result in wins or losses. Unknown to the participant, the winning probabilities decrease throughout the task (from 0.75 in the first block to 0.25 in the fifth block), requiring participants to reduce their gambling probability to avoid long-term losses. A few studies have offered evidence regarding the BGT convergent validity. However, there are no computerized versions of BGT available, thus slowing the process of gathering information to explore the EBDM mechanisms behind the task, its validity, and clinical usefulness. In this article, we present a computerized version of the BGT using the Matlab environment and make all our code available. We explore BGT’s replicability and analyze its probabilistic structure, providing trial-level and block-level analyses. Eighty-one participants performed the computerized version, which followed the same structure as the original version. It took participants 8.5 ± 3.3 minutes to complete the task, which is faster than the paper version. Replicating previous studies, participants diminished their gambling probability throughout the task, learning to inhibit the initially rewarded gambling behavior. This change in gambling probability could be considered a proxy for EBDM. Our analyses suggest that the last blocks are especially sensitive to capturing deficits in EBDM, and we propose some modifications to BGT’s original version to enhance the initial exploratory and learning phase. Our results show that the BGT constitutes a quick and simple task to evaluate EBDM capacities.
... The tool is a product of an interdisciplinary approach involving research from occupational, neuroscience, business, and experimental empirical evidence. Participants complete tasks based on common cognitive psychology paradigms such as the Go/No-Go paradigm, Task Switching, and the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (Brand & Altstötter-Gleich, 2008;Buelow, & Suhr, 2013;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Flehmig, Steinborn, Langner, & Westhoff, 2007;Sosic-Vasic, Ulrich, Ruchsow, Vasic, & Grön, 2012;Umemoto, & Holroyd, 2016). See Figure 2 for an example screenshot for one of the tasks in Skyrise City™. ...
Responding to a need for research-based evidence on the use of game-based assessments, the purpose of this paper is to test the generalizability of a personality game-based assessment to make inferences on job interests. Data were collected from 140 participants who completed both a traditional paper-and-pencil style assessment and game-based assessment. A multi-trait multi- method (MTMM) matrix was used to evaluate convergence. Results showed the game-based assessment does not appear to be a viable measure for job interests, providing evidence for the use and application of high quality GBAs as they are intended. There is value in the novelty of this study, as research on game-based assessments in the workforce is limited and providing evidence on the boundary conditions of game-based assessments may inform future research.
... Similarly, high impulsivity is strongly linked with problem gambling (Devos et al., 2020;Hodgins & Holub, 2015;Nower & Blaszczynski, 2006). In a nonclinical setting, using the Iowa Gambling Task, individuals who failed to learn the consequences of their poor decisions seemed to be more impulsive than those who performed well (Davis et al., 2007); and, finally, Soane et al. (2010) found that Conscientiousness was negatively associated with risk-taking and likelihood of risk-related choices across health, gambling, and recreational domains. ...
Introduction
Extraversion and conscientiousness are well‐studied personality traits associated with reward processing and goal prioritization, respectively, and bear on individual differences in financial risk‐taking. Using unique large datasets, we investigated the link between these traits and male online gamblers’ actual betting participation and intensity.
Methods
We combined datasets containing online horse betting data (during 2015‐2016) from the Finnish monopoly betting company; administrative registry data from Statistics Finland; and personality trait measures from the Finnish Defence Forces corresponding to extraversion and conscientiousness as defined in the five‐factor model. We modelled associations between these traits and betting participation (n=471,968) and intensity (n=11,217) among male horse bettors (age=36–53).
Results
Controlling for demographics and IQ, individuals scoring high on conscientiousness (or extraversion) were less (or more) likely to bet, and less (or more) intensive bettors – even when personality was measured 16–34 years before betting occurred. One SD personality score increase represented an annual decrease (conscientiousness) or increase (extraversion) of €570‐754 in spending.
Conclusion
Extraversion and conscientiousness are implicated in real‐life financial behavior with tangible consequences for individuals. These effects are stronger than for many known demographic variables used in gambling studies, and persist up to 34 years after personality has been measured.
... As a result, men tend to attempt to maximize long-term gains, and women focus on maximizing short-term gains without perceiving the significant losses such decisions might incur. If it is taking into account the sensibility to punishment and the IGT; it has found that people with high sensitivity to punishment score lower on the IGT (make disadvantageous risk decisions; Davis et al., 2007). Therefore, women's performance in terms of maximizing short-term gains (making disadvantageous risk decisions) could be explained by their greater sensitivity to punishment. ...
Research has demonstrated gender differences in the decision‐making process, showing that women make more disadvantageous risk decisions than men. However, these differences have not been examined in terms of psychosocial or socio‐structural variables, such as the gender stereotype threat. We conducted an experimental study (Ns = 105) to test the well‐established stereotype threat effect on decision‐making through the Iowa Gambling Task and the possible moderation of this effect by sensitivity to punishment and fear of negative evaluation. The results revealed that women under a stereotype threat condition make more disadvantageous risk decisions than men in the same conditions or women in the nonstereotype threat condition. Moreover, women greatly fearing negative evaluation seemed to make more disadvantageous risk decisions compared with other groups. These findings highlight the relevance of psychosocial variables that legitimize gender inequality, such as the stereotype threat and fear of negative evaluation, in women's decision‐making process.
... For all three types of trust, we observed that family business trustors' internal appraisals were largely driven by aspects related to the trustors' individual personality (C. Davis et al., 2007), which can be expected to have a particularly strong influence in family businesses (Carney, 2005)-for better or worse (Judge et al., 2009)-and by the pursuit of goals related to SEW such as sharing of similar values or key stakeholders' agreement (Berrone et al., 2012). Hence, family business idiosyncrasies are crucial in developing a trusted advisor relationship at different levels. ...
By building on foundations from psychology, we aim to enhance academic understanding of the advising process in family businesses. We find evidence, based on rich qualitative data, suggesting that trust serves as a key construct in the relationship between family businesses and their advisors. In particular, we empirically show and theorize that trusting relationships evolve via a nonlinear process characterized by a constant interplay between cognitive and—increasingly important—affective assessments of family business trustors. The following types of trust emerge from these internal assessments: an intention to trust, which develops into perceived trust and finally results in behavioral trust.
... The literature provides us with many situations and conditions in which intuition is used (Parikh, Neubauer & Lank 1994, Agor 1998, Bieniok, Halama & Ingram 2006. The relationships between selected internal factors such as experience, expert knowledge or personality type and the use of intuition in decision-making processes are also analysed (Kahneman & Klein 2009, Salas, Rosen & DiazGranados 2010, Davis et al. 2007. However, there is a lack of comprehensive research on the determinants of the use of intuition in decision-making processes, their typology or hierarchy of importance. ...
... what each species' and individual's "tipping point" might be). Given the substantial individual variation seen across subjects tested by Proctor et al. (2014), the numerous individual differences regularly found in human performance on the IGT (Davis et al., 2007;Glicksohn et al., 2007;Glicksohn & Zilberman, 2010), and variation of individual rhesus macaque's (Macaca mulatta) preferred reward types and schedules on a saccade task (Gray et al., 2019), we also expected to see considerable within-species variation in our risk-preference task. ...
Although humans tend to be risk averse, gambling, an inherently risky behavior, remains exceedingly popular and is an increasingly legal activity. The advent of electronic and online gambling games has further exacerbated the risk of gambling addiction. Given the frequently disadvantageous results of gambling, it is important to explore its evolutionary roots to understand why some individuals engage in gambling and other risky activities that may be detrimental. Inspired by the Primate Gambling Task, a modification of the Iowa Gambling Task developed by Proctor et al. (2014), we presented zoo-housed chimpanzees, gorillas, and Japanese macaques with a choice between two stimuli on a touchscreen, one representing a low-value, low variance (LV) option and the other a high-value, high variance (HV) option. Subjects completed three conditions in which the LV always resulted in a low or middle-value food reward. In each condition, stimuli colors varied and selecting the HV resulted in differing probabilities of both receiving any reward and the subject’s high-value reward. In a second experiment, subjects chose between a picture of a middle-value food and one of the six HV or LV stimuli to test their relative preferences for these stimuli in a novel context. Using several analyses, we found substantial within-species variation in both experiments, but relatively minimal between-species differences. Analyses did not always result in the same conclusions, however, no subject, regardless of species, learned to prefer the HV option in experiment 1, if any learning occurred at all. In experiment 2, nearly all subjects showed a preference for images of middle-value foods compared to the six HV and LV stimuli. As with much human risk-preference research, individual differences suggest that much of the variation in risk-taking behavior lies at the individual rather than species level, at least among the three primate species tested here.
... Available evidence points to a significant positive association between high sensitivity to rewards, as measured by self-report scales, and overeating, with a preference for high-fat and sweet food seen in both adults [33][34][35] and adolescents [36,37]. Evidence of this association in people with overweight is scarce and, until now, no study had analyzed differences between adults and adolescents with excess weight with respect to this association. ...
Background: Impairments in decision-making have been suggested as a predisposing factor to obesity development. Individuals with excess weight display higher risk-taking in their decisions than normal weight people. Adolescence is a period of life in which risk-taking behavior may increase. However, no study to date has analyzed underlying impairments on decision-making process in this population. Methods: This is the first study to apply the Outcome-Representation-Learning (ORL) model to the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) for a better understanding of the decision-making process in adolescents with excess weight. Twenty-nine excess weight and twenty-eight normal weight adolescents (age range: 13 to 18 years), classified according to their age-adjusted body mass index (BMI) percentile, participated in the study. Decision-making was measured using the IGT. A Bayesian computational ORL model was applied to assess different components of decision-making: reward learning, punishment learning, forgetfulness, win perseverance and deck perseverance. Results: Regarding global performance, the net IGT score was lower in the excess weight group than normal weight adolescents (β = 2.85; p < .027). Respecting to underlying processes of the task, reward learning (95% HDI [0.011, 0.232]) was higher, while forgetfulness (95% HDI [− 0.711, − 0.181]) and deck perseverance (95% HDI [− 3.349, − 0.203]) were lower, in excess weight than normal weight adolescents. Conclusions: Excess weight adolescents seemed better at learning and remembering the most rewarding choices; furthermore, they showed a more random strategy based on reward and novelty seeking. Consequently, excess weight adolescents made more disadvantageous selections, and therefore performed worse in the IGT. These results improve knowledge of the cognitive processes underlying IGT performance in excess weight adolescents and confirm roles for reward sensitivity and lack of perseveration in decision-making strategies.
... To assess for potential differences in task performance by selfreported gender, due to known differences on the IGT and other tasks (e.g., Businelle et al., 2008;Davis et al., 2007; van den Bos2013), a series of exploratory analyses were conducted. For the GDT data, a permutation test (with gender labels varied in a bootstrap procedure [1000 permutations]) found no significant effect of gender on task performance, t ¼ 0.91, p ¼ .362. ...
Delusion proneness is an individual-differences characteristic, existing on a continuum from no delusional thoughts to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Previous research found individuals high in delusion proneness request less information to make decisions, potentially making a decision without sufficient information (jumping to conclusions). The present study examined risky decision-making as a function of delusion proneness. Participants (n = 102) completed the Peters Delusions Inventory to assess delusion proneness, and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and Game of Dice Task (GDT) to assess risky decision-making. Although no significant results emerged on the GDT, those scoring higher in delusion proneness decided more advantageously on the IGT than those scoring lower in delusion proneness. Exploratory analyses indicated no significant relationship between gender and task performance. The present study provides further insight into risky decision making as a function of delusion proneness. : Psychology; Jumping to conclusions; Iowa gambling task; Risky decision making; Game of dice task; Delusion proneness Keywords: Psychology, Jumping to conclusions, Iowa gambling task, Risky decision making, Game of dice task, Delusion proneness
... Toutefois, certains auteurs mettent en évidence un lien entre le manque de préméditation et la prise de décision. Le manque de préméditation est une absence de réflexion sur les conséquences d'un acte avant de s'engager dans cet acte (Davis, 2007;. D'autres, encore, associent l'impulsivité à la dimension « recherche de sensations» (Zuckerman, 1993). ...
La maladie de Huntington (MH) est une maladie neurodégénérative, autosomique, dominante. La MH se manifeste par des troubles moteurs, cognitifs, psychiatriques et/ou comportementaux. Les troubles cognitifs sont probablement parmi les mieux documentés dans la MH, perturbant la flexibilité, l’inhibition, la planification et la prise de décision. Des désordres des aptitudes en cognition sociale ont aussi été rapportés chez ces patients, dont en particulier des troubles de la reconnaissance des expressions faciales émotionnelles et de théorie de l’esprit (ToM).Les fonctions émotionnelles et leurs régulations sont actuellement peu caractérisées, tant chez les patients que chez les modèles animaux de la MH.Chez le modèle de rats transgéniques (tgHD rats), des perturbations des réponses émotionnelles et hédoniques ont été caractérisées à un âge précoce.L’objectif de cette thèse était de mieux caractériser les déficits émotionnels et leur impact sur les fonctions exécutives en étudiant (1) différentes tâches cognitives chez des patients MH et chez des modèles animaux de la MH (rats TgHD et rats BACHD) à différents stades de la maladie ; (2) en analysant l’impact d’états émotionnels induits (peur et plaisir) sur la prise de décision chez les patients MH (symptomatiques) et chez les rats BACHD à des âges différents.
... We remark that nearly all previous studies link decision-making competence and skills to antecedent upstream constructs: decisionmaking styles ( Bavol'ár & Orosová, 2015;Galotti et al., 2006 ;, general cognitive abilities Del Missier et al., 2012 ;Parker & Fischhoff, 2005;Stanovich & West, 2008 ), or personality traits ( Davis, Patte, Tweed & Curtis, 2007;Dewberry et al., 2013 ). Rarely examined are downstream constructs-that is, direct and indirect consequences of effective decision making such as decision satisfaction ( Anderson, 1992 ) and objective life outcomes Parker et al., 2007 ). ...
Proactive decision making, a concept recently introduced to behavioural operational research and decision analysis, addresses effective decision making during its phase of generating alternatives. It is measured on a scale comprising six dimensions grouped into two categories: proactive personality traits and proactive cognitive skills. Personality traits are grounded on such theoretical constructs as a proactive attitude and proactive behaviour; cognitive skills reflect value-focused thinking and decision quality. These traits and skills have been used to explain decision satisfaction, although their antecedents and other consequences have not yet been the subject of rigorous hypotheses and testing.
This paper embeds proactive decision making within a model of three possible consequences. We consider—and empirically test—decision satisfaction, general self-efficacy, and life satisfaction by conducting three studies with 1,300 participants. We then apply structural equation modelling to show that proactive decision making helps account for life satisfaction, an explanation mediated by general self-efficacy and decision satisfaction. Thus proactive decision making fosters greater belief in one’s abilities and increases satisfaction with one’s decisions and with life more generally. These results imply that it is worthwhile to help individuals enhance their decision-making proactivity.
Demonstrating the positive effects of proactive decision making at the individual level underscores how important is the phase of generating alternatives, and it also highlights the merit of employing “decision quality” principles and being proactive during that phase. Hence the findings presented here confirm the relevance of OR, and of decision-analytic principles, to the lives of ordinary people.
... There is considerable evidence for a link between personality and discussion making on the one hand and overall performance on the other (See for instance : Dewberry et. al. 2013;Davis 2007;Grant 2013;DiFabio & Palazzeschi 2011). However, how personality relates to decision making under acute stress is less clear. ...
Functional public sector is one of main pre-conditions for sustainable development and economic growth. This paper evaluated the performance of the Slovak tax administration and the Slovak tax system as the whole, with focus on three possible performance lines - calculation of administrative costs of taxation (input – output measurement), calculation of compliance costs of taxation (measuring “administrative” burden caused by taxation) and the general opinion of experts about the system. Its findings are rather negative and highlight major deficiencies that should be addressed by future public policies and reforms.
... However, the low effect size of these results could be associated with the high levels of impulsivity generally found among drug using individuals, and could also be influenced by the period of detoxification. Since impulsivity is directly associated with the quality of decision-making capacity (Davis et al., 2007;Franken and Muris, 2005), and some data suggest that TCs are more influenced by erratic driver decision making than driving ability, (French et al., 1993), studying these constructs may be fundamental in order to identify clusters of risky drivers. However, it is important to consider that although DUI individuals usually report higher levels of impulsivity than non-DUIs (Luk et al., 2017;Ryb et al., 2006b), it seems that there are no differences in impulsive driving behaviors among the two groups when both groups are evaluated under the effect of alcohol during driving simulations (Van Dyke and Fillmore, 2014). ...
The incidence of driving under the influence of psychoactive substances (DUI) and its recidivism can be curtailed by the proper identification of specific and predictive characteristics among drug users. In this sense, interpersonal violence (IV), psychiatric comorbidity and impulsivity seem to play an important role in DUI engagement according to previous studies. There are, however, limited data originated from low and middle income countries. In the present study, drug-using Brazilian drivers reporting DUI (n = 75) presented a higher prevalence of bipolar disorders (BD; DUI: 8% vs. non-DUI: 0%, p < 0.001), lower prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD; DUI: 0% vs. non-DUI: 12.6%, p < 0.001), and higher prevalence of childhood trauma (DUI: 65.3% vs. non-DUI: 46.8%, p = 0.022) than those not reporting DUI (n = 79). The evaluation of impulsivity though the Barratt Impulsivity Scale, which give impulsivity scores ranging from 30 to 120, showed higher impulsivity scores in the DUI group (80.4 ± 8) than in the non-DUI group (77.2 ± 10, p = 0.045). In general, subjects were young adults (mean age of 36 ± 9 years), Caucasians (58.4%), not married (61.0%), and with elementary schooling (40.3%) with no significant differences in demographic characteristics between drivers with and without DUI behavior. A multiple Poisson regression model showed that individuals reporting IV as perpetrators and history of childhood trauma were more likely to report DUI (PR: 1.66, 95%CI 1.22–2.7; PR: 1.57, 95%CI 1.02–2.42, respectively). The overlapping of violent situations (childhood trauma, IV and DUI) in some individuals presented here corroborates literature data suggesting that DUI can be an externalizing expression of a range of risky behavior, such as impulsiveness and aggressiveness. Moreover, while BD and higher impulsivity scores seem to act as risk factors for DUI, OCD was shown as a protective factor. These results corroborate the hypothesis that individuals with high risk for DUI could probably be identified by multidimensional assessment of cognitive, risky taking, and personality traits, which perhaps could facilitate the development of focused interventions.
... Moreover, it could by assumed that avoidance expectancies should not be relevant if someone has a rather risky and impulsive decision making style, because decisions should then not be made deliberately under the consideration of maybe positive or avoidance expectancies. Correspondingly to this argumentation it was shown that impulsivity as a facet of disinhibition is associated with a rather dysfunctional, risky decision-making style in general (59,60) and that risky decision making is associated with IGD (61). The use of online games under the expectation that the use of games helps to avoid feelings associated with e.g. ...
Internet-gaming disorder (IGD) has become a clinically relevant phenomenon worth investigating with respect to its mechanisms of development and maintenance. Considering theoretical models of specific Internet-use disorders, we assumed an interaction of maladaptive personality traits as unspecific predisposing factors and experience-based, gaming-related Internet-use expectancies in predicting symptoms of IGD. Therefore, 103 male and female regular Internet gamers were investigated with questionnaires assessing maladaptive personality traits in accordance to DSM-5, gaming-related positive and avoidance Internet-use expectancies, and symptoms of IGD. The results demonstrated that negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition, psychoticism as well as gaming-related positive and avoidance expectancies were related to symptoms of IGD. Moreover, the relationship between maladaptive personality traits as represented by negative affectivity, detachment, and psychoticism with symptoms of IGD was mediated by avoidance expectancies. Positive gaming-related use expectancies were related to detachment, and were not a significant mediator in the hypothesized model. The findings give reason to assume that maladaptive personality traits in combination with gaming-related positive expectancies and avoidance expectancies are important factors for the development of IGD, but that positive expectancies and avoidance expectancies play a differential role regarding there mediating role between personality characteristics and symptoms of IGD.
... Future research should Block x Age group 2, 102 2.55 n/a n/a Condition x Age group 1, 103 2.07 n/a n/a Block x Age group x Condition 2, 102 0.48 n/a n/a η p 2 values are presented in italics and d values are underlined. n/a is used for Age Group analyses in which no interpretation should occur due to procedural differences also utilize a larger sample such that potential gender differences could be taken into consideration, given the literature suggesting conflicting differences in patterns of performance between men and women on the IGT (e.g., Businelle et al. 2008;Davis et al. 2007;van den Bos et al. 2013). ...
This study examined the effects of speech rate on decision making across two age groups. Prior research has found that listening to fast speech can lead to subsequent rate changes on other tasks. The present study sought to examine if different speech rates (slow and fast) could alter decision making speed and performance accuracy in college students (ages 18–20) and preschool-aged children (ages 3–5). Participants listened to a recording (fast or slow) and then completed the Hungry Donkey Task to assess risky decision making. The results suggest that speech rate priming relates to response latencies and performance on a subsequent task. Participants in the slow condition had longer response times and made more advantageous decisions than those in the fast condition. College student participants’ performance was more accurate than the children’s performance following the slow prime, but there was no difference following the fast prime. These findings suggest that there is a shared timing mechanism across domains, and we may be able to capitalize on this to improve decision making.
... Despite this, many previous and recent studies (e.g., Lauriola and Levin 2001;Ehrhart and Klein 2001;Davis et al. 2007;Sas et al. 2004) highlighted the strong association between our preferences and personality traits. This led Al-Samarraie et al. (2016b) to further examine this view by exploring how a certain personality trait can be used to explain our preference for visual elements. ...
Although personality dimensions figure prominently in what people prefer or like about a display, little is known about precisely how personality dimensions can be predicted through our visual preferences. We investigated the feasibility for predicting continuous dimensions of personality traits (Big Five dimensions) from preferences captured by users’ eye movements while scanning the preferred regions in a visual presentation. The eye-movement behavior of 96 participants was examined to identify their preferences in five visual design presentations. A multi-target learning method was used to build the prediction model of continuous dimensions of personality based on fixation and saccadic eye parameters. The results showed that participants’ preferences for certain visual elements tended to explain their personality profile. Our findings offer new insights for personality assessment, human–computer interaction, personalization, and rational choice theories. It also addresses new trends related to the regulation of eye movements toward regions of interest based on the proportion of personality dimensions.
... These participants may have had a higher motivation to complete and succeed with treatment. However due to the bottom-up processing and impulsivity characteristics of individuals in recovering from a substance use disorder, consequences are not viewed as the primary factor in rehabilitation [14][15][16]. ...
... To examine the potential role of age difference in emotion-regulatory resources and strategies, we examined ambient mood, self-reported coping mechanisms, and subjective mental/physical health. The evaluation of temporal sequences may also be influenced by age differences in cognition and personality (Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Isen, 2001). We therefore included brief screening measures for these variables. ...
Objectives:
People's preferences for temporal sequences of events have implications for life-long health and well-being. Prior research suggests that other aspects of intertemporal choice vary by age, but evidence for age differences in sequence-preferences is limited and inconclusive. In response, the present research examined age differences in sequence-preferences for real outcomes administered in a controlled laboratory setting.
Methods:
A pilot study examined sequence-preferences for aversive electrodermal shocks in 30 younger and 30 older adults. The main study examined sequence-preferences for electrodermal shocks, physical effort, and monetary gambles in an adult life-span sample (N = 120). It also examined emotional and physiological responses to sequences as well as underlying mechanisms including time perception and emotion-regulation.
Results:
There were no significant age differences in sequence-preferences in either of the studies, and there were no age differences in responses to sequences in the main study. Instead, there was a domain effect with participants preferring decreasing sequences for shocks and mixed sequences for effort and money.
Discussion:
After considering potential methodological limitations, theoretical contributions and implications for real-life decisions are discussed.
... The role of gender in IGT scores is also somewhat ambiguous. Although some studies have reported an absence of such an influence in young and adult samples (Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Franken & Muris, 2005), other investigations have found that men and women exhibited differential performance (Bolla, Eldreth, Matochik, & Cadet, 2004;Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Reavis & Overman, 2001). The study conducted by Goudriaan et al. (2007) in a population of young people with the habit of consuming alcoholic beverages indicated that women more often chose decks with low frequency but very costly punishments. ...
This study compared the performance of selected groups of Brazilian and American individuals on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The sample was composed of 70 Brazilian and American individuals of both genders, divided into two groups of young and older adults. The two groups of Brazilians were composed of 10 young adults, aged 25 to 41 years, and 25 older adults, aged 60 to 75 years. The two groups of Americans were composed of 10 young adults, aged 28 to 39 years, and 25 older adults, aged 60 to 76 years. A two-way analysis of variance revealed differences in performance between Brazilian and American participants, regardless of age group (country, p = .001; age group, p = .134; country vs. age group, p = .291). Analyses of variance using age group and country as main factors did not reveal any difference between the two national groups with regard to the learning achieved during the task (block, p
... Similar gambling tasks have been used to examine reward processing at a neuropsychological level (Van Leijenhorst et al., 2010a). In addition, relatively poor performance on the IGT (predominantly preference for immediate gains) has been associated with self-reported reward sensitivity (Davis et al., 2007). A limitation related to the BGT is that only the first 71 cards were used instead of all 100 cards as in Bowman and Turnbull (2004). ...
Neurodevelopmental theories of risk behavior hypothesize that low behavioral control in combination with high reward sensitivity explains adolescents’ risk behavior. However, empirical studies examining this hypothesis while including actual risk taking behavior in adolescence are lacking. In this study we tested whether the imbalance between behavioral control and reward sensitivity underlies risk taking behavior in adolescence, using a nationally representative longitudinal sample of 715 adolescents, of which 66% revealed an increased risk for mental health problems. To assess behavioral control at age 11 we used both self-report (effortful control) as well as behavioral measures of cognitive control (i.e., working memory and response inhibition). Reward sensitivity was assessed with the Bangor Gambling Task. The main finding of this study was that effortful control at age 11 was the best predictor of risk taking behavior (alcohol and cannabis use) at age 16, particularly among adolescents who were more reward sensitive. Risk taking behavior in adolescents might be explained by relatively weak behavioral control functioning combined with high sensitivity for reward.
... In particular, tasks that create uncertainty of response consequence in relation to the stimulus can serve the purpose of an approach-avoidance conflict condition (see Kagan, 1966;Leue & Beauducel, 2008). Many of the tasks used in neurocognitive research have been adopted for this purpose with measures like the go/no-go task, Stroop test, and Iowa Gambling Task being widely used to measure behavioral disinhibition (Endres, Rickert, Bogg, Lucas, & Finn, 2011;O'Connor & Jackson, 2008), impulsivity (Enticott, Ogloff, & Bradshaw, 2006;Keilp et al., 2005;Perales, Verdejo-Garcia, Moya, Lozano, & Perez-Garcia, 2009), risk-taking (Gardiner & Jackson, 2012), and decision-making (Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Zermatten, Van der Linden, d'Acremont, Jermann, & Bechara, 2005). These and similar performance-based tasks could be used as state measures of self-regulation in a process model of personality. ...
Over the last 40 years or more the personality literature has been dominated by trait models based on the Big Five (B5). Trait-based models describe personality at the between-person level but cannot explain the within-person mental mechanisms responsible for personality. Nor can they adequately account for variations in emotion and behavior experienced by individuals across different situations and over time. An alternative, yet understated, approach to personality architecture can be found in neurobiological theories of personality, most notably reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST). In contrast to static trait-based personality models like the B5, RST provides a more plausible basis for a personality process model, namely, one that explains how emotions and behavior arise from the dynamic interaction between contextual factors and within-person mental mechanisms. In this article, the authors review the evolution of a neurobiologically based personality process model based on RST, the response modulation model and the context-appropriate balanced attention model. They argue that by integrating this complex literature, and by incorporating evidence from personality neuroscience, one can meaningfully explain personality at both the within- and between-person levels. This approach achieves a domain-general architecture based on RST and self-regulation that can be used to align within-person mental mechanisms, neurobiological systems and between-person measurement models.
... In the first type of tasks (risk), people with high SR has shown to be more prone to tolerate a smaller probability of reward (and thus a higher risk), if such reward is subjectively overvalued [13]. In the second type of tasks (ambiguity), high SR can impact the subjective value of positive versus negative feedback, and hence bias learning towards superficially attractive choices [14]. ...
Background:
The negative consequences of energy dense foods are well known, yet people increasingly make unhealthy food choices leading to obesity (i.e., risky decisions). The aims of this study were: [1] to compare performance in decision-making tasks under risk and under ambiguity between individuals with obesity, overweight and normal weight; [2] to examine the associations between body mass index (BMI) and decision-making, and the degree to which these associations are modulated by reward sensitivity.
Methods:
Seventy-nine adults were recruited and classified in three groups according to their BMI: obesity, overweight and normal-weight. Groups were similar in terms of age, education and socio-economic status, and were screened for comorbid medical and mental health conditions. Decision-making under risk was measured via the Wheel of Fortune Task (WoFT) and decision-making under ambiguity via the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Reward sensitivity was indicated by the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ).
Results:
Individuals with obesity made riskier choices in the WoFT, specifically in choices with an expected value close to zero and in the propensity to risk index. No differences were found in IGT performance or SPSRQ scores. BMI was associated with risk-taking (WoFT performance), independently of reward sensitivity.
Conclusions:
Obesity is linked to a propensity to make risky decisions in experimental conditions analogous to everyday food choices.
... Interestingly, participants" level of extraversion and neuroticism (as measured by a short version of the Big Five Inventory; Gerlitz & Schupp 2005) showed a significant positive relation to error rates. As for neuroticism, it has repeatedly been shown that this tendency to experience negative emotions influences performance behavior (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2003;Pham, 2007) and is associated with individual differences in decision making (e.g., Maner et al., 2007), especially with decision making deficits (e.g., Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Denburg et al., 2009). Hilbig (2008) for example found that neuroticism was a predictor of participants" use of a simple decision heuristic. ...
... To date, only two behavioral measures of the BAS have been tested multiple times; the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994 ) and the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (CARROT; Powell, Al-Adawi, Morgan, & Greenwood, 1996 ). Notably, studies utilizing these behavioral tasks have yielded inconsistent results (Davis, Patte, Twees, & Curtis, 2007; Kambouropoulos & Staiger, 2004 Suhr & Tsanadis, 2007) and there is a clear need for additional multi-method studies using alternative measures of the BAS. ...
There is a well-established relationship between Factor 2 psychopathy and heavy alcohol use. Very few studies, however, have examined potential mediators of this relationship. As a result, it is difficult to develop intervention strategies that target early steps in the psychopathy/alcohol use pathway. The present study tested two structural equation models linking Factor 2 psychopathy to alcohol use through the influence of both behavioral activation and positive alcohol expectancies in a sample of college undergraduates (N=196). The study was also one of the first to utilize both self-report and laboratory measures of behavioral activation. Findings indicate that both behavioral activation (as assessed by self-report but not laboratory measures) and positive alcohol expectancies fully account for the relationship between Factor 2 psychopathy and alcohol use.
... Investigations across the adult life span have identified personality as an important individual differences variable that is related to decisionmaking ability (e.g., Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007). In our own work, we have shown that neuroticism (but not the remainder of the "big five" traits consisting of extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) is relevant to complex decision making among older adults. ...
The chapter begins with a review of several guiding observations, theoretical frameworks, and empirical tests important to the neuroscientific study of decision making. Next, behavioral, psychophysiological, and neuroimaging studies are presented to support the contention that some seemingly normal older persons have deficits in reasoning and decision making secondary to dysfunction in a neural system that includes the ventromedial prefrontal cortices. We propose that this brain region is critical for bringing emotion-related signals to bear on decision making. Dysfunction in this neural system has real-world implications, such as making older adults vulnerable to victimization by fraudulent sales tactics. We conclude by discussing the need for a formal term for age-associated changes in decision making, and propose age-associated executive dysfunction to designate older adults who demonstrate disproportionate decline in executive functions referable to the prefrontal cortex. Having such a term would help to facilitate research and funding, identify at-risk individuals, and influence public policy.
... Assessing personality and decision-making with the FFM Personality plays an important role in both human performance (Barrick et al., 2002;Dudley et al., 2006;Salgado, 1997) and the decision-making process (Davis et al., 2007). Personality research examines psychological processes and focuses on psychological differences and similarities between individuals ( Barenbaum and Winter, 1999). ...
Using a cross-sectional survey of 254 Turkish district governors, this study assesses the impact of personality on decision-making among public managers. The research evaluates self-reported results from the Five-Factor Model of personality and the Decision-Making Questionnaire of the psychology literature. The findings suggest that Openness, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion are important in the analysis of decision-making subjects, tasks, and contexts, respectively. Departing from previous research, the analysis here suggests that culture and structure are important factors in explaining personality and decision-making in public administration.
Points for practitioners
This study offers policy implications for the recruitment, performance appraisal, training, and assignment of practitioners in the public service. Personality assessments can be used as a valuable tool during the evaluation of public officials under consideration for recruitment, appointment, and promotion. Matching the personalities of potential candidates to positions requiring comparable qualifications has important organizational, personnel, and financial implications. Our research also suggests that decision-making and personality should also account for social, cultural, and organizational differences in their applications.
... Future research should continue to investigate relationships between various decision making tasks and other measures of executive functions to help fully understand how different components of decision making relate. Finally, previous research has shown inconsistent findings regarding gender differences on the IGT (e.g., Bolla, Eldreth, Matochik, & Cadet, 2004;Businelle, Apperson, Kendzor, Terlecki, & Copeland, 2008;Davis, Patte, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007;Goudriaan, Grekin, & Sher, 2007;Reavis & Overman, 2001;van den Bos, Homberg, & de Visser, 2013). In the present study, splitting the EFA and CFA samples by gender would have resulted in too small of groups for valid assessment of gender differences in decision making strategies across task type, but future research should investigate these potential gender differences. ...
Researchers and clinicians frequently use behavioral measures to assess decision making. The most common task that is marketed to clinicians is the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), thought to assess risky decision making. How does performance on the IGT relate to performance on other common measures of decision making? The present study sought to examine relationships between the IGT, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), and the Columbia Card Task (CCT). Participants were 390 undergraduate students who completed the IGT, BART, and either the "hot" or "cold" CCT. Principal components factor analysis on the IGT, BART, and CCT-cold (n = 112) indicated that the IGT measures a different component of decision making than the BART, and the CCT-cold weakly correlated with early IGT trials. Results of the exploratory factor analysis on the IGT, BART, and CCT-hot (n = 108) revealed a similar picture: the IGT and BART assessed different types of decision making, and the BART and CCT-hot were weakly correlated. A confirmatory factor analysis (n = 170) indicated that a 3-factor model without the CCT-cold (Factor 1: later IGT trials; Factor 2: BART; and Factor 3: early IGT trials) was a better fitting model than one that included the CCT-cold and early IGT trials on the same factor. Collectively, the present results suggest that the IGT, BART, and CCT all measure unique, nonoverlapping decision making processes. Further research is needed to more fully understand the neuropsychological construct of decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
... vi to negative affect, which is then likely to influence BMI (Davis et al., 2007). Thus, both self-report and behavioural measures have demonstrated a greater association of EDs that involve binge eating with motivational impulsivity, highlighting it as a potential contributor to disordered eating in response to negative affect. ...
Monografia "Intuicja w podejmowaniu decyzji kierowniczych" stanowi interesującą poznawczo i oryginalną pracę dotyczącą problematyki intuicji w procesach podejmowania decyzji. Przemawia za tym ważkość podjętego problemu i jego wnikliwe ujęcie, oparte na solidnych podstawach teoretycznych, wzmocnione rzetelnymi badaniami empirycznymi. Na podstawie szeroko zakrojonej analizy literatury przedmiotu dokonano udanej konceptualizacji i operacjonalizacji intuicji w praktyce podejmowania decyzji poprzez zaprojektowanie autorskiego narzędzia umożliwiającego pomiar poziomu potencjału intuicyjnego oraz stopnia jego wykorzystania w procesach decyzyjnych. Narzędzie to może być z powodzeniem wykorzystane przez praktyków zarządzania w celu określenia braków kompetencyjnych w tym obszarze. W wyniku realizacji części empirycznej pracy zidentyfikowano i stworzono także typologię determinant wykorzystania intuicji w procesach decyzyjnych oraz dokonano hierarchizacji sytuacji i warunków decyzyjnych wymagających odwołania się do intuicji. Otrzymane w tym obszarze rezultaty mają także wymiar aplikacyjny poprzez uświadomienie decydentom szczególnej roli intuicji w określonych sytuacjach decyzyjnych. Za kolejny wkład w rozwój nauk o zarządzaniu uznać można nakreślenie i empiryczną weryfikację profilu intuicyjnego decydenta. Jako bardzo wartościowy recenzenci wydawniczy monografii ocenili opracowany przez autorkę konceptualny model procesu podejmowania decyzji integrujący intuicję z racjonalną analizą. W trakcie realizacji postępowania badawczego model ten został poddany rekonstrukcji, w wyniku której został sformułowany model empiryczny. W tym modelu sprecyzowano poszczególne etapy oraz podjęto próbę odtworzenia przebiegu procesu decyzyjnego zakładającego współistnienie podejścia intuicyjnego i racjonalnego w praktyce podejmowania decyzji. Zidentyfikowano etapy wspólne dla obydwu podejść oraz te, które je różnicują. Opinie menedżerów przyczyniły się do wyróżnienia faz procesu, w których szczególną rolę odgrywa intuicja, oraz tych o charakterze analitycznym. Efektem dialogu z decydentami było także zidentyfikowanie występujących między poszczególnymi fazami sprzężeń zwrotnych. Dodatkowo model ten został uzupełniony o determinanty, które decydują o przewadze podejścia intuicyjnego lub racjonalnego w realizowanym procesie decyzyjnym. Uzyskane w tym obszarze rezultaty poznawcze z pewnością mogą stanowić punkt wyjścia dla przyszłych zamierzeń badawczych podejmowanych przez przedstawicieli nauki. Przeprowadzone studia literaturowe oraz badania empiryczne na reprezentatywnej grupie przedsiębiorstw pozwalają na sformułowanie implikacji dla praktyki gospodarczej. Podstawową kwestią w tym aspekcie jest uświadomienie decydentom roli intuicji we współczesnych procesach decyzyjnych oraz możliwości jej doskonalenia, a także sformułowanie rekomendacji dla kadry zarządzającej dotyczących perspektyw wykorzystania intuicji w przyszłości. Podsumowując, można stwierdzić, że uzyskane rezultaty poznawcze wnoszą nowe treści do nauk o zarządzaniu, a opracowana monografia jest pierwszą w Polsce pracą, która gruntownie przedstawia problematykę intuicji w procesach podejmowania decyzji kierowniczych w wymiarze zarówno teoretycznym, jak i empirycznym.
Although significant research exists of a relationship between impulsivity and performance on behavioral risky decision making tasks, relatively few studies examined performance on these tasks as a function of the big five personality characteristics. The present study sought to investigate relationships between the big five personality characteristics and performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), Columbia Card Task (CCT), and Game of Dice Task (GDT). Two samples of undergraduate student participants (n = 318 Study 1; n = 531 Study 2) completed the IGT, BART, CCT, GDT, and assessment of the big five in a random order. Results of the two studies indicated minimal relationships between performance on the decision making tasks and neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness, but some evidence of a relationship between agreeableness and the CCT in Study 2 only. The present results are among the first examining relationships between the big five and performance on the CCT and GDT, and largely replicate findings of limited relationships between these personality characteristics and performance on the IGT and BART. Future research should further examine personality predictors of performance on these tasks, as they are increasingly used to differentiate patient and non-patient samples.
يهدف البحث الحالي إلى مدى إمكانية التنبؤ باتخاذ القرار لدى الطلاب بجامعة مصراتة من خلال أنماط المناخ الأسري وسمات الشخصية لديهم. وتكونت عينة البحث الأساسية من (261) طالبًا وطالبة من طلاب جامعة مصراتة، استخدمت أداة البحث مقياس المناخ الأسري ( إعداد الباحثة )، ومقياس اتخاذ القرار ( إعداد الباحثة )، ومقياس العوامل الخمسة للشخصية ( إعداد الباحث محمد هبة 2011)، وتوصلت نتائج البحث إلى أن التفتح على الخبرات والتعامل الأسري والتماسك الأسري، والتقبلية من العوامل التي تسهم في اتخاذ القرار، كما توصلت نتائج البحث إلى أنه لا توجد فروق بين الذكور والإناث في المناخ الأسري وسمات الشخصية واتخاذ القرار.
Skin conductance response (SCR) is used in psychophysiological research to measure the reactions of the autonomic nervous system to reward and punishment. While there is consistent evidence that SCR increases to both aversive and appetitive stimuli, it remains unclear whether SCR simply represents a general index of arousal to motivationally significant outcomes or may also differentiate action or inhibition of action that lead to such outcomes. Furthermore, individual differences in trait sensitivity to reward and punishment can influence physiological arousal during approach and avoidance behaviors. Yet, their inter-relationships have not been examined. To address these gaps, we employed a reward go/no-go task with ⅔ go and ⅓ no-go trials and an individually titrated go response window. Correct go and no-go responses were rewarded while incorrect responses were penalized. We examined whether SCR varied with outcome (win vs. loss), action (go vs. no-go), and individual differences in reward sensitivity (SR) and sex. The results showed greater SCRs to loss vs. win, to go vs. no-go success, and to go success in positive correlation with SR. Further, SCR mediated the relationship between SR and go success rate. In sex differences, men exhibited greater SCR which was more predictive of go success rate relative to women. In contrast, SCR was more predictive of no-go success rate in women. Thus, SCR varies according to behavioral contingency, outcome, sex, and reward sensitivity. These findings add to the literature by characterizing the individual and behavioral factors that may influence physiological arousal in response to salient events.
Supply chain and operations management requires frequent decision making, and decisions are importantly influenced by the personality traits and knowledge of the decision maker. Thus, we analyse the effect of those factors on the confidence and quality of decisions taken in the context of supply chain management. The data was gathered via an online supply chain simulation game where subjects needed to make several decisions. Personality traits of the participants were tested using the Big Five model. The structural model was estimated using the partial least squares structural equation modelling approach. We found that decision-makers with lower levels of extraversion and agreeableness and higher levels of conscientiousness and openness make better decisions. On the other hand, neuroticism and agreeableness negatively affect confidence in decisions. Tested knowledge positively influences both decision-makers’ confidence in and the quality of their decisions while self-reported knowledge has no significant effect. Therefore, the companies should carefully consider how an individual’s personality matches the type of job at hand and rely on tested instead of self-reported knowledge.
The tendency of bias identification and quantification with the goal of better estimation and prediction, grows. The purpose of this paper is to question how deep analysis is necessary to increase prediction of communication preferences given the customer’s personality traits/biases. Examined communication preferences regard to the communication approach, language use and information sharing. This paper offers a psychometric assessment of the personality estimates and traits, as well as econometric examination of correlation to consumer first-choice communication preferences using linear logit model with binomial dependent variable. The results point out that the more detail analysis provides more accurate predictions, to the point where estimators as regressors for communication choices provide more accurate prediction than the use of the personality traits as independent variables. Paper delivers empirical assessment of consumers’ communication preferences using primary data set. Practical implications relate to the use of the findings in communication with consumers in online and/ or digital marketing communication. One of the possible practical use of the results can be as an input for the recommendation agents. Theoretical implications of the findings request questioning the use of the personality traits as an interim stage in decision-making predictions. In addition, these findings fill the gap in the field of communication preference based on personality traits and personality estimators. The data set has been previously used for the doctoral thesis research. For the purpose of this research, data was re-coded and analyzed using different approach, namely binomial logistic regression.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to address the gap in the literature by providing a precise conceptualization of the concept of patience in the context of leadership.
Design/methodology/approach
The current study was conducted using a qualitative approach as it aimed to explore leaders’ perceptions and experiences with patience and eventually build a theoretical model in relation to the role of patience in leadership. Because the aim of the study was to obtain insight into the experiences of the participants in their own words, this study adopted a grounded theory research design.
Findings
The grounded theory study resulted in an emergent theoretical model for understanding the decision-making process of leaders who exhibit patience as a character strength and how those leaders promote organizational success. Through an inductive approach, this grounded theory study identified the behaviors that participating leaders viewed as patient, as well as the outcomes and the contextual conditions for the effectiveness of such behaviors.
Research limitations/implications
A major contribution of this study is that leaders epitomized by patience are guided by a decision-making framework that can contribute to more favorable decision making outcomes.
Practical implications
The proposed model for patience leadership has implications for developing the leadership capacity.
Originality/value
Patience, as a leadership quality, has been overlooked virtue in the social and psychological sciences. In order to explore the potential nexus between patience and leadership, the study has offered an emergent theoretical model and indicated the specific ways in which leaders may effectively practice patience.
Interpersonal communication or better known as communication face-to-face is an integral part of everyday life. It has meaning in the business context and the organization in which the individual acts of employer and employee is a complex form of exchange/ trade and an inexhaustible source of research from different perspectives.
This paper considers the employer - employee relationship from the point of view of internal marketing communications, pulling an analogy from the sales conversation. Game theory communication model will explain the phases of the communication process in a job interview by identifying the factors that influence the
conversation, focusing on limited rationality. Our model will offer a space of possible strategies and the equilibrium outcome for both sides of the conversation.
Game theory model will offer a causal connection between personality biases, person’s productivity with the flow and precision of given information, phases, and outcome. Also, we will consider deviations from equilibrium and their consequences.
This paper offers new concepts that can directly contribute to the progress of the internal marketing and communications field, and indirectly labor market, and the human capital area.
Keywords: interpersonal marketing communications, bounded rationality, game theory, the trade.
CITATION: Boz, H. (2015), Turistik Ürün Satın Alma Karar Sürecinde İtkiselliğin Rolü: Psikonörobiyokimyasal Analiz, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Balikesir University, Institute of Social Sciences, Balikesir, Turkey.
Classical economic theory assumes that consumers as human beings
and their decisions are rational. This assumption has been prevalent in
scientific paradigm until the end of the second millennium. It used to be
assumed that consumers made their buying decisions of products and
services after a rational evaluation of the potential alternatives.
Especially, after the development of brain scanning methods and
devices, it is known today that hedonic pleasures play a significant role in
consumers buying decisions. From this perspective it could be asserted that
impulsive buying is an important phenomenon to study as people usually
engage in to fell better and to be perceived differently. In general, impulsive
buying, is a common phenomenon in the purchase of convenience goods.
This study is believed to make a significant contribution by investigating the
impulsive buying in the purchase of holidays, as they involve high levels of
financial, social, performance and time risks.
The thesis comprises of five sections. In the first part the main aim of
the study, its significance, assumptions, limitations and the research problem
are explained. In the second part of the thesis the research rationale,
consumer decision making process, impulsive buying process and its
significance are explained from a psycho-neuro-bio-chemical perspective.
The third part of the thesis presents the research model together with data
collection methods, experimental paradigm and procedures. In the fourth part
of the thesis the findings presented analysed and discussed. The sample
group which the survey was carried out with, the testing of the model and the
experimental study are described. By using SPSS 20 and Lisrel 8.80 data
collected through convenience sampling from a group of 558 people were
analysed through principal component analysis and structural equation
model. The testing of the model showed that internal factors (mood, need for
cognition, instability and severity of holiday need) did not influence impulsive
buying tendency. However, time - money availability and perception of
advertisement content, as the two external factors, appeared to influence the
impulsive buying tendency. Impulsive buying decision of holidays influenced
the satisfaction aftermath buying.
In the second study an analysis of the results of the experiments
shows that impulsive buying is more prevalent and significant phenomenon in
the purchase of holidays. Consumers tended to make more impulsive buying
decisions by looking at visual and verbal cues such the level of discounts.
The study showed also that the price discounts shown in percentages were
more effective than mere nominal discounts. The presence of the customer
reviews, pictures of swimming pools, the ability to pay in instalments
influenced the buying decision positively. Finally, it was also seen that
friends’ recommendations, previous satisfaction with the same hotel and
previous exposure to the hotel in travel programs on TV influenced the
buying decision of customers positively.
The study presents adaptation and validation of Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (Junior-SPSRQ) in a sample of 1380 adolescents aged 10 to 18 years. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the four-factor hierarchical model, Sensitivity to Punishment comprised Fear and Anxiety, and Sensitivity to Reward comprised Reward Responsivity and Impulsivity. The scales showed adequate internal consistency and discriminant validity across gender and age. Sensitivity to Punishment was higher in girls; while Sensitivity to Reward was higher in boys. Sensitivity to Punishment, Fear and Reward Responsivity decreased with age. Correlations with personality traits and behavioural problems supported validity of the Junior-SPSRQ scales providing evidence for the constructive (Reward Responsivity) and destructive (Impolsivity) components of Sensitivity to Reward component.
Adaptation of the Russian version of Sensitivity to Punishment and Reward scales on the sample of children aged from 4 to 18 (n = 459) according to their parents reports is presented. The two factors structure is confirmed, satisfactory internal scales consistency is shown. Correlations with mid-level traits and Big Five factors assessed by the Inventory of Children's Individual Differences (ICID-S) as well as with the scales of internalising and externalising problems assessed by Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), support the validity of Sensitivity to Punishment and Reward scales. Gender and age differences support discriminative validity of scales.
In the world of financial investment, risk is recognised as a daily working tool. Individuals are constantly asked to determine whether risks are worthwhile, in other words whether the potential associated loss is worth risking. The higher the risk, the higher the potential wins or losses. These characteristics are shared between the world of financial investment and high-risk - or extreme - sports. Notwithstanding their similarities, scientific studies conducted within each of these domains have adopted distinct understandings of risk and risk-taking. Whilst research in finance aims to quantify and control risk, the sport literature is rather more interested in the personality of high-risk sport partakers. The latter thus aims to answer questions such as who takes risks and why. Recent studies have highlighted the significant roles played by narcissism and alexithymia, two stable personality traits. Through six successive and complementary studies, the present thesis aims to broaden these results by uncovering the links between both narcissistic and alexithymic personality traits and financial risk-taking.
The purpose of the present study was to revise the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale Version 10 (BIS-10), identify the factor structure of the items among normals, and compare their scores on the revised form (BIS-11) with psychiatric inpatients and prison inmates. The scale was administered to 412 college undergraduates, 248 psychiatric inpatients, and 73 male prison inmates. Exploratory principal components analysis of the items identified six primary factors and three second-order factors. The three second-order factors were labeled Attentional Impulsiveness, Motor Impulsiveness, and Nonplanning Impulsiveness. Two of the three second-order factors identified in the BIS-11 were consistent with those proposed by Barratt (1985), but no cognitive impulsiveness component was identified per se. The results of the present study suggest that the total score of the BIS-11 is an internally consistent measure of impulsiveness and has potential clinical utility for measuring impulsiveness among selected patient and inmate populations.
The purpose of the present study was to revise the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale Version 10 (BIS-10), identify the factor structure of the items among normals, and compare their scores on the revised form (BIS-11) with psychiatric inpatients and prison inmates. The scale was administered to 412 college undergraduates, 248 psychiatric inpatients, and 73 male prison inmates. Exploratory principal components analysis of the items identified six primary factors and three second-order factors. The three second-order factors were labeled Attentional Impulsiveness, Motor Impulsiveness, and Nonplanning Impulsiveness. Two of the three second-order factors identified in the BIS-11 were consistent with those proposed by Barratt (1985), but no cognitive impulsiveness component was identified per se. The results of the present study suggest that the total score of the BIS-11 is an internally consistent measure of impulsiveness and has potential clinical utility for measuring impulsiveness among selected patient and inmate populations.
The somatic marker hypothesis proposes that decision-making is a process that depends on emotion. Studies have shown that damage of the ventromedial prefrontal (VMF) cortex precludes the ability to use somatic (emotional) signals that are necessary for guiding decisions in the advantageous direction. However, given the role of the amygdala in emotional processing, we asked whether amygdala damage also would interfere with decision-making. Furthermore, we asked whether there might be a difference between the roles that the amygdala and VMF cortex play in decision-making. To address these two questions, we studied a group of patients with bilateral amygdala, but not VMF, damage and a group of patients with bilateral VMF, but not amygdala, damage. We used the "gambling task" to measure decision-making performance and electrodermal activity (skin conductance responses, SCR) as an index of somatic state activation. All patients, those with amygdala damage as well as those with VMF damage, were (1) impaired on the gambling task and (2) unable to develop anticipatory SCRs while they pondered risky choices. However, VMF patients were able to generate SCRs when they received a reward or a punishment (play money), whereas amygdala patients failed to do so. In a Pavlovian conditioning experiment the VMF patients acquired a conditioned SCR to visual stimuli paired with an aversive loud sound, whereas amygdala patients failed to do so. The results suggest that amygdala damage is associated with impairment in decision-making and that the roles played by the amygdala and VMF in decision-making are different.
Mania has received little attention from a contemporary neuropsychological perspective despite its clear resemblance to the disinhibition syndrome sometimes seen after frontal brain injury, particularly injury to the inferior aspect of the prefrontal cortex. The purpose of this investigation was to describe the neuropsychological profile of severe acute mania by using a range of tasks selected primarily for the detection of localized neural disruption within the prefrontal cortex.
Fifteen acutely manic inpatients were compared with 30 nonpsychiatric subjects on tasks from the Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery (Tower of London, spatial working memory, intradimensional-extradimensional attentional shift, and rapid visual information processing tasks) and on the Iowa Gambling Task, Stroop Color and Word Test, a verbal fluency task, and the California Verbal Learning Test.
Discriminant function analysis identified deficits in sustained attention (on the rapid visual information processing task) and verbal learning (on the California Verbal Learning Test) as the best indicators of manic performance, rather than deficits on any of the tests of executive functioning. The model correctly classified 91% of subjects overall and 87% of manic subjects. Manic patients did not resemble patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage in their performance on the Iowa Gambling Task.
Acute mania is characterized by core deficits in verbal memory and sustained attention against a background of milder impairments in functions that are traditional measures of prefrontal cortex integrity (attentional set shifting, planning, working memory). The data do not implicate ventral prefrontal cortex disruption as a locus of pathology in acute mania. Verbal memory and sustained attention deficits may relate differentially to the state and trait characteristics of bipolar disorder.
The development of addiction involves a transition from casual to compulsive patterns of drug use. This transition to addiction is accompanied by many drug-induced changes in the brain and associated changes in psychological functions. In this article we present a critical analysis of the major theoretical explanations of how drug-induced alterations in psychological function might cause a transition to addiction. These include: (a) the traditional hedonic view that drug pleasure and subsequent unpleasant withdrawal symptoms are the chief causes of addiction; (b) the view that addiction is due to aberrant learning, especially the development of strong stimulus-response habits; (c) our incentive-sensitization view, which suggests that sensitization of a neural system that attributes incentive salience causes compulsive motivation or "wanting" to take addictive drugs; and (d) the idea that dysfunction of frontal cortical systems, which normally regulate decision making and inhibitory control over behavior, leads to impaired judgment and impulsivity in addicts.
Imaging studies have revealed neurochemical and functional changes in the brains of drug-addicted subjects that provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying addiction. Neurochemical studies have shown that large and fast increases in dopamine are associated with the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse, but also that after chronic drug abuse and during withdrawal, brain dopamine function is markedly decreased and these decreases are associated with dysfunction of prefrontal regions (including orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus). The changes in brain dopamine function are likely to result in decreased sensitivity to natural reinforcers since dopamine also mediates the reinforcing effects of natural reinforcers and on disruption of frontal cortical functions, such as inhibitory control and salience attribution. Functional imaging studies have shown that during drug intoxication, or during craving, these frontal regions become activated as part of a complex pattern that includes brain circuits involved with reward (nucleus accumbens), motivation (orbitofrontal cortex), memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and cognitive control (prefrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus). Here, we integrate these findings and propose a model that attempts to explain the loss of control and compulsive drug intake that characterize addiction. Specifically, we propose that in drug addiction the value of the drug and drug-related stimuli is enhanced at the expense of other reinforcers. This is a consequence of conditioned learning and of the resetting of reward thresholds as an adaptation to the high levels of stimulation induced by drugs of abuse. In this model, during exposure to the drug or drug-related cues, the memory of the expected reward results in overactivation of the reward and motivation circuits while decreasing the activity in the cognitive control circuit. This contributes to an inability to inhibit the drive to seek and consume the drug and results in compulsive drug intake. This model has implications for therapy, for it suggests a multi-prong approach that targets strategies to decrease the rewarding properties of drugs, to enhance the rewarding properties of alternative reinforcers, to interfere with conditioned-learned associations, and to strengthen cognitive control in the treatment of drug addiction.
This study examined whether individuals with substance dependence (ISDs) show impairments in working memory and whether there is a relationship between their impairments in decision making as measured by the gambling task (GT) paradigm and working memory as measured by a delayed nonmatching to sample (DNMS) task. Using the GT, 11% of healthy control participants and 61% of ISDs opted for choices with high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses. For the ISDs and controls with equal GT impairments, the ISDs performed significantly lower than controls on the DNMS task. The nonimpaired ISDs on the GT also performed significantly worse than matched controls on the DNMS task. The DNMS task deficit in ISDs was across all delay times, suggesting the deficit may lie in the "executive" process of working memory, which supports earlier findings (E. M. Martin et al., 2003). The authors suggest that the prefrontal cortex hosts multiple distinct mechanisms of decision making and inhibitory control and that ISDs may be affected in any one or combination of them.
Behavioral inhibition refers to a temperament or style of reacting that some infants and young children exhibit when confronted with novel situations or unfamiliar adults or peers. Research on behavioral inhibition has examined the link between this set of behaviors to the neural systems involved in the experience and expression of fear. There are strong parallels between the physiology of behaviorally inhibited children and the activation of physiological systems associated with conditioned and unconditioned fear. Research has examined which caregiving behaviors support the frequency of behavioral inhibition across development, and work on the interface of cognitive processes and behavioral inhibition reveal both how certain cognitive processes moderate behavioral inhibition and how this temperament affects the development of cognition. This research has taken place within a context of the possibility that stable behavioral inhibition may be a risk factor for psychopathology, particularly anxiety disorders in older children. The current chapter reviews these areas of research and provides an integrative account of the broad impact of behavioral inhibition research.
From a public health standpoint, identifying factors that contribute to risky sexual practices among substance-dependent individuals is critical, particularly in the context of HIV infection. This study examines the respective contributions of executive neurocognitive functions, sensation seeking, and HIV serostatus in predicting risky sexual practices among poly-substance users (with a history of dependence primarily for cocaine or cocaine/heroin). HIV+ (n=109) and HIV- (n=154) substance-dependent individuals were assessed using three neurocognitive tasks of executive functions: Stroop reaction time, delayed non-matching to sample, and the Iowa Gambling Task. Sensation seeking was assessed using the Sensation Seeking Scale-V. Greater sensation seeking was associated with more risky sexual practices among HIV+ participants, particularly among those who performed best on the Iowa Gambling Task. Our findings indicate that continued risk behavior among HIV+ drug users may be driven by sensation seeking (a personality trait common among drug users); however, the impact of executive functions is less clear.
Adolescence is a time of high risk behavior and increased exploration. This developmental period is marked by a greater probability to initiate drug use and is associated with an increased risk to develop addiction and adulthood dependency. Human adolescents are predisposed toward an increased likelihood of risk taking behaviors [M. Zuckerman, Sensation-seeking and the endogenous deficit theory of drug abuse. NIDA Res Monogr. 74 (1986) 59-70.], including drug use or initiation. In the present study, adolescent and adult animals were first tested on several behavioral measures (novel environment exploratory behavior, novel object preference, novelty-induced impulsivity and novelty-induced exploration) which were used to categorize them as high- (HR) or low-responders (LR). The purpose of the present study was to characterize the neurochemical responsivity of the nucleus accumbens septi (NAcc) in HR and LR adolescent and adult animals in response to a systemic challenge of cocaine. Regardless of age, animals that were more reactive when placed in a novel environment had greater cocaine-induced increases in dopamine (DA). Several important and complex neurochemical differences existed between adolescent and adult animals. Adolescent animals that rapidly approached the novel object (i.e., HR) were the only group to show greater cocaine-induced responsivity. However, adult animals that spent less time near the novel object (i.e., LR) were the only group to have greater cocaine-induced responsivity. Adolescent animals that approached a novel object faster (HR) showed an increased dopaminergic (DAergic) response to an acute cocaine challenge. In contrast, adolescent animals that spent less time with the novel object had an increased cocaine-induced DAergic response compared to HR adults. Adults that approached the object less had a greater cocaine-induced DA response relative to HR adults. Finally, cocaine yielded a greater DA response in adolescent animals that showed a high novelty-induced exploration and impulsivity response, whereas the opposite was true for adults. The differences in response to cocaine between ages and groups are likely due to ontogenetic differences in brain regions that are involved in reward and/or stress responsivity.
The purpose of the present study was to explore the links among the four facets of impulsivity (urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking) proposed by and decision-making processes. Thirty undergraduate students completed a self-report questionnaire evaluating impulsivity as well as a task measuring decision-making processes, the Iowa Gambling Task. Zero-order correlations and multilevel analysis revealed that only lack of premeditation was specifically linked to disadvantageous decisions on the Gambling Task. This suggests that premeditation is related to decision making influenced by somatic (or emotional) markers.
Orbitofrontal cortex lesions produce disinhibited or socially inappropriate behavior and emotional irregularities. Characteristics of borderline personality disorder include impulsivity and affective instability. The authors investigated whether aspects of borderline personality disorder, in particular impulsivity, are associated with orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction.
Measures of personality, emotion, impulsivity, time perception, sensitivity to reinforcers, and spatial working memory were administered to patients with borderline personality disorder (N=19), patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions (N=23), patients with lesions in the prefrontal cortex but not in the orbitofrontal cortex (N=20), and healthy comparison subjects (N=39).
The patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions and the patients with borderline personality disorder performed similarly on several measures. Both groups were more impulsive and reported more inappropriate behaviors, borderline personality disorder characteristics, and anger and less happiness than the two comparison groups, and both groups were less open to experience and had a faster perception of time (underproduced time) than the healthy comparison subjects. The patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions and the borderline personality disorder patients performed differently on other measures. The borderline personality disorder patients were less extraverted and conscientious and more neurotic and emotional than all other groups. Patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions had deficits in reversing stimulus-reinforcer associations and a faster perception of time (overestimated time) than the healthy comparison subjects.
Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction may contribute to some core characteristics of borderline personality disorder, in particular impulsivity. Other characteristics of borderline personality disorder, such as high levels of emotionality and personality irregularities, do not appear to be related to the type of dysfunction produced by orbitofrontal cortex damage. The similarities and differences found between the borderline personality disorder patients and the patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions may lead to a better understanding of the etiology of borderline personality disorder and the functions of the orbitofrontal cortex.
A recent national survey (Amey, 2001) found that proportionately more young people in New Zealand gambled on cards, scratch tickets and gaming machines than older age groups. From North American surveys, young urban males in college are at risk of being problem gamblers. The present study compared the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling among a sample of 171 first year university students with the prevalence found nationally and internationally. The students, median age 23 years, completed a questionnaire consisting of demographic items, questions about gambling behaviour, the Revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS-R), a depression inventory, and the Eysenck Addiction scale. Approximately 97% of the sample gambled for money and 16% of the 165 gamblers were classified as problem gamblers. Maori gambled on more activities than the European/Pakeha, Pacific Island or Asian groups did, but there were no other significant sociodemographic differences. There were significant differences between problem and non-problem gamblers on gambling frequency, number of activities, amount gambled, parents' gambling, continuous gambling, depression and Addiction. Logistic regression analysis showed that after controlling for gambling frequency, number of activities, amount gambled, continuous gambling and parents' gambling, Addiction was a significant predictor in discriminating between problem and non-problem gamblers. Combining initiatives in the prevention and treatment of drug and gambling addiction was suggested.
Gray [In H. J. Eysenck, A model for personality (pp. 246–276). New York: Springer; 1981; The neuropsychology of anxiety: an enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1982] has described two motivational systems, the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioural Activation System (BAS), that control aversive and appetitive behaviour, respectively. Research on Gray's model of personality has been hindered by the lack of specific self-report measures of the reactivity and responsivity of these systems. We describe a set of studies that illustrate the main psychometrical characteristics of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ). The two scales of the questionnaire were developed by writing items to assess BIS and BAS functioning, respectively. Results showed that both scales were independent, and presented satisfactory internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Studies 2–5 reported data related to convergent and discriminant validity of the scales. The Sensitivity to Punishment scale was: (1) positively related to Eysenck's neuroticism dimension; (2) negatively related to extraversion; (3) not related to psychoticism; (4) significantly related to the STAI-Trait scale of Spielberger; and (5) related to the somatic, behavioral, and cognitive anxiety scales of Lehrer and Woolfolk [Behavioral Assessment, 4, (1982) 167–177.]. The Sensitivity to Reward scale was: (1) positively related to Eysenck's extraversion and neuroticism; (2) moderately related to psychoticism; (3) positively related to the Eysenck's Impulsiveness scale [Psychological Reports, 43, (1978) 1247–1255] and the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scales [Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, (1978) 139–149]. Although future construct validity studies are needed, discussion is focused on the importance of using specific designed measures to evaluate and develop Gray's model.
In this paper we examine two aspects of neuroticism (N): its status as a personality descriptor and its role in the personality dynamics of abnormal states. We first suggest that high N is such a universal accompaniment of abnormal functioning (both psychological and biological) that by itself it has little descriptive or explanatory value. Then, acknowledging that N has more utility when used alongside other personality variables, we argue that here the most informative are disorder-specific characteristics that have unique variance, while also correlating with N. We propose that N's role in aetiology is that of a moderator variable, influencing the expression of these disorder-specific characteristics to produce (or not) the clinical conditions to which they relate. By way of illustration, examples are taken from our joint studies of the eating disorders and of schizotypy and schizophrenia.
Drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by a compulsion to seek and take drugs, loss of control in limiting intake, and emergence of a negative emotional state in the absence of drug. Allostatic changes in reward function that lead to excessive drug intake provide a heuristic framework to identify the neurobiological and neuroadaptive mechanisms involved in the development of drug addiction. The brain reward system implicated in the development of addiction is comprised of key elements of the extended amygdala basal forebrain macrostructure and its connections. Neuropharmacological studies in animal models of addiction associated with excessive drug intake have provided evidence for the dysregulation of specific neurochemical mechanisms within the extended amygdala (opioid peptides, γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, and dopamine). There also is recruitment of brain stress systems (corticotropin-releasing factor and norepinephrine) and dysregulation of brain anti-stress systems (neuropeptide Y), contributing to the negative motivational state associated with drug abstinence. The changes in the reward and stress systems are hypothesized to maintain hedonic stability in an allostatic state—as opposed to a homeostatic state—and as such, convey the vulnerability for the development of dependence and relapse. The compromised brain reward and stress systems provide additional motivation for drug-seeking derived from the negative reinforcement of acute withdrawal, and are hypothesized to contribute to the allostatic state of protracted abstinence that augments other forms of ‘craving’ induced by environmental events. The allostatic state of protracted abstinence is an important target for developing novel behavioral and pharmacological therapies for drug addiction.
The demographic characteristics and EPQ profiles of a sample of 562 problem drinkers presenting for treatment at a community day treatment centre are described. In addition to the data provided on the usual four scales of the EPQ, Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism and the Lie scale, an analysis of the more recently developed Addiction scale is reported for this population.
The measurement of anxiety and impulsivity dimensions is one of the main problems that Gray's model faces in human research. Contrary to most personality models, Gray's model has no standard way to assess the personality dimensions that arise from the theory. Multiple measurement strategies have been used, some of them introducing conceptual errors and difficult outcome comparisons. In this paper, scales most used in anxiety and impulsivity assessment are studied and compared in order to provide some empirical clues that could help in the decision on which scale to use for the assessment of individual differences in anxiety and impulsivity dimensions. Some validity criteria are proposed as convergence with other measures, orthogonality, and correlations with the Extraversion and Neuroticism scales. From the analyses performed with 538 university students, a high homogeneity in anxiety measures is observed, being the Sensitivity to Punishment and Harm Avoidance scales which best fits in validity criteria. A lesser homogeneity is observed across impulsivity scales; in this case the Sensitivity to Reward and I7 scales showed the best results.
Modern economic theory ignores the influence of emotions on decision-making. Emerging neuroscience evidence suggests that sound and rational decision making, in fact, depends on prior accurate emotional processing. The somatic marker hypothesis provides a systems-level neuroanatomical and cognitive framework for decision-making and its influence by emotion. The key idea of this hypothesis is that decision-making is a process that is influenced by marker signals that arise in bioregulatory processes, including those that express themselves in emotions and feelings. This influence can occur at multiple levels of operation, some of which occur consciously, and some of which occur non-consciously. Here we review studies that confirm various predictions from the hypothesis, and propose a neural model for economic decision, in which emotions are a major factor in the interaction between environmental conditions and human decision processes, with these emotional systems providing valuable implicit or explicit knowledge for making fast and advantageous decisions.
Behavioral decision-making as measured with a gambling task has been found to be impaired in several pathological conditions such as brain lesions, addiction, and personality disorders. It is not known how individual differences influence performance on behavioral decision-making. The goal of the present study was to examine to what extent performance on behavioral measures of decision-making is predicted by self-reported personality traits of sensitivity for punishment and reward, impulsivity, and decision-making styles. For this goal, performance on the IOWA gambling task was related to the BIS/BAS questionnaire, the Dickman Impulsivity Inventory, and the Adolescent Decision Making Questionnaire in a sample of students (n = 44). The results showed that behavioral decision-making was to some extent predicted by individual differences in sensitivity for reward and self-reported decision-making style. However, behavioral decision-making was not predicted by impulsive personality traits.
Several previous studies have reported personality differences between addicts and normal subjects. In the present investigation, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire was administered to 221 addicts at three London treatment centres, and to 310 normal subjects. An item analysis showed that a large number of items discriminated between the two groups. An ‘Addiction Scale’ was constructed from the 32 items on which the groups differed most, (all at p<0.001). Most of the A-Scale items were drawn from the Neuroticism Scale and identified feelings of anxiety and depression. It is suggested that this neurotic component may be artificially inflated. Addicts may have learned to present neurotic problems through such symptoms being rewarded in therapeutic institutions. The neurotic component seems to play a lesser role in distinguishing female addicts from controls. These and other findings are discussed.
Following damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, humans develop a defect in real-life decision-making, which contrasts with otherwise normal intellectual functions. Currently, there is no neuropsychological probe to detect in the laboratory, and the cognitive and neural mechanisms responsible for this defect have resisted explanation. Here, using a novel task which simulates real-life decision-making in the way it factors uncertainty of premises and outcomes, as well as reward and punishment, we find that prefrontal patients, unlike controls, are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions, and seem to be guided by immediate prospects only. This finding offers, for the first time, the possibility of detecting these patients' elusive impairment in the laboratory, measuring it, and investigating its possible causes.
Impulsivity was contrasted between 32 subjects with a history of drug-dependence (DRUG+) and 26 subjects with no drug use history (DRUG-) using both behavioral and self-report measures. The hypothesis was that the DRUG+ group would be more impulsive than the DRUG- group. Subjects in the DRUG+ group self-reported more of a tendency toward impulsivity than the DRUG- group in the situations posed in questionnaires. In the behavioural paradigm involving a choice between a smaller intermediate reward and a larger but delayed reward, DRUG+ subjects selected the impulsive option more often, but these differences were not significant. The DRUG+ and DRUG- groups did differ on the mean delay interval for the larger reward, indicating less ability to tolerate longer delays for the larger reward. A frequency distribution of delay intervals for the larger reward indicated that DRUG+ subjects were more likely to maintain very short intervals and less likely to maintain longer intervals.
A number of theories have been proposed to explain the substantial comorbidity between the eating disorders and the substance-related disorders. Among them is the claim that self-starvation--exacerbated by excessive exercising--is itself an addiction to the body's endogenous opioids. While efforts have also been made to identify an "addictive personality," attempts to establish whether eating-disordered patients share these characteristics have met with mixed success. The present study was designed to determine the degree to which anorexic and bulimic patients display addictive personality characteristics, and whether these traits are useful in predicting the severity of the patient's weight preoccupation and their degree of excessive exercising. Results confirmed that both anorexic and bulimic patients had high scores on the Addiction Scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and that addictiveness and obsessive-compulsiveness were related simultaneously to weight preoccupation and excessive exercising in both patient groups. Findings are discussed within the framework of the auto-addiction opioid theory, and they highlight the similarities and differences in the personality structure of the eating-disorder subtypes.
Drug abuse is one of the most pressing sociomedical problems of society. The purpose of this study was to examine the personality and psychopathology of addicts. 229 addicts in treatment programs scored high on Neuroticism and on the Lie Scale and low on Psychoticism and Extraversion on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire for Puerto Rico. An Addiction Scale, based on a factor analysis, showed a high component of Neuroticism items.
On a gambling task that models real-life decisions, patients with bilateral lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VM) opt for choices that yield high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses. In this study, we addressed three possibilities that may account for this behaviour: (i) hypersensitivity to reward; (ii) insensitivity to punishment; and (iii) insensitivity to future consequences, such that behaviour is always guided by immediate prospects. For this purpose, we designed a variant of the original gambling task in which the advantageous decks yielded high immediate punishment but even higher future reward. The disadvantageous decks yielded low immediate punishment but even lower future reward. We measured the skin conductance responses (SCRs) of subjects after they had received a reward or punishment. Patients with VM lesions opted for the disadvantageous decks in both the original and variant versions of the gambling task. The SCRs of VM lesion patients after they had received a reward or punishment were not significantly different from those of controls. In a second experiment, we investigated whether increasing the delayed punishment in the disadvantageous decks of the original task or decreasing the delayed reward in the disadvantageous decks of the variant task would shift the behaviour of VM lesion patients towards an advantageous strategy. Both manipulations failed to shift the behaviour of VM lesion patients away from the disadvantageous decks. These results suggest that patients with VM lesions are insensitive to future consequences, positive or negative, and are primarily guided by immediate prospects. This 'myopia for the future' in VM lesion patients persists in the face of severe adverse consequences, i.e. rising future punishment or declining future reward.
A decision-making instrument known as the "gambling task" was used, which has been shown to be sensitive to the decision-making impairment of patients with bilateral lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VM). Three groups of subjects were tested, substance dependent individuals (SD) (n=41), normal controls (n=40), and VM patients (n=5). All SD met the DSM-IV criteria for dependence, with either alcohol or stimulants (metamphetamine or cocaine) as the primary substance of choice. The results revealed a significant impairment in the performance of SD relative to normal controls. A significantly high proportion of SD (61 vs. only 32.5% of normal controls) performed within the range of the VM patients, while the rest performed within the range of normal controls. General demographic factors such as age, sex, and level of education could not explain these differences in performance. As well, differences in performance were not explained by intelligence (IQ), memory, or performance on standard executive function/frontal lobe tests. Performance on the gambling task was best predicted by a combination of factors, including duration of abstinence, years of abuse, relapses and times in treatment, and the ability to hold gainful employment. The results support the hypothesis that impairment in decision-making linked to a dysfunctional VM cortex is associated with at least a sub-group of SD.
On a decision-making instrument known as the "gambling task" (GT), a subgroup of substance dependent individuals (SDI) opted for choices that yield high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses. This resembles the behavior of patients with ventromedial (VM) prefrontal cortex lesions. In this study, we addressed the possibility that hypersensitivity to reward may account for the "myopia" for the future in this subgroup of SDI. We used a variant version of the GT, in which the good decks yielded high immediate punishment but higher delayed reward. The bad decks yielded low immediate punishment and lower delayed reward. We measured the skin conductance response (SCR) of subjects after receiving reward (reward SCR) and during their pondering from which deck to choose (anticipatory SCR). A subgroup of SDI who was not impaired on the original GT performed normally on the variant GT. The subgroup of SDI who was impaired on the original GT showed two levels of performance on the variant GT. One subgroup (36% of the sample) performed poorly on the variant GT, and showed similar behavioral and physiological impairments to VM patients. The other subgroup of SDI (64% of the sample) performed normally on the variant task, but had abnormally large physiological responses to reward, i.e. large SCR after receiving reward (reward SCR) and large SCR in anticipation of outcomes that yield large reward. Thus, the combined cognitive and physiological approach of assessing decision-making characterizes three sub-populations of SDI. One sub-population is without impairments that can be detected by any measure of the GT paradigm. Another sub-population is similar to VM patients in that they are insensitive to the future, both positive and negative. A third sub-population is hypersensitive to reward, so that the presence or the prospect of receiving, reward dominates their behavior.
Some substance dependent individuals (SDI) suffer from a decision-making impairment akin to that seen in neurological patients with lesions of the ventromedial (VM) prefrontal cortex. The somatic-marker hypothesis posits that decision-making is a process that depends on emotion and that deficits in emotional signaling will lead to poor decision-making. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that SDI who perform disadvantageously on a decision-making instrument, the gambling task (GT), have a deficit in the somatic signals that help guide their decision in the advantageous direction. Since deficits in decision-making/somatic markers can also result from dysfunctional amygdala, we asked indirectly (i.e. via tests sensitive to VM or amygdala dysfunction) whether such a deficit in SDI is restricted to VM dysfunction or includes the amygdala. Using the GT, and skin conductance response (SCR) as an index of somatic state activation, we studied groups of SDI (n=46), normal controls (n=49), and VM patients (n=10). A subgroup of SDI showed defective performance on the GT coupled with impaired anticipatory SCR, but normal SCR to punishment, and normal acquisition of conditioned SCR to an aversive loud sound. This supports the hypothesis that the poor decision-making in some SDI is associated with defective somatic state activation that is linked to a dysfunctional VM cortex. Thus, the dysfunctional VM cortex underlying the "myopia" for the future in some SDI may be one of the principle mechanisms underlying the transition from casual substance taking to compulsive and uncontrollable behavior.
The somatic marker hypothesis proposes that both the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex are parts of a neural circuit critical for judgment and decision-making. Although both structures couple exteroceptive sensory information with interoceptive information concerning somatic/emotional states, they do so at different levels, thus making different contributions to the process. We define "primary inducers" as stimuli that unconditionally, or through learning (e.g., conditioning and semantic knowledge), can (perceptually or subliminally) produce states that are pleasurable or aversive. Encountering a fear object (e.g., a snake), a stimulus predictive of a snake, or semantic information such as winning or losing a large sum of money are all examples of primary inducers. "Secondary inducers" are entities generated by the recall of a personal or hypothetical emotional event or perceiving a primary inducer that generates "thoughts" and "memories" about the inducer, all of which, when they are brought to memory, elicit a somatic state. The episodic memory of encountering a snake, losing a large sum of money, imagining the gain of a large sum of money, or hearing or looking at primary inducers that bring to memory "thoughts" pertaining to an emotional event are all examples of secondary inducers. We present evidence in support of the hypothesis that the amygdala is a critical substrate in the neural system necessary for triggering somatic states from primary inducers. The ventromedial cortex is a critical substrate in the neural system necessary for the triggering of somatic states from secondary inducers. The amygdala system is a priori a necessary step for the normal development of the orbitofrontal system for triggering somatic states from secondary inducers. However, once this orbitofrontal system is developed, the induction of somatic states by secondary inducers via the orbitofrontal system is less dependent on the amygdala system. Perhaps the amygdala is equivalent to the hippocampus with regard to emotions, that is, necessary for acquiring new emotional attributes (anterograde emotions), but not for retrieving old emotional attributes (retrograde emotions). Given the numerous lesion and functional neuroimaging studies illustrating the involvement of the amygdala in complex cognitive and behavioral functions, including "social cognition," we suggest that this involvement is a manifestation of a more fundamental function mediated by the amygdala, which is to couple stimuli/entities with their emotional attributes, that is, the processing of somatic states from primary inducers.
Poor social judgment and decision-making abilities have often been attributed to people who have suffered injury to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). However, few laboratory tests of decision-making have been conducted on these patients. The exception to this is the Iowa Gambling Task which has often, but not always, demonstrated differential performance between patients and controls. Results from patients with prefrontal cortex lesions on a novel test of decision-making are presented. Participants explored and chose from pairs of gambles that differed in their underlying distributions, primarily in the variance of their respective outcomes. In accordance with many findings from the behavioral decision-making literature, both young normal participants and older patient controls demonstrated a marked avoidance of risk and selected largely from secure, low variance gambles. In contrast, patients with ventromedial lesions were divided into two clear sub-groups. One group behaved similarly to normals, showing a risk-averse strategy. The other group displayed a distinctive risk-seeking behavior pattern, choosing predominantly from the high-variance, high-risk decks. This research demonstrates some of the advantages of using methods and theories from traditional decision-making research to study the behavior of patients, as well as the benefits of examining individual participants, and provides new insights into the nature of the decision-making deficit in patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions.
Most theories of choice assume that decisions derive from an assessment of the future outcomes of various options and alternatives through some type of cost-benefit analyses. The influence of emotions on decision-making is largely ignored. The studies of decision-making in neurological patients who can no longer process emotional information normally suggest that people make judgments not only by evaluating the consequences and their probability of occurring, but also and even sometimes primarily at a gut or emotional level. Lesions of the ventromedial