Article

To whom do positive norm and negative norm of reciprocity apply? Effects of inequitable offer, relationship, and relational-self orientation

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Abstract

Various theories have been proposed to account for people’s reciprocity behavior in social exchange. The current research is designed to delineate the conditions under which and for whom the relational theoretical explanation is most applicable. We hypothesize that while people in general show positive (negative) reciprocity responses toward favorable (unfavorable) inequitable treatments from others, such a tendency varies depending on the relationship with the exchange counterpart, and their own relational-self orientation. While we used country (China vs. the US) as a proxy for participants’ relational-self orientation in Study 1, this orientation was directly assessed in Study 2. Results from both studies showed consistent support for our hypothesis. Implications of these findings to literatures in reciprocity and social exchange are discussed.

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... This experience triggers feelings of ostracism, producing a negative response. The negative reciprocity principle [30] implies that ostracized workers perform negative behaviors because individuals reciprocate in kind in social relationships to restore balance [18]. Prior literature on workplace ostracism highlights the adverse consequences of this phenomenon, including reduced performance [25], escalated interpersonal deviance [1], and decreased voice behavior [80]. ...
... Building on SIT [70], distrustful employees exit the prototypical (trustful) group, leading them to identify as outgroup members. Further, building on the negative reciprocity principle [30], employees with perceptions of ostracism may retaliate by inflicting harm to restore their social functioning and system [18], potentially via knowledge hiding. ...
... Using social identity theory [70], distrustful employees move away from the prototypical (trustful and cooperative) group, thereby identifying as outgroup members. As a result, employees who feel socially excluded reciprocate negatively by hurting others to restore their social functioning and system [18] by withholding knowledge (based on the negative reciprocity principle [30]), supporting Hypothesis 3. ...
Article
Experiencing ostracism at work is traumatic, adversely impacting employees' mental health, attitudes, and behaviors. Although the effects of workplace ostracism have captured academic interest, holistic models identifying its antecedents' determinants and ramifications are scarce. This research conducts a holistic investigation of perceived workplace ostracism by evaluating how interpersonal distrust influences it and the knock-on effect on knowledge hiding. Moreover, it investigates the moderating role of person-organization unfit in the proposed perceived workplace ostracism–knowledge hiding relationship. Data gathered from 242 employees in the United Arab Emirates was analyzed via partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that interpersonal distrust positively affects perceived workplace ostracism, which in turn drives knowledge hiding. Additionally, person-organization unfit moderates perceived workplace ostracism's influence on knowledge hiding, with high unfit exacerbating the effect. We discuss our findings' practical and theoretical implications and suggest future avenues for research.
... Thus, we did not have direct hypotheses about whether Pakistani adolescents would endorse revenge goals more than U.S. adolescents after peer provocation. However, Pakistani people also emphasize maintaining harmonious interactions with in-group members and, as such, we theorized that Pakistani adolescents would be less likely to respond negatively to provocations if they anticipated future interactions with the provocateur (Chen et al., 2009;Jung et al., 2014). To examine this question, we compared how interpretations about the viability of a friendship, which would imply future and consistent future interactions with a provocateur, would be a greater determinant of revenge-seeking for Pakistani and U.S. youth. ...
... It was hypothesized that positive interpretations would be more predictive of revenge goals than negative interpretations for both groups of adolescents. As prior research suggests that individuals from countries whose norms focus on in-group harmonious interaction are less likely to retaliate if they expect that they will interact with the provocateur in the future (Chen et al., 2009;Jung et al., 2014), we also hypothesized that relationship unviability interpretations would be more related to revenge goals for Pakistani youth than for U.S. adolescents. Additionally, because there may be greater expectations for retaliation under conditions of honor threat in cultures that prioritize honor (Leung & Cohen, 2011), we also explored whether Pakistani adolescents would endorse revenge more for peer provocations than U.S. youth. ...
Article
This study examined cultural specificity in how interpretations about peer provocation are associated with revenge goals and aggression. The sample consisted of young adolescents from the United States (369 seventh graders; 54.7% male; 77.2% identified as White) and from Pakistan (358 seventh graders; 39.2% male). Participants rated their interpretations and revenge goals in response to six peer provocation vignettes and completed peer nominations of aggressive behavior. Multigroup structural equation models (SEMs) indicated cultural specificity in how interpretations were related to revenge goals. Interpretations that a friendship with the provocateur was unlikely were uniquely related to revenge goals for Pakistani adolescents. For U.S adolescents, positive interpretations were negatively related to revenge but self-blame interpretations were positively related to vengeance goals. Revenge goals were related to aggression similarly across groups.
... Similarly, while positive reciprocal exchanges emphasize prosociality, general well-being, and cohesion-negative reciprocity imposes normative regulation and justification that you 'reap what you sow,' such as legal punishment for an unlawful action (Caliendo et al., 2010;Suranovic, 2001a). However, stronger beliefs of negative reciprocity over positive reciprocity, or returning an adverse action with a more significant retaliation-such as physically assaulting a server for unsatisfactory service-can lead to a dissipation of social norms (Chen et al., 2009). ...
... Further, individualism showed the opposite relationship (see Table 2 and Figure 4), as those who held stronger individualist perceptions agreed more with negative reciprocal behaviors and less with positive reciprocity. Although a stronger emphasis on negative reciprocity can cause social norms to dissipate (Chen et al., 2009), both reciprocal norms are equally needed within a social group, leading those with greater perceptions of individualism to count on those with greater perceptions of collectivism to act with positive reciprocity and vice versa. While positive reciprocity creates greater community well-being, negative reciprocity ensures the proper functionality of a community and the social norms within it, creating a perceived just system for cultural and community members (Caliendo et al., 2010;Lerner, 1980;Suranovic, 2001a). ...
Thesis
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In contemporary cultural research, culture and prosociality have been established as coexisting components within social development. Within these broad elements sits numerous social and psychological factors, specifically the reciprocal exchanges, social norms, and social influence individuals perceive and adopt while integrating within varying cultural belief systems, acting as mechanisms for these beliefs to spread. This research contends that these specified clusters of beliefs, or defined cultural dimensions, and the action of pro-social behaviors are inherently related to such social mechanisms. More specifically, it is argued that cultural beliefs act through social norms and beliefs of reciprocity, emphasizing social context and influence, leading to pro-social behavioral change. Similarly, the extent that an individual participates in reciprocal exchanges promoting prosociality is argued to be a direct component stemming from their perception of culture, further strengthening the acceptance of pro-social behaviors or lack thereof. Through the conducted survey (N=182) and subsequent analyses, results were found that both supported and failed to support the proposed hypotheses, establishing the direct and indirect effects of perceived social and reciprocal norms within the relationship between perceptions of culture and prosociality. Further, an inquiry on the current standing of cultural measures and complex definitions of culture is considered. This dialogue addresses the diverse array of cultures around the globe and expands upon the possibilities for future directions within cultural research, emphasizing the need for measurement tools to align with the cultural definition of focus.
... This inline with social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) that considers the norm of reciprocity as the central norm for the exchange of socio-emotional resources between individuals (Blau, 1964). The norm of reciprocity and social exchange theory both argue that one main goal of reciprocating behavior is for individuals to restore equity in interpersonal exchanges and relationships (Chen et al., 2009;Perugini et al., 2003). ...
... Vicious cycle of unfairness Gouldner (1960) distinguishes between positive and negative reciprocity. Previous research has provided strong support that beliefs about favoring positive and negative reciprocation are different from each other and that individuals reciprocate not only fair treatment but also unfair treatment despite having no self-interest (Chen et al., 2009;Eisenberger et al., 2004;Perugini et al., 2003). In the team context, positive reciprocity means that a team member reciprocates positive behavior from teammates (e.g. ...
Article
Purpose Teams often cannot fulfill their managers’ expectations due to unfairness issues and dysfunctional conflicts with teammates. This paper aims to create a fair team environment, it is important to analyze the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict. However, only a few studies have done this and reported inconsistent results. Using negative reciprocity research as a theoretical foundation, this paper analyzes the interconnection between unfairness and conflict dimensions in the team context. This paper further integrates conflict management research to show employees and managers how to handle unfairness and conflict in teams. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted a longitudinal survey study (three points in time) with 237 employees from different German organizations. Findings The results of cross-lagged structural equation modeling provide some evidence that interpersonal, procedural and informational unfairness predict relationship conflict and process conflict. Several of these effects become non-significant over time. Further, relationship and process conflict have several significant relationships with the unfairness dimensions, while task conflict did not have any significant relationship. The results also suggest that employees can break up the vicious cycle of unfairness and conflict by using a cooperative conflict management approach. Research limitations/implications This paper focuses on members of autonomous, interdependent and existing teams and the interpersonal relationship of a team member with her or his teammates. Future research could analyze leader-member relationships in different team types. Practical implications The application of cooperative conflict management enables employees to break up the vicious cycle of unfairness. Originality/value This paper clarifies the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict and shows that a team member can apply a cooperative conflict management style to handle effectively unfairness and conflict.
... Self-presentation makes it easy to generate emotion-based trust between individuals and promotes their intimacy (Chiu et al., 2006;Øverup and Neighbors, 2016). Therefore, users with high self-presentation are more likely to follow the norm of reciprocity in their interpersonal relationships Chen et al., 2009;Zhao et al., 2018). Thus, we propose the following. ...
... Therefore, we can conclude that organizations which have low SC may have higher production cost and higher services cost which ultimately results in a decline in their profit and earnings. At the same time, negative norms of reciprocity deter harmful and violent behaviour (Chen, Chen & Portnoy, 2009 ...
Thesis
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The development and existence of Psychological Capital (PC) and Conflict Management (CM) among employees could have an influence on positive work-related attitudes and behaviour for instance Employees ’ Engagement (EE) in every sector of the industry. There is a gap in the management studies which cover the relationship of psychological capital and employees’ engagement with the moderating role of conflict management specifically among the employees working in the financial services sector. This study is an effort to examine this association between psychological capital and employees ’ engagement with the moderational role of integrating style of conflict management in the financial services sector of Islamabad. These variables are becoming vital and play a significant role in business operations. A cross-sectional survey design was implied to gather primary data. A questionnaire comprised of established scales was administered to 600 employees belonging to the financial service sector, including various banks, investment companies, insurance companies, brokerage firms, and real estate companies located in Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan, with Ninety Two percent (92%) response rate. A deductive research approach has been adopted and positivism philosophy is implied in this study. The collected data was then analysed with the inference of correlation and counter checked by bootstrapping analysis, regression, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM) were run through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) to evaluate the research model. The results of the analysis indicate that psychological capital positively influences employees’ engagement significantly in the financial services sector and this relationship improves further positively with the inclusion of an integrating approach or style of conflict management, when conflicts are handled and managed effectively and efficiently. The current study would give helpful directions to the managers of the financial services sector and others and has implications for the design and implementation of employees’ engagement practices and employees’ engagement policies to improve employees ’ performance at workplaces. Overall, this effort will contribute towards the being literature on the history of employees ’ involvement, by investigating the unswerving impact of psychological capital on employees ’ engagement and with the moderating impact of integrating approach or style of conflict management in the financial services sector. This study will also highlight the importance and implementation of psychological capital, conflict management, and employees’ engagement in the financial services sector in a developing country like Pakistan.
... The norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), which is a part of social exchange theory, states that individuals aim to benefit those who have provided them with benefits in the past, in order to stabilize social systems. The norm of reciprocity can be understood in negative terms as well, such that individuals respond in kind to unfavorable treatment (Chen et al., 2009;Gouldner, 1960). ...
Article
The number of employees with disabilities in the workforce is increasing and accommodations are essential to the work of many of these individuals. Prior research has explored perceptions of accommodation requests as well as coworkers’ and managers’ reactions to accommodations; yet, we know little about how employees with disabilities experience their own accommodations. We draw from the disability literature as well as contemporary justice and social exchange theory to develop and subsequently test a multilevel moderated mediation model on this subject. We test our hypotheses with data from 4,083 employees nested in 256 workgroups across two time points. We find support for our prediction that accommodation-focused interpersonal justice influences turnover intentions. The effect of these justice perceptions was mediated by workgroup openness to communication. Further, we find that representation of accommodated employees with disabilities at the workgroup level plays an important role in these relationships. We look beyond the technical aspects of accommodation with this research to highlight the social experience of accommodation as a central driver of employee perceptions and work outcomes.
... Reciprocity, a social norm intrinsically possessed in human nature that one tends to return the act (positive or negative) given by others, forms the pillar of human interpersonal relationships (Chen et al. 2009;Caliendo et al. 2012). Reciprocity propensity (RP) is regarded as a stable personality trait, indicating how likely an individual reciprocates the actions of others (Li et al. 2017;Schino and Aureli 2017). ...
Article
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Background The social representation theory states that individual differences in reciprocity decisions are composed of a stable central core (i.e., reciprocity propensity, RP) and a contextual-dependent periphery (i.e., sensitivity to the framing effect; SFE, the effect by how the decision is presented). However, the neural underpinnings that explain RP and SFE are still unknown. Method Here, we employed prediction and lesion models to decode resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) of RP and SFE for reciprocity decisions of healthy volunteers who underwent RS functional magnetic resonance imaging and completed one-shot trust (give frame) and distrust (take frame) games as trustees. Results Regarding the central core, reciprocity rates were positively associated between the give and take frame. Neuroimaging results showed that inter-network RSFC between the default-mode network (DMN; associated with mentalizing) and cingulo-opercular network (associated with cognitive control) contributed to the prediction of reciprocity under both frames. Regarding the periphery, behavioral results demonstrated a significant framing effect-people reciprocated more in the give than in the take frame. Our neuroimaging results revealed that intra-network RSFC of DMN (associated with mentalizing) contributed dominantly to the prediction of SFE. Conclusion Our findings provide evidence for distinct neural mechanisms of RP and SFE in reciprocity decisions.
... Relational-self orientation, or the degree to which an individual's self-identity is defined by his relationships with others, may also influence whether or not an individual is likely to resist retaliation. Chen and colleagues [152] found that reciprocity in situations that was negatively inequitable to the individual depended on the relationship type and relational-self orientation. Individuals who interacted with close others reacted less negatively to inequitable outcomes, and individuals high on relational-self orientation also responded less negatively. ...
Article
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There is a long-standing debate in philosophy and the social sciences about how selfishness and cooperation function in dyadic social exchanges. Dyads are the foundation of our social lives, and reciprocity has long been considered the dominant strategy for dyadic interactions. We will argue the repertoire of human behavior during social exchanges ranges from punishment to generosity, and that the nuances of the relationship and interaction will dictate which behavior is likely to occur. We will examine emotional consequences of punishment, reciprocity, and forgiveness in long-term dyadic social exchanges. Finally, we argue that dyads move beyond reciprocity to a more forgiving, generous strategy to reestablish cooperation, and continue the relationship when noncooperation arises, once the motivations shift has occurred.
... Second, because relational abuse threatens their identity (Holmvall & Bobocel, 2008), they are likely to flee such destructive relationships and turn to the more constructive relationships they have with other people. This should result in the development of transactional, rather than social, exchange relationships with the supervisor (Chen et al., 2009). Accordingly, we expect the relationship between abusive supervisory behaviors and LMX to be more negative among subordinates with a strong relational self-concept. ...
Article
The current research examines the consequences of supervisors' overtime hours on subordinates. Drawing upon the stressor‐emotion model of counterproductive behaviors, we argue that supervisors' overtime hours positively relate to abusive supervision behaviors through negative emotions, which in turn undermine leader–member exchange relationships. We further posit that this process is exacerbated among subordinates with a strong relational self‐concept. Multisource multilevel data collected from an organizational sample of 181 employees and longitudinal data from 416 employees from multiple organizations support our predictions. This research indicates that the consequences of working overtime extend beyond supervisors, as subordinates may be negatively affected when their supervisors work long hours. We discuss implications for both theory and practice. Cette recherche examine les conséquences des heures supplémentaires des gestionnaires sur les employés. En s'appuyant sur le modèle stress/émotions/comportements contreproductifs, nous formulons l'hypothèse que les longues heures de travail des gestionnaires entraînent des émotions négatives qui conduisent à une augmentation des comportements de supervision abusive, ce qui nuit à la qualité de l’échange leader‐membre. Nous postulons également que ce processus est exacerbé chez les employés ayant un concept de soi relationnel élevé. Des données multi‐sources et multi‐niveaux recueillies auprès d'un échantillon organisationnel de 181 employé·es et des données longitudinales provenant de 416 employé·es de plusieurs organisations confirment nos prédictions. Cette recherche indique que les conséquences des heures supplémentaires ne se limitent pas au gestionnaires et affectent également leurs employés. Nous discutons des implications de nos résultats tant pour la théorie que pour la pratique.
... Cultural backgrounds may influence individuals' self-construal (Arnocky et al., 2007). Given that Chinese culture is collectivism-oriented and emphasizes interpersonal relationships, and Chinese have a higher relational-self orientation than Americans (Chen et al., 2009), it is reasonable to investigate the impact of RISC in Chinese culture. ...
Article
Full-text available
Internet fiction reading is a proliferating recreational activity in China, for its compelling narratives and immersive experience on portable mobile devices. Based on the uses and gratifications theory, the present study aimed to examine whether interpersonal alienation predicted excessive Internet fiction reading. Specifically, when people do not identify themselves in terms of their relationships with others (low in relational-interdependent self-construal, RISC), the tendency to develop imaginary relationships with media figures (parasocial relationship, PSR), was explored as a mediator between interpersonal alienation and excessive Internet fiction reading. A sample of 627 participants completed an online survey regarding interpersonal alienation, PSR, RISC, and excessive Internet fiction reading. Results showed that interpersonal alienation was positively associated with excessive Internet fiction reading, and PSR partially mediated this association. In addition, the mediating effect of PSR was moderated by RISC. Specifically, the mediating effect was stronger for people with low RISC than those with high RISC. It is among the first studies to identify the determinant of excessive Internet fiction reading from the interpersonal perspective and to provide evidence for the association between interpersonal alienation and excessive Internet fiction reading as well as the underlying mechanisms of such relationship. The current study also advances PSR research into the context of Internet fiction. Limitations and implications are discussed.
... For instance, in a cross-cultural experiment, Chinese participants rewarded their friends' cooperative actions (i.e., promoting the partner's economic well-being) to a greater extent than did their American counterparts, whereas American participants punished their friends' non-cooperative actions (i.e., exploiting the partner's economic well-being) to a greater extent than did their Chinese counterparts (Jung et al., 2014). These findings are consistent with the theory that Chinese morality compared to American morality is more oriented towards maintaining in-group harmony, even at the cost of personal interests (see also Chen, Chen, & Portnoy, 2009). ...
Chapter
The cultural psychology of Chinese morality is complex. However, cross-cultural researchers often overlooked this complexity by dichotomizing societal-cultural differences between the West and the East, and by focusing on the overall characteristics of a given cultural system. For instance, compared to its western counterparts (e.g., North American culture), moral culture in China is considered a prime exemplar of collectivism which emphasizes the preservation of traditional social order but downplays the protection of individual rights and freedoms. To address these oversimplified views, in this chapter we introduce a cultural diversity perspective for examining the diversity and dynamics of Chinese morality. This approach suggests that the cultural psychology of Chinese morality varies as a function of macro-, meso-, and micro-contexts. Accordingly, there exists substantial within-China diversity in moral values, judgments, and practices, across geographic regions, communities, and individuals. To demonstrate this point, we present preliminary findings that reveal how Chinese respondents from different provinces, communities, organizations, and socioeconomic groups differed in their moral judgments about individual freedom of personal-sexual lifestyle choices. And how societal modernization played a critical role in shaping these moral diversities. These findings enrich our knowledge about the cultural psychology of Chinese morality, avoiding the danger of stereotyping Chinese culture as a rigid and static entity.
... Karşılıklılık, tüm bireylerde mevcut olan genel bir eğilim olmasına rağmen, bazı bireyler bu eğilimi alış-veriş sürecinde bulundukları taraflara daha fazla veya daha az gösterebilmektedirler. İlgili yazında bu durumun nedenlerini açıklamaya yönelik olarak farklı bakış açılarının sunulduğu görülmektedir (Chen, Chen & Portnoy, 2009). Kişisel çıkarları vurgulayan araçsal bakış açısına göre (Becker, 1960;Gergen, 1969;Thibaut & Walker, 1975) bireylerin karşılıklılık eğilimi göstermelerinin temel nedeni, karşılıklılığın birey için faydalı olan uzun dönemli çıktıları beraberinde getirmesi ve garanti altına almasıdır. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bu araştırmada politik yetinin bilgi paylaşımı davranışı üzerindeki etkisinde, karşılıklı ilişki beklentisinin aracı rolü incelenmiştir. Bilgi paylaşımı davranışı, bilgi yönetiminin en önemli bileşenlerinden birisi olarak örgütler açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Çalışanın bilgisinin kurumun bilgisi haline gelmesi ve kurumun işleyişinde kullanılabilmesinin önem arz etmesi nedeniyle, bilgi paylaşımı davranışının öncellerinin belirlenmesi ve bilgi paylaşım davranışının teşvik edilmesine yönelik uygulamalara yer verilmesi önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmada da, bilgi paylaşım davranışı üzerinde etkili olabileceği düşünülen politik yeti ve karşılıklı ilişki beklentisi bir model kapsamında incelenmiştir. Politik yeti bireylere uzun vadeli düşünme becerisi kazandırarak özellikle karşılıklılık normunu daha etkili kullanmalarını sağlamaktadır. Bu nedenle politik yetinin karşılıklı ilişki beklentisi üzerinde açıklayıcı katkı sağlaması beklenmektedir. Karşılıklı ilişki beklentisi ise uzun vadeli bir düşünce biçimi olup, ilişkilere gelecek odaklı yatırımlar yapılmasını içermektedir. Bu yatırımlardan birisi de kişinin gelecekte önemli bilgilerin kendisiyle paylaşılması beklentisi ile bugün bilgi paylaşım davranışını artırmasıdır. Bu araştırma açıklamalarda öngörülen ilişkilerin belirlenmesi amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmaya 265 özel sektör çalışanı katılmıştır. Analiz sonuçlarına göre, politik yeti ve bilgi paylaşımı davranışı arasındaki ilişkide karşılıklı ilişki beklentisinin kısmi aracı role sahip olduğu ortaya konulmuş ve araştırmanın hipotezi kısmen doğrulanmıştır
... Kişi kendisine olumlu davranan kişilere benzer şekilde olumlu karşılık vermeli, olumsuz tutum ve davranış içinde bulunmamalıdır. Bu yaklaşım toplumda bireye öğretilmesi gereken bir norm olarak ele alınmıştır (Chen, Chen, & Portnoy, 2009). Olumlu veya olumsuz bir davranışa nasıl karşılık verilmesi gerektiği kültürel bir norm olarak öğretilebilir, hatta tanımlanan karşılık davranışının karşılığı da ödül veya ceza ile toplum tarafından onaylanıp, pekiştirilebilir. ...
... Karşılıklılık, tüm bireylerde mevcut olan genel bir eğilim olmasına rağmen, bazı bireyler bu eğilimi alış-veriş sürecinde bulundukları taraflara daha fazla veya daha az gösterebilmektedirler. İlgili yazında bu durumun nedenlerini açıklamaya yönelik olarak farklı bakış açılarının sunulduğu görülmektedir (Chen, Chen & Portnoy, 2009). Kişisel çıkarları vurgulayan araçsal bakış açısına göre (Becker, 1960;Gergen, 1969;Thibaut & Walker, 1975) bireylerin karşılıklılık eğilimi göstermelerinin temel nedeni, karşılıklılığın birey için faydalı olan uzun dönemli çıktıları beraberinde getirmesi ve garanti altına almasıdır. ...
Article
Bu araştırmada politik yetinin bilgi paylaşımı davranışı üzerindeki etkisinde, karşılıklı ilişki beklentisinin aracı rolü incelenmiştir. Bilgi paylaşımı davranışı, bilgi yönetiminin en önemli bileşenlerinden birisi olarak örgütler açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Çalışanın bilgisinin kurumun bilgisi haline gelmesi ve kurumun işleyişinde kullanılabilmesinin önem arz etmesi nedeniyle, bilgi paylaşımı davranışının öncellerinin belirlenmesi ve bilgi paylaşım davranışının teşvik edilmesine yönelik uygulamalara yer verilmesi önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmada da, bilgi paylaşım davranışı üzerinde etkili olabileceği düşünülen politik yeti ve karşılıklı ilişki beklentisi bir model kapsamında incelenmiştir. Araştırmaya 265 özel sektör çalışanı katılmıştır. Analiz sonuçlarına göre, politik yeti ve bilgi paylaşımı davranışı arasındaki ilişkide karşılıklı ilişki beklentisinin kısmı aracı role sahip olduğu ortaya koyulmuş ve araştırmanın hipotezi kısmen doğrulanmıştır.
... Γηα παξάδεηγκα, αλ θάπνηνο θξνληίζεη ηνλ ζθχιν ηνπ άιινπ, ηφηε ην άηνκν πνπ έιαβε απηή ηελ ράξε ζα ηελ αληαπνδψζεη κε κηα αληίζηνηρεο αμίαο πξάμε ή έλα δψξν. Δπνκέλσο, ε ακνηβαία απηή πξάμε ή ην δψξν ζα πξέπεη λα είλαη ίζεο ή πεξίπνπ ίζεο αμίαο δηαθνξεηηθά ειινρεχεη ν θίλδπλνο λα ζπκβεί κηα δπζάξεζηε θνηλσληθή θαηάζηαζε (Chen, Chen & Portnoy, 2009). Γεληθά, ηα άηνκα αλακέλνπλ φηη νη ελέξγεηεο θαη νη πξάμεηο πνπ απνζθνπνχλ ζηελ απνπιεξσκή άιισλ πξάμεσλ ή επλνηψλ ζα πξέπεη λα έρνπλ ηελ ίδηα ή ζρεδφλ ηελ ίδηα αμία (Suranovic, 2001a). ...
Thesis
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Ο όρος «Συνεταιρισμός» αριθμεί πολλά χρόνια ύπαρξης ενώ παράλληλα οι ρίζες του εντοπίζονται στο εξαιρετικά μακρινό παρελθόν του αρχαίου κόσμου, ακόμη και αν δεν είχε τη σημερινή του μορφή. Αποτελεί ένα οικονομικό αλλά κυρίως κοινωνικό οικοδόμημα πάνω στο οποίο έχουν θεμελιωθεί ποικίλες Αρχές, Αξίες και Κοινωνικές Νόρμες που αποσκοπούν στην οικονομική και συνάμα κοινωνική ανάπτυξη του τόπου. Όλα τα παραπάνω αποτελούν το κοινωνικό κεφάλαιο το οποίο θα πρέπει να υπάρχει μέσα σε κάθε συνεταιρισμό εν προκειμένου να δημιουργηθεί, να αναπτυχθεί και να διατηρηθεί αναλλοίωτος ως θεσμός με το πέρας των χρόνων. Για να συμβεί αυτό ο παράγοντας «άνθρωπος», τα μέλη του δηλαδή, που αποτελούσαν και αποτελούν τη κινητήριος δύναμη, οφείλουν να είναι πλήρως εναρμονισμένα και να έχουν αφουγκραστεί, ασπαστεί και υιοθετήσει αυτές τις αρχές στο έπακρον. Δυο από τις βασικότερες συνιστώσες από τις οποίες συνθέτεται το κοινωνικό κεφάλαιο και οι οποίες θα πρέπει να εντοπίζονται στους κόλπους κάθε υγιούς συνεταιριστικής οργάνωσης είναι η Αμοιβαιότητα και η Εμπιστοσύνη. Οι τελευταίες, αποτελούν τα προπύλαια κάθε νέου συνεταιριστικού εγχειρήματος αλλά και οι στιβαρές βάσεις πάνω στις οποίες πρέπει να οικοδομηθεί κάθε είδος συνεταιριστικής ιδέας. Δυστυχώς, στην Ελλάδα και στις μέρες ο υπέροχος, και γεμάτος από κοινωνικά ευεργετήματα, αυτός θεσμός δεν τυγχάνει της ανάλογης που του αρμόζει αναγνώρισης με αποτέλεσμα να αποτελεί ένα μικρό κομμάτι της κοινωνίας μας και να κατέχει ένα μικρότερο μέρος της καθημερινότητας μας. Από τη μία οι πολιτικές των εκάστοτε κυβερνήσεων και από την άλλη οι χρησιμοθηρικές και πελατειακές βλέψεις οδήγησαν το θεσμό του συνεταιρισμού σε μαρασμό, με ελάχιστες εξαιρέσεις να έχουν αποστασιοποιηθεί από αυτόν τον κανόνα. Μήπως όμως για το συγκεκριμένο πρόβλημα δεν ευθύνονται μόνο τα προαναφερθέντα αλλά υποθάλπεται και κάτι άλλο το οποίο δεν γίνεται εύκολα αντιληπτό; Μήπως κυριαρχεί η ανεπάρκεια εμπιστοσύνης και αμοιβαιότητας μεταξύ των μελών των συνεταιριστικών οργανώσεων; Ο παραπάνω προβληματισμός λοιπόν αποτελεί και το ορμητήριο της συγκεκριμένης εργασίας. Η διερεύνηση δηλαδή τουκοινωνικού κεφαλαίου μέσα από τις διαστάσεις της αμοιβαιότητας και της εμπιστοσύνης στα μέλη ποικιλόμορφων συνεταιρισμών στην Ελλάδα. Η έρευνα βασίστηκε στη χρήση ενός σύνθετου δομημένου ερωτηματολογίου που για τη μέτρηση της αμοιβαιότητας και της εμπιστοσύνης χρησιμοποιούσε τόσο ερωτήσεις όσο και πειραματική οικονομία. Στο πρώτο σκέλος χρησιμοποιήθηκαν εικοσιπέντε ψυχομετρικές μεταβλητές και οι απαντήσεις αυτόν κατηγοριοποιούνταν στη 5-βάθμια κλίμακα Likert ανάλογα με το βαθμό συμφωνίας ή διαφωνίας. Για το δεύτερο σκέλος, τρία παίγνια της Θεωρίας Παιγνίων χρησιμοποιήθηκαν προκειμένου να διαπιστωθεί με ποια οικονομική οντότητα ταυτίζονται περισσότερο τα μέλη που έλαβαν μέρος. Η ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων του πρώτου μέρους έδειξε ότι σε γενικές γραμμές η ύπαρξη του κοινωνικού κεφαλαίου στα μέλη είναι ορατή, με ελάχιστες ωστόσο εξαιρέσεις. Στο δεύτερο μέρος και στην εκτέλεση της πειραματικής διαδικασίας τα άτομα έδειξαν να διακατέχονται από αναπτυγμένα συναισθήματα εκτελώντας προσφορές και διαιρέσεις περισσότερο βασιζόμενοι στην αμοιβαιότητα και την εμπιστοσύνη παρά στην ορθή λογική. (The existence of the term "Cooperative" dates back to the ancient world while its roots are traced back to the extremely distant past even if it was not in its present structure. It is an economic but mainly social edifice on which various principles, values and social norms have been founded aiming at the economic and at the same time social development of the local area. All of the above constitute the social capital that must exist within each cooperative in order to create, develop and maintain unchanged as an organization over time. For achieving this, the "human" factor, that is, its members, which were and are the driving force, must be strongly harmonized and have fully embraced and adopted these principles. Two of the key components of social capital that should be identified within any cooperative organization are Reciprocity and Trust. The latter are, not only, the backbone of every new cooperative venture but also the solid foundations on which every kind of cooperative idea must be built. Unfortunately, nowadays, in Greece this wonderful, and full of social benefits, institution does not receive the recognition that deserves and as a result of this, it constitutes a small part of our society and occupies a smaller part of our daily lives.On the one hand, the policies of each government and on the other hand, the opportunist intentions have led to the abandonment of cooperatives, with only few exceptions of this rule to be exist.But however is the above mentioned responsible for this problem or there is something else that is not easily understood? Is there a lack of trust and reciprocity among members of cooperatives? So, the above reflection is therefore the basis of this work. The exploration of social capital through the dimensions of reciprocity and trust amongst the members of various kinds of cooperatives in Greece. The research was based on the use of a complex structured questionnaire that used both questions and experimental economics methods to measure reciprocity and trust. Twenty-five psychometric variables were used in the first part and the responses of them were categorized on a 5-point Likert scale according to the degree of agreement or disagreement. For the second part, three listed games of Game Theory were used to determine which economic entity is most closely matched the members who participated. The analysis of the results of the first part has shown that in general the existence of social capital amongst members is visible, with few exceptions, however. In the second part and in the execution of the experimental process, individuals were shown to have developed emotions by making offers and divisions more based on reciprocity and trust than on rationality.)
... This positive exchange of resources allows for the exchange relationship to continue and grow. Conversely, there also exists a negative norm of reciprocity (Chen et al., 2009) whereby mistreatment at the hands of an exchange partner fundamentally disrupts the norms underlying the exchange relationship and is likely to be met in kind. In other words, mistreatment at the hand of an exchange partner, is likely to incite counterproductive response. ...
Article
In this study, we propose and examine an integrative framework to investigate factors contributing to the experience of workplace incivility (including victim demography, dispositional individual differences, and environmental factors), the affective, health-related, social exchange-based, and behavioral outcomes associated with experienced incivility, and boundary conditions for their relationships. To this end, we conduct a comprehensive meta-analysis on the antecedents and consequences of experienced workplace incivility based on 253 statistically independent samples from 219 primary studies and examine several moderators such as differences in time-related research design (cross-sectional vs. time-lagged), incivility instigator source, and occupation. Further, by integrating meta-analytic effect sizes from the current study with effect sizes from existing meta-analyses, we also investigate the extent to which the impact of experienced incivility on outcomes differs from that of higher intensity forms of workplace mistreatment inclusive of bullying, abusive supervision, and sexual harassment, thereby enhancing understanding regarding the nomological net of experienced incivility in comparison to more intense forms of workplace mistreatment. We discuss the implications of these findings along with study limitations and future directions for incivility scholarship.
... Kişi kendisine olumlu davranan kişilere benzer şekilde olumlu karşılık vermeli, olumsuz tutum ve davranış içinde bulunmamalıdır. Bu yaklaşım toplumda bireye öğretilmesi gereken bir norm olarak ele alınmıştır (Chen, Chen, & Portnoy, 2009). Olumlu veya olumsuz bir davranışa nasıl karşılık verilmesi gerektiği kültürel bir norm olarak öğretilebilir, hatta tanımlanan karşılık davranışının karşılığı da ödül veya ceza ile toplum tarafından onaylanıp, pekiştirilebilir. ...
... Reciprocity is an important determinant of human behaviour and a crucial element of society (Chen et al., 2009). It is defined as "a behavioural response towards perceived kindness and unkindness, where kindness comprises both distributional fairness as well as fairness intentions" (Falk & Fischbacher, 2006, p. 294). ...
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Participative pricing demonstrates the basic idea of allowing customer participation in price-setting process. Nottingham Playhouse, IBIS Singapore, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Wiener Deewan, Girl Talk, 8k, Zest consulting, Radiohead band and many more have successfully implemented pay-what-you-want (PWYW), the most innovative form of participative pricing. Based on the degree of participation, PWYW is the highest form that allows buyers to select any price they want to pay for a product/service, including zero. The present study examines how customers lower their motivation to pay more for products offered under PWYW by morally disengaging themselves from reciprocity concerns. It focuses on one mechanism of moral disengagement—displacement of responsibility and tests the proposed hypotheses in PWYW context. 284 responses were gathered using structured questionnaires at a reputed public university. Data were analysed using partial least-squares structural equation modelling. Findings indicate that customers’ moral disengagement via displacement of responsibility towards reciprocity concerns is negatively associated with willingness-to-pay more (WTPM). Results corroborate the attenuating role of perceived control on the negative association between displacement of responsibility towards reciprocity concerns and WTPM. However, relaxation from monetary commitments does not have a significant moderating effect on the negative relationship between moral disengagement and WTPM. This study is possibly the first to empirically investigate the interplay among individuals’ cognitive mechanisms, moral disengagement from reciprocity concerns and socio-demographic variables under participative pricing. Findings empirically substantiate the theory of moral disengagement, moral self-regulation and social cognitive theory. Practitioners should actively engage customers’ moral self-regulation process and provide more sense of perceived control while designing participative pricing offerings.
... For Gouldner [39] reciprocity norms form a moral code that obliges people to reciprocate benefits or assistance in their social relationships. This assessment implies that individuals are more opposed to being over-benefited, as they are motivated to reciprocate in their social relationships by internalized moral norms [45,[57][58][59]. A few studies have suggested that norms of reciprocity should be incorporated when the aspects of social support are assessed [60]. ...
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There is ample evidence to indicate the direct effects of receiving social support on mental health during and after a disaster. However, the importance of reciprocal exchanges of social support (i.e., balanced receipt and provision of social support) in maintaining the mental health status of individuals is not widely recognized. Using equity theory and reciprocity norms as a conceptual base, we distinguished two types of social support, namely, emotional support and instrumental support, and examined the effects of reciprocal exchanges of types of support on depression in survivors of an earthquake-damaged community. To collect data, in 2019, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 295 survivors of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in a rural village in Nepal. Our results showed that the relationship between reciprocal exchange of support and depression varied depending on the types of support. The amount of emotional support received by the individual alleviated his/her depression only when accompanied by giving emotional support. By contrast, the net amount of instrumental support given by the individual increased his/her depression. The practical implications of the study are discussed.
... For Gouldner [39] reciprocity norms form a moral code that obliges people to reciprocate benefits or assistance in their social relationships. This assessment implies that individuals are more opposed to being over-benefited, as they are motivated to reciprocate in their social relationships by internalized moral norms [45,[57][58][59]. A few studies have suggested that norms of reciprocity should be incorporated when the aspects of social support are assessed [60]. ...
Article
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Abstract: There is ample evidence to indicate the direct effects of receiving social support on mental health during and after a disaster. However, the importance of reciprocal exchanges of social support (i.e., balanced receipt and provision of social support) in maintaining the mental health status of individuals is not widely recognized. Using equity theory and reciprocity norms as a conceptual base, we distinguished two types of social support, namely, emotional support and instrumental support, and examined the effects of reciprocal exchanges of types of support on depression in survivors of an earthquake-damaged community. To collect data, in 2019, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 295 survivors of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in a rural village in Nepal. Our results showed that the relationship between reciprocal exchange of support and depression varied depending on the types of support. The amount of emotional support received by the individual alleviated his/her depression only when accompanied by giving emotional support. By contrast, the net amount of instrumental support given by the individual increased his/her depression. The practical implications of the study are discussed.
... This positive exchange of resources allows for the exchange relationship to continue and grow. Conversely, there also exists a negative norm of reciprocity (Chen et al., 2009) whereby mistreatment at the hands of an exchange partner fundamentally disrupts the norms underlying the exchange relationship and is likely to be met in kind. In other words, mistreatment at the hand of an exchange partner is likely to incite counterproductive response. ...
... Since humble employees are willing to learn from others (Owens et al., 2013), their own advice-seeking experience helps them develop a dyadic and reciprocal advice-seeking relationship with coworkers (Agneessens & Wittek, 2012). Because humility is more favored and expected in a Chinese context, a better coworking relationship developed by humble employees improves the possibility for development of such a reciprocal relationship in advice-seeking and advice-giving (Chen, Chen, & Portnoy, 2009). Thus, we hypothesize: ...
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Prior research has shown that humility in the workplace can provide many advantages. However, the literature has largely focused on leaders rather than employees. There is an important distinction between the two, because leaders have already achieved professional success that may or may not be due to humility (i.e., survivorship bias), whereas employees may feel pressure to focus on behaviors seemingly at odds with humility (i.e., getting ahead). Drawing on the social capital theory of career success, this study investigates whether and how humility helps employees achieve both short‐term (job performance) and long‐term (promotability) job success. We posit that, in the Chinese context, humility can promote employees’ objective job performance and promotability by accessing social resources from team leaders and coworkers. The beneficial effects can be explained by the mediating effects of leader–member exchange and employee advice network centrality. We conducted a path comparison on the relationship between the mediators and career success to further explain the mechanisms, and tested the model using a three‐wave survey with a sample of 689 employees and their leaders from 137 teams. Our findings largely support our theoretical predictions and extend our understanding of employee humility and career development.
... For instance, if one takes care of someone else's dog, then the other man will repay this favour with another corresponding action such as a gift with similar value. So, the reciprocated favour or gift should have equal or approximately equal value otherwise an uncomfortable social situation is very likely to happen (Chen, et al., 2009). In general, individuals expect that actions directed to repayment of other acts or favours should have the same or almost the same value (Suranovic, 2001a). ...
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Abstract. In Europe 160 million people are members of social economy enterprises and mutual societies. Members that work at social enterprises usually are bound with an employee relationship with their organization; on the other hand participating in a social enterprise could be their only chance to find a job, especially for economies that face a long-term recession such as the Greek economy. Social enterprises and entrepreneurs invest in reciprocity which represents that positive actions will inspire reciprocal positive actions. The main objective of this study is to examine the effect of reciprocity on members’ decision either to invest in social enterprises or to work for them acquiring in both cases the necessary shares. For this reason, a survey was conducted among Greek members of social enterprises listed in the Greek Social enterprises directory, to investigate their aspects about reciprocity and if these aspects affect their decision to work in a social enterprise or support financially them. The survey process returned 142 fully completed questionnaires. The analysis identified a sub group (5 over 27 items) of the questions used to measure reciprocity that can be used to classify participants into shareholders - members (investors) and shareholders - workers in social enterprises. It is worth mentioning that sex or other demographic characteristics of the respondents do not affect this classification while there are only aspects of positive reciprocity that have either positive or negative effect on the possibility to work in social enterprises. Social entrepreneurs and the Greek state could use these findings in order to direct and manage their expansion efforts.
... For instance, if one takes care of someone else's dog, then the other man will repay this favour with another corresponding action such as a gift with similar value. So, the reciprocated favour or gift should have equal or approximately equal value otherwise an uncomfortable social situation is very likely to happen (Chen, et al., 2009). In general, individuals expect that actions directed to repayment of other acts or favours should have the same or almost the same value (Suranovic, 2001a). ...
Article
Full-text available
In Europe 160 million people are members of social economy enterprises and mutual societies. Members that work at social enterprises usually are bound with an employee relationship with their organization; on the other hand participating in a social enterprise could be their only chance to find a job, especially for economies that face a long-term recession such as the Greek economy. Social enterprises and entrepreneurs invest in reciprocity which represents that positive actions will inspire reciprocal positive actions. The main objective of this study is to examine the effect of reciprocity on members’ decision either to invest in social enterprises or to work for them acquiring in both cases the necessary shares. For this reason, a survey was conducted among Greek members of social enterprises listed in the Greek Social enterprises directory, to investigate their aspects about reciprocity and if these aspects affect their decision to work in a social enterprise or support financially them. The survey process returned 142 fully completed questionnaires. The analysis identified a sub group (5 over 27 items) of the questions used to measure reciprocity that can be used to classify participants into shareholders - members (investors) and shareholders - workers in social enterprises. It is worth mentioning that sex or other demographic characteristics of the respondents do not affect this classification while there are only aspects of positive reciprocity that have either positive or negative effect on the possibility to work in social enterprises. Social entrepreneurs and the Greek state could use these findings in order to direct and manage their expansion efforts.
... Positive reciprocity beliefs (PRB) are the degree to which an individual places importance on positive reciprocation within exchange relationships (Eisenberger et al. 2004). The notion is that individuals high in PRB tend to "keep score" of reciprocations more so than others, or otherwise maintain a more deliberate emphasis on the transactional balance of resources within an exchange relationship (Ackermann et al. 2016;Chen et al. 2009;Clark and Mills 1979;Kamdar et al. 2006;Zou et al. 2015). As such, PRB help maintain high-quality exchange relationships, strengthen the relationship between positive leader behaviors and employee helping behavior, and encourage the paying off of one's debts (Li et al. 2017;Perugini et al. 2003;Zou et al. 2015). ...
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Unethical pro-organizational behaviors (UPB) are unethical, but prosocially-motivated, acts intended to benefit one’s organization. This study examines the extent to which employees are willing to perform UPB to benefit a liked leader. Based on social exchange theory, we hypothesized that LMX would mediate the association of interpersonal justice with UPB willingness. Moral identity and positive reciprocity beliefs were examined as moderators. Higher LMX was significantly and positively related to UPB willingness, and the indirect effect of interpersonal justice on UPB via LMX was significant and positive. These findings suggest that LMX and interpersonal justice could have a previously-unexplored dark side. Moral identity had a negative direct relationship with UPB, but it did not moderate the relationship of LMX with UPB. Thus, LMX facilitates UPB willingness even when employees are high in moral identity. LMX is associated with many positive outcomes, but our results show that high LMX may also increase willingness to perform unethical behaviors to benefit one’s leader. These results contribute to the literature by identifying a potential negative outcome associated with high LMX.
... In addition, reciprocity values are strongly employee whereas organizational trust involves relations endorsed and relationships are highly valued in the with a variety of constituent groups in the organization". Chinese context (Chen et al., 2009;Niu et al., 2009) and Outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational provides a mechanism embodying the crucial citizenship behaviour and performance are associated requirements of trust among Chinese people (Luo, 2005). with the direct supervisor while organizational Wu et al. (2012), therefore, contend that trust-in-commitment is related more strongly with trust in the supervisor may well capture the social exchanges between organization. ...
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This study explore the relationships among Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS), Trust in Supervisor (TIS) and Affective Organizational behaviour (AOC) on Employee Job Satisfaction (EJS) in Ras-Al-Khaimah, Schools (RKS). The current study adopted SEM to test the study's hypothesis. A sample of 494 teachers in the RKS was selected randomly. In this representative sample, a survey was carried out to find out the extent of PSS, AOC and TIS influence on EJS. All the study's hypothesis were supported. PSS, AOC and TIS significantly predicting EJS. The proposed model explained 41.9% of the variance in employee job satisfaction. Finally, theoretical and managerial implications were discussed.
... It creates value for the individual who are linked together and associated stakeholders as well. While negative norms of exchange reciprocity discourage and serve as an impediment to detrimental and violent behaviours (Chen et al., 2009). ...
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The understanding and interpretation of voice have been given critical attention among researchers, practitioners in recent years. The firm believes of the workforce that they can openly express their personal opinion and concerns to higher authority in the organisation, and who believe that they can influence the decision, are likely to demonstrate optimistic attitude and constructive behaviours. The study surveyed 1067 employees of Nigerian oil and gas and 902 respondents were returned and used for the study. Data were obtained from the participants using a questionnaire of 19 question items by means of probability sampling strategy, while the research design was crosssectional. The findings of the study indicate a coherent and consistent one with literature. The study employed eight dimensions as drivers of employee voice in the Nigeria oil and gas industry which discovered mixed outcomes. One of the drivers is the communication/exchange of views which had an inverse association with employee productivity. Employee collective representation and employee engagement also recorded an insignificant relationship with employee productive work behaviour. However, employee participation, improved management systems, employee supervisorsubordinate relationship, workforce contribution and upward problem solving were significantly correlated with employee productive work behaviour. The study used descriptive statistics and Pearson moment correlation in analysing the data gathered from the participants and concluded that workforce of Nigerian oil and gas are not deeply engaged with the workplace environment due to the observed challenge of not allowing them to be duly represented and discourage them from exchanging their views and ideas.
... Impact on state of connected nodes. In line with the negative norm of reciprocity (Chen, Chen, & Portnoy, 2009), a breach in the iPC-network is likely to trigger a change in the state of connected nodes. When an obligated inducement is perceived to be under-fulfilled, the employee can respond by withholding the contributions that are obligated in return (Rousseau, 1995). ...
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This chapter introduces the individual Psychological Contract (iPC) network model as an alternative approach to study psychological contracts. This model departs from the basic idea that a psychological contract forms a mental schema containing obligated inducements and contributions, which are exchanged for each other. This mental schema is captured by a dynamic network, in which the nodes represent the inducements and contributions and the ties represent the exchanges. Building on dynamic systems theory, I propose that these networks evolve over time towards attractor states, both at the level of the network structure and at the level of the nodes (i.e., breach and fulfilment attractor states). I highlight how the iPC-network model integrates recent theoretical developments in the psychological contract literature and explain how it may advance scholars understanding of exchange relationships. In particular, I illustrate how iPC-network models allow researchers to study the actual exchanges in the psychological contract over time, while acknowledging its idiosyncratic nature. This would allow for more precise predictions of psychological contract breach and fulfilment consequences and explains how content and process of the psychological contract continuously influence each other.
... The findings indicate that moral identity is a more powerful predictor of whistle-blowing relative to organizational identification. While Chinese culture values ethics and identity, it tends to emphasize high uncertainty avoidance and the high value of relationships and harmony in organizations (Chen et al., 2009). As whistle-blowers face a series of risks that are related to these tendencies, risk aversion is a very important aspect of the study of Chinese employees' whistle-blowing intention. ...
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore how a perceived ethical climate influences employees’ intention to whistle-blow through internal organizational channels and incorporates the mediating role of organizational identification and moral identity as well as the moderating role of individual risk aversion. Design/methodology/approach The five proposed hypotheses were tested using hierarchical regression analysis with two waves of data collected in 2016 from 667 employees in Chinese organizations. Findings The findings indicate that perceived ethical climate had a positive effect on employees’ internal whistle-blowing intention, which was mediated by organizational identification and moral identity. Furthermore, employees’ risk aversion weakened the effect of organizational identification, while the moderating role by moral identity on internal whistle-blowing intention was not validated. Originality/value This study explains the psychological mechanism of whistle-blowing intention from the perspective of social identity, which contributes to opening the “black box” of the transmitting processes from the perceived ethical climate to whistle-blowing intention. This study also extends the literature by defining a boundary condition of risk aversion that hinders organizational identification influence on employee whistle-blowing intention.
... Employees can show more or less reciprocity towards their exchange counterpart, the organisation ( Chen et al., 2009), and there is evidence of cultural and individual differences affecting the level of reciprocity (Shore & Coyle-Shapiro, 2003). We build on these findings to test the role of generational membership as a determinant of the level of reciprocity. ...
Article
Utilising social exchange theory, we investigate the exchange of career development satisfaction for organisational commitment and neglect of work. Employees can, however, show more or less reciprocity towards their organisation. We assess the role of generational membership (Baby Boomers vs. Generation X) as a determinant of reciprocity. Boomers began work when jobs were “for life”; they value job security and tend to rely on the organisation for their career direction. In contrast, Generation X generally commenced work during the recession of the early 1990s, so they feel they cannot rely on one employer for a lifetime of employment. We investigate the extent to which generational differences in work and career values moderate the relationship between career development satisfaction and organisational commitment or neglect of work. We find, using data from 1,530 employees in one organisation, that Generation X are more likely to exchange high career development satisfaction for higher levels of organisational commitment and lower neglect of work than are Boomers.
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Purpose Social media fatigue (SMF) has been widely recognized; however, previous studies have included various concepts into a single fatigue construct. Fatigue has typically been explored from the stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) or stimulus-organism-response (SOR) perspectives. To further investigate SMF, the authors split it into the two constructs of exhaustion and disinterest. Furthermore, the authors introduced the concept of emotional labor and identified rules that may affect surface and deep acting strategies. Design/methodology/approach The authors designed and conducted a survey to collect data from social networking platform users. Findings Results from 364 users of social networking platforms supported most of the authors' hypotheses. First, most of the display rules affect the choice of deep or surface acting. Second, both types of acting lead to exhaustion, but only surface acting leads to disinterest. Third, discontinuance intention is affected by both types of fatigue. Originality/value This study contributes to SMF research by adding more antecedents (deep and surface acting) based on the emotional labor perspective and showing the impacts of communication rules on emotional labor. In addition, this study also distinguishes disinterest-style fatigue from exhaustion.
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The negative effect of workplace ostracism on employees has attracted increasing attention. This research, drawing on the perspective of negative reciprocity belief, in combination with the self-regulation theory and the person-environment theory, proposes and tests the positive effect of workplace ostracism on interpersonal deviance, which is negatively moderated by self-control (two-way) and further negatively moderated by negative affect (three-way). Based on a three-wave survey of 233 employees in China, we find that workplace ostracism is positively related to interpersonal deviance. This positive relationship is stronger when employees are low in self-control. Furthermore, this moderating effect exits only when employees’ negative affect is high. Therefore, this research theoretically explicates the positive relationship between workplace ostracism and interpersonal deviance and the boundary conditions of this relationship, and also proposes a practical way to help managers reduce the occurrence of employees’ interpersonal deviation. The theoretical contributions and practical implication have also been discussed.
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In recent years, there has been much conceptual work calling for research on transformative service, and service inclusion in particular. However, quantitative studies focusing on service inclusion are scant, and little is known about customer responses to the opposite of service inclusion, i.e. service exclusion. Taking a transformative research perspective, this study advances the service inclusion literature by focusing on service exclusion and its downstream consequences. We first build the causal link between service exclusion (vs. inclusion) and customer indirect misbehavior, reveal the underlying mechanism, and further identify negative reciprocity beliefs as a boundary condition. The results of three studies suggest that customers who experience service exclusion (vs. inclusion) are more likely to engage in indirect misbehavior (Study 1), and that this effect is mediated by perceived need threat (Study 2). Moreover, the basic effect holds true only for customers with strong negative reciprocity beliefs (Study 3). The findings of this research not only contribute to the literature on transformative services, service inclusion, and social exclusion, but also have managerial implications for marketing practitioners in terms of creating an inclusive service system.
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Distinguishing high-performing employees imposes choices on managers: Is recognition most effectively delivered publicly or privately? If delivered publicly, what setting is best? This paper broadens the accounting literature on the implications of these decisions. Via experiment, I examine how the social bond between recognized employees and those observing the recognition influences the effect of recognition visibility on employee behavior. I find that with weak social bonds, public recognition (versus private) does not result in more beneficial employee behavior. However, when social bonds are strong, employees provide greater pre-recognition effort and respond more positively to public recognition than to private recognition. Overall, my study supports the extensive use of public recognition in practice and helps clarify the collective results from prior accounting studies. My findings also have implications for implementing recognition programs - suggesting managers should consider employee relationships when deciding how and where to recognize their employees.
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Purpose The ubiquity of mobile phone use has generated a common phenomenon called phubbing, a reference to snubbing someone in social settings and instead concentrating on one's phone. Despite numerous adverse effects of phubbing argued in previous research, the group of phubbers is growing intensively. The purpose of this study is to investigate the potential transmission of phubbing between marital partners to raise public awareness of the propagation of phubbing. Design/methodology/approach A two-wave study with a 3-month interval was conducted, using matched husband–wife data from 253 Chinese couples. Husbands and wives separately completed questionnaires about their spouses’ phubbing and their marital quality. The dyadic data analysis method was applied to test the research hypotheses. Findings The results confirm the transmission of phubbing and show a pronounced gender asymmetry in the process of phubbing transmission. Phubbing could be transmitted from wives to husbands, but not vice versa. Specifically, only wives' phubbing significantly undermine relationship quality, while relationship quality was negatively related to both husbands' phubbing and wives' phubbing. Originality/value This study contributes to a better understanding of the mechanism of phubbing transmission and provide support for reciprocity theory and social role theory. Results can cause public attention to the transmissibility of phubbing and provide enlightenment on the management of personal phone behavior and offer insight into research on technology use in other types of interpersonal relationships.
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The inequitable treatment of subordinates is socially and legally unacceptable in South Africa. The supervisory relationship is a primary facilitator of positive organisational behaviour outcomes. Inequitable supervisor treatment could lead to lower levels of job satisfaction. Employees can respond to inequitable supervisor treatment in a number of informal and informal ways. A group of South African white collar employees intended to resolve issues related to inequitable supervision, through direct communication with supervisors, before invoking more formal procedures. These employees intend to respond stronger by filing formal grievances when faced with harassment. There were no significant differences in intended response of employees from different gender and age groups. There are significant differences in the intensity of response of African and white employees. African employees intend to respond stronger to inequitable supervision practices than white employees. 2
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Emoticons are pictorial/textual depictions of facial expressions used in marketing communications. Little is known about how customers interpret positive or negative emoticons used by customer service employees in service failure contexts. We investigate the impact of emoticon type on customer satisfaction and re-purchasing intention, and examine the sequential mediating role of perceived sincerity and willingness to forgive. Results show that the use of a negative emoticon in a response leads to a higher level of customer satisfaction and re-purchasing intention than responses with a positive emoticon. We further demonstrate that customers perceive that the presence of a negative emoticon in a response is more sincere and generates a higher level of forgiveness than those responses that use positive emoticons, but only when the communal relationship is salient in the customer’s mind. Our findings offer important theoretical and practical implications in service failure contexts.
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In recent years, LGBT + communities have obtained significant victories in terms of recognition and civil rights in Western countries. Nonetheless, various forms of discrimination are still common, and a wide extent of variation is observed in societal attitudes towards LGBT + people. Several reasons may explain this heterogeneity, including religion. This work proposes a novel measure of tolerance towards LGBT + people, i.e. the Queer Friendliness Index, based on microdata drawn from a survey of citizen perception in Italy. Subsequently, we analyse the effect of active religious participation on the degree of tolerance towards LGBT + communities. To address self-selection among parish members, we resort to the Heckman procedure. We find that religious participation, reinforcing traditional values and creating strong relational ties among parish members, distorts the marginal effects of the socio-economic determinants of tolerance, producing an adverse effect. This problem may explain the large territorial differences observed across Italian macro-areas.
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the factors influencing the transaction costs (TCs) in megaprojects to provide a basis for controlling project costs. Design/methodology/approach This study selects six factors influencing the TCs in megaprojects from the perspective of TC theory and relational contract theory (RCT) through literature review. On the basis of crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), this study tests combined factors influencing the TCs and the interaction between them. Findings Results show that in megaprojects, TCs are affected by combination factors. The combination of asset specificity, uncertainty, transaction frequency and trust and the combination of asset specificity, reputation and trust will control TCs in certain situations. In the configuration leading to high project TCs, the combination of environmental and behavioral uncertainties is a necessary condition. Originality/value This paper fills up the research gap in the field of megaproject TCs, and researchers can focus on this field in the future.
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Purpose Voluntary collective turnover can be costly for workplaces. The authors investigate the effectiveness of high-performance work system (HPWS) intensity as a tool to manage voluntary collective turnover. Further, the authors investigate a cynical workplace climate (CWC) as a boundary condition on the HPWS intensity–voluntary collective turnover relationship. Design/methodology/approach The unit of analysis is the workplace, with human resource (HR) managers providing data on HPWS practices in Time 1 (T1) and voluntary collective turnover two years later. Aggregated employee data were used to assess the cynical workplace climate. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses. Findings This study’s results demonstrate a negative relationship between HPWS intensity and voluntary collective turnover when there is a low cynical workplace climate. The authors find that in a high cynical workplace climate, HPWS intensity is ineffective at managing voluntary collective turnover. Research limitations/implications This study’s results show that HPWS intensity needs to be well received by the workforce to be effective in reducing voluntary collective turnover. Practical implications To increase the chances of HPWS intensity reducing voluntary collective turnover, workplaces need to assess the level of employee cynicism in their workplace climates. When the climate is assessed as low in cynicism, the workplace can then consider implementing an HPWS. Originality/value The authors explain why the HPWS intensity–voluntary collective turnover relationship varies across workplaces. As HR practices are subject to interpretation, workplaces need to look beyond the practices in their HPWS and focus on employee receptivity to HR practices.
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Reactions to discovered deceit have important consequences politically, socially, etc. We present and test the Social Norm Model (SNM) of the tolerance of deceit. By it, observers of lies intuitively put themselves in the position of the liar. From that perspective, their tolerance, ranging from condemnation to acceptance, is determined by how much the social norms of reciprocity and social responsibility are perceived to be upheld or violated overall. Tolerance encourages identification with the liar. Condemnation fosters dis-identification. To test the SNM, 116 participants recounted lies they told and were told to them they felt were justified and others they regretted/condemned. The social impact of the deceit, the obligation for honesty, and other relevant constructs were assessed for each. Analyses support the model. We illustrate the SNM's applied value for understanding public reaction to the lying of politicians.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to bring a more individual focus to social networks in theorizing the social process of knowledge sharing. Design/methodology/approach The theoretical model proposes that political skill will shape an individual's social network. Further, political skill within a network will influence the degree of complex knowledge sharing, which likely happens through the mechanism of affective- and cognitive-based trust. Findings Theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed. Originality/value Knowledge sharing is an inherently social process and as such occurs within the context of social networks in an organization. However, research to date has not fully explored the details of how and why complex knowledge sharing happens within a social network. Generally, theory on social networks has focused on structural qualities of a network, rather than the individual characteristics of the members of that network. This paper brings a more individual focus to social networks in theorizing the social process of knowledge sharing.
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Background Improvements in provider-patient relationships may help alleviate health disparities. Provider-patient race concordance and provider self-disclosure are variables that may help improve this relationship. Purpose This study sought to answer if provider-patient race concordance and provider self-disclosure may improve patient trust, rapport, similarity, likeability, intention to disclose, satisfaction, behavioral intention to keep a provider, and intention to recommend a provider, while using empathy as a covariate. Methods Using 882 White or Black participants, the current research used a 2 × 2 online experimental design. Participants were asked to read a vignette in which they were told they had borderline high cholesterol and needed to eat a healthier diet, by either a Black or White male physician, who either self-disclosed or did not self-disclose regarding their own struggle to eat a healthy diet. After reading this vignette, participants were surveyed regarding the dependent variables of interest. Results Participants in a Black concordant dyad reported higher levels of similarity than those in any other dyad. Provider self-disclosure led to higher levels of trust, rapport, similarity, likeability, intention to disclose, satisfaction, behavioral intention to continue using the provider, and intention to recommend the provider. No interaction effects were found. Conclusion While it is possible, based on past research, that race-concordant pairings may lead to trust via similarity, provider self-disclosure directly increased perceptions of trust as well as providing numerous other benefits. This study supports the importance of trainings for providers on health-related self-disclosure to benefit both parties in provider-patient dyads.
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Reciprocity is the practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit and, as such, is a fundamental part of social interaction, but what does this mean for children in the early years and how can we promote collaboration and altruistic practices?
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Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL), metaanalyze cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effectsof IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic—valuing personal independence more—and less collectivistic—feeling duty to in-groups less—than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style.
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Previous research has shown that procedural fairness and outcome favorability interactively combine to influence people's reactions to their social exchanges. The tendency for people to respond more positively when outcomes are more favorable is reduced when procedural fairness (how things happen) is relatively high. This paper evaluates whether cultural differences in people's tendencies to view themselves as interdependent or independent (their self-construal) moderate the interactive relationship between procedural fairness and outcome favorability. In three studies, participants indicated their reactions to an exchange with another party as a function of the other party's procedural fairness and the outcome favorability associated with the exchange. In Study 1, participants' national culture was treated as a proxy for their self-construal. In Study 2, people's national culture and self-construal were assessed. In Study 3, participants were classified on the basis of their self-construals. Converging evidence across studies showed that the interactive relationship between procedural fairness and outcome favorability was more pronounced among participants with more interdependent forms of self-construal.
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This chapter focuses on one particular aspect of authoritativeness: voluntary compliance with the decisions of authorities. Social psychologists have long distinguished between obedience that is the result of coercion, and obedience that is the result of internal attitudes. Opinions describe “reward power” and “coercive power”, in which obedience is contingent on positive and negative outcomes, and distinguish both of these types of power from legitimate power, in which obedience flows from judgments about the legitimacy of the authority. Legitimate power depends on people taking the obligation on themselves to obey and voluntarily follow the decisions made by authorities. The chapter also focuses on legitimacy because it is important to recognize, that legitimacy is not the only attitudinal factor influencing effectiveness. It is also influenced by other cognitions about the authority, most notably judgments of his or her expertise with respect to the problem at hand. The willingness of group members to accept a leader's directives is only helpful when the leader knows what directives to issue.
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This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Models of the various adaptive specializations that have evolved in the human psyche could become the building blocks of a scientific theory of culture. The flrst step in creating such models is the derivation of a so-called "computational theory" of the adaptive problem each psychological specialization has evolved to solve. In Part II, as a case study, a sketch of a computational theory of social exchange (cooperation for mutual benefit) is developed. The dynamics of natural selection in Pleistocene ecological conditions define adaptive information processing problems that humans must be able to solve in order to participate in social exchange: individual recognition, memory for one's history of interaction, value communication, value modeling, and a shared gram- mar of social contracts that specifies representational structure and inferential pro- cedures. The nature of these adaptive information processing problems places con- straints on the class of cognitive programs capable of solving them; this allows one to make empirical predictions about how the cognitive processes involved in attention, communication, memory, learning, and reasoning are mobilized in situations of social exchange. Once the cognitive programs specialized for regulating social exchange are mapped, the variation and invariances in social exchange within and between cultures can be meaningfully discussed.
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People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In 3 experiments, Ss' public statements of attitude change conformed to the norm of reciprocity, in that the most change on a topic was accorded to a persuader who had yielded to the S's earlier persuasive attempt on a prior topic, and the least such change was accorded to a persuader who had resisted the S's persuasive attempt. This tendency was unaffected by perceptions of the persuader's likability and intelligence, personal relevance of the topic, and strength of the arguments. Private change matched the pattern of public change only when the arguments Ss received were strong, and Ss could (mistakenly) attribute much of their reciprocation-induced change to the cogency of the arguments. Implications are discussed for the internalization of socially desirable conduct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Previous research conducted on a Western sample has shown that people are less apt to exhibit in-group favoritism when they perform well individually while their in-group performs poorly. The authors evaluated whether this finding would be moderated by the cultural dimension of individual–collective primacy, which refers to whether people give more weight to their personal interests rather than their in-group's interests when forced to choose between the two. The authors hypothesized that relative to their counterparts from the United States, participants from the People's Republic of China would have more of a collective-primacy orientation and therefore would exhibit more in-group favoritism when they performed well individually while their in-group performed poorly. The results supported the hypothesis. Implications for the literatures on in-group favoritism and cross-cultural differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Cross-cultural perspectives have brought renewed interest in the social aspects of the self and the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of their relationships to others and to social groups. This article provides a conceptual review of research and theory of the social self, arguing that the personal, relational, and collective levels of self-definition represent distinct forms of self-representation with different origins, sources of self-worth, and social motivations. A set of 3 experiments illustrates how priming of the interpersonal or collective "we" can alter spontaneous judgments of similarity and self-descriptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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A theory of social inequity, with special consideration given to wage inequities is presented. A special case of Festinger's cognitive dissonance, the theory specifies the conditions under which inequity will arise and the means by which it may be reduced or eliminated. Observational field studies supporting the theory and laboratory experiments designed to test certain aspects of it are described. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Taking a procedural justice perspective, we examined the effect of guanxi practices in human resources management (i.e., making human resources management decisions on the basis of personal relationships) on employees' trust in management in Chinese organizations. Two studies were conducted. In the first, a survey study, we found a negative effect of guanxi practices on trust in management, which was mediated by perceived procedural justice. In the second, an experimental study, we found that the negative effect of guanxi practices varied as a function of guanxi bases: favoring a nephew or a hometown fellow lowered trust, but favoring a college schoolmate or a close friend did not. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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This paper examines how the structure and content of individuals' networks on the job affect intraorganizational mobility. Consistent with prior research, we find that mobility is enhanced by having large, dense networks of informal ties for acquiring information and resources. However, studies of networks and organizational careers have overlooked the importance of informal ties in transmitting social identity and normative expectations within organizations, which is facilitated by networks with the opposite features: smaller size and greater density. We use this argument as the basis for developing a typology of network contents, and we document this interaction between network structure and content in analyses of mobility among employees of a high technology firm. We also show how the effects of tie duration on mobility vary across types of network ties. The implications of these findings for theory and research on networks and organizational mobility are discussed.
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Two studies using different methods examined the effects of people's status in a social encounter, the favorability of the outcome of the encounter, and the procedural fairness of the other party during the encounter on people's desire for future interaction with the other party. Outcome favorability and procedural fairness interacted to influence people's desire for future interaction with the other party, but the nature of the interaction differed as a function of the status difference between them. For lower status people, high procedural fairness reduced the positive relationship between outcome favorability and desire for future interaction relative to when procedural fairness was low. For higher status people, however, high procedural fairness heightened the positive relationship between outcome favorability and desire for future interaction relative to when procedural fairness was low. We discuss the theoretical implications of these findings for the literatures on intergroup relations, organizational justice, and status.
Article
Previous research conducted on a Western sample has shown that people are less apt to exhibit in-group favoritism when they perform well individually while their in-group performs poorly. The authors evaluated whether this finding would be moderated by the cultural dimension of individual–collective primacy, which refers to whether people give more weight to their personal interests rather than their in-group's interests when forced to choose between the two. The authors hypothesized that relative to their counterparts from the United States, participants from the People's Republic of China would have more of a collective-primacy orientation and therefore would exhibit more in-group favoritism when they performed well individually while their in-group performed poorly. The results supported the hypothesis. Implications for the literatures on in-group favoritism and cross-cultural differences are discussed.
Article
I attempt to explain why employees prefer different forms of social exchange by proposing that such preferences align with their identity orientations. I also develop a model outlining how identity orientations play an important role in developing employee exchange relations and how they may help predict the consequences of exchange dynamics. By identifying linkages between identity orientations and forms of social exchange, I hope to stimulate future research on the connections between social exchange theory and the identity orientation framework.
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The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
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I present argument and evidence for a structural ecology of social capital that describes how the value of social capital to an individual is contingent on the number of people doing the same work. The information and control benefits of bridging the structural holes-or, disconnections between nonredundant contacts in a network-that constitute social capital are especially valuable to managers with few peers. Such managers do not have the guiding frame of reference for behavior provided by numerous competitors, and the work they do does not have the legitimacy provided by numerous people doing the same kind of work. I use network and performance data on a probability sample of senior managers to show how the value of social capital, high on average for the managers, varies as a power function of the number of people doing the same work.
Article
I. Overview. Introduction. The Design of This Study. II. The Antecedents of Cooperative Behavior. Why Study Cooperative Behavior in Groups. Instrumental Motivations for Engaging in Cooperative Behavior. Internally-driven Cooperative Behavior. III. The Influence of Justice: Procedual Justice and Cooperation. The Influence of Justice Based Judgments. Procedural Justice and Cooperative Behavior. IV. The Meaning of Procedual Justice: The Four Component Model. Relational Models of Procedual Justice. A Two Component Model of Procedural Justice: Quality of Decision-making and Quality of Treatment. Creating a Four Component Model of Procedural Justice: Adding the Distinction Between Formal and Informal Sources of Justice. V. Social Identity and Cooperative Behavior: Status and Psychological Engagement. Social Identity and Cooperative Behavior. Justice and Group Status: The Antecedents of Status Evaluations. Psychological Engagement with the Group. VI. Discussion Conclusion: Understanding Group Behavior From a Non-Instrumental Perspective. VII. References. VIII. Appendices
Article
I present argument and evidence for a structural ecology of social capital that describes how the value of social capital to an individual is contingent on the number of people doing the same work. The information and control benefits of bridging the structural holes - or, disconnections between nonredundant contacts in a network -that constitute social capital are especially valuable to managers with few peers. Such managers do not have the guiding frame of reference for behavior provided by numerous competitors, and the work they do does not have the legitimacy provided by numerous people doing the same kind of work. I use network and performance data on a probability sample of senior managers to show how the value of social capital, high on average for the managers, varies as a power function of the number of people doing the same work.
Article
One of the questions involving social dilemma research is how we can promote mutual cooperation among members of a group. In reviewing the social science literature on the Prisoner's Dilemma, R. Axelrod (1980) concluded that no one had really addressed the questions of how to bring about mutual cooperation. Axelrod proposed a new approach to learn more about how to choose effectively in an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma. This chapter summarizes the results of Axelrod's new approach and the empirical studies and computer simulations it spurred. Some follow-up questions that have yet to be addressed are presented. Experimental research on reciprocity is also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
focuses on 2 central questions regarding the dynamics of trust in hierarchical relationships / 1st, what are the antecedents or determinants of trust in such relationships / 2nd, why does trust sometimes fail / address these important and unresolved questions by exploring how trust-related cognitions are influenced by hierarchical social structures / specifically . . . show how organizational actors' structural position or location in a hierarchical relationship affects the processing of trust-related information / demonstrate that location is correlated with systematic and predictable asymmetries in how individuals construe trust in their relationships to advance these claims, it will prove useful to characterize people in organizations as "intuitive auditors" / a primary task of the intuitive auditor is to monitor the ongoing stream of interactions and exchanges that constitute, quite literally, the give-and-take of a hierarchical relationship, and which provide, in turn, the raw data from which inferences about trust and distrust are forged / because of the vulnerabilities and uncertainties they confront, I argue, individuals tend to be vigilant and ruminative auditors, ever attentive to evidence that their trust in the other party is either firmly set on solid ground or built as a house of cards on shifting sand (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The goals of the present study were (1) to demonstrate again that subjects in social decision tasks involving shared resources cannot be modelled as strategic money maximizers, and (2) to investigate further factors that affect the use of what we have called social decision heuristics. Subjects were led to believe that they were the first of six group members to extract points from a common pool of points. Each point extracted could possibly be exchanged for cash. The independent variables were the magnitude of the payoffs that subjects could receive (high vs. low), the divisibility of the resource (divisible vs. nondivisible), the perceived control of the last members over the group's outcomes (fate control vs. no fate control), and subjects' social values (cooperative vs. noncooperative). The results indicated that subjects anchored their decisions on an equal division heuristic. Subjects withdrew the fewest number of points when the resource was divisible, the payoffs were low, and there was fate control. The most points were taken when the resource was nondivisible, the payoffs were high, and subjects were classified as noncooperative. A model of the choice process in this task is discussed.
Article
Individual–collective primacy refers to the extent to which people emphasize their individual interests (individual-primacy) vs. the interests of their ingroup (collective-primacy). This study examined the interactive effects of individual–collective primacy, ingroup performance, and outgroup performance on ingroup favoritism. Participants from two cultures completed a measure of their individual vs. collective-primacy orientation. Performance feedback (favorable or unfavorable) for themselves, their ingroup, and the outgroup were manipulated orthogonally. As predicted, greater collective-primacy led to more ingroup favoritism when the ingroup performed better or worse than the outgroup. However, when the ingroup and outgroup both performed well or both performed poorly, the relationship between collective-primacy and ingroup favoritism was not significant. Implications for analyses of ingroup favoritism and cross-cultural differences are discussed.
Article
The present study examines both positive and negative norms of reciprocity in managerial work relationships by assessing three components of reciprocal behavior: immediacy, equivalence, and interest motive. The findings show that subordinate reports of immediacy, equivalence, and self-interest were negatively associated, and mutual-interest was positively associated, with relationship quality as reported by both subordinates and managers (other-interest was not significant). These components of reciprocity were also subjected to cluster analysis to identify groupings of reciprocity styles. The results indicate styles reflecting high quality (n=65), low quality (n=120), and negative social exchanges (n=23). Analyses addressing reciprocity configurations and work outcomes showed that the higher quality exchange relationships had higher levels of perceived organizational support and altruism (but not commitment) than the lower and negative exchange groups, while only the negative reciprocity group showed lower levels of performance and conscientiousness as rated by the manager.
Article
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Article
Reciprocity is here considered as an internalized social norm, and a questionnaire to measure individual differences in the internalized norm of reciprocity is presented. The questionnaire, Personal Norm of Reciprocity (PNR), measures three aspects of reciprocity: positive reciprocity, negative reciprocity, and beliefs in reciprocity. The PNR has been developed and tested in two cultures, British and Italian, for a total of 951 participants. A cross-cultural study provides evidence of good psychometric properties and generalizability of the PNR. Data provide evidence for criterion validity and show that positive and negative reciprocators behave in different ways as a function of the valence (positive or negative) of the other's past behaviour, the type of feasible reaction (reward versus punishment), and the fairness of their reaction. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Previous research on encounters between parties of differing status tend to examine the influence of the higher status party (e.g., managers) on the lower status party (e.g., their direct reports), rather than the other way around. We suggest that it is important to examine the reactions of both higher and lower status parties (e.g., their desire for future interaction) to their encounters with one another. Furthermore, both parties’ relative status is hypothesized to influence their desire for future interaction with one another, in conjunction with the outcome favorability associated with the encounter and the other’s procedural fairness. This hypothesis was tested in a pilot study as well as in two full-scale studies. All three studies showed that outcome favorability and procedural fairness interacted to influence participants’ desire for future interaction with the other party. However, the nature of the interactive relationship differed as a function of participants’ relative status. For lower status people, high procedural fairness reduced the positive relationship between outcome favorability and their desire for future interaction with the other party, relative to when procedural fairness was low. For higher status people, high procedural fairness heightened the positive relationship between outcome favorability and desire for future interaction, relative to when procedural fairness was low. Implications for the literatures on relationships in work organizations, organizational justice, and status are discussed.
Article
We designed two laboratory experiments to test popular hypotheses explaining the failure of subgame-perfect equilibrium models to explain behavior in ultimatum games. The first experiment varied information available to respondents. When respondents did not know the amount being divided, offerers offered (and respondents accepted) significantly lower offers than when the respondents knew the amount being divided. The second experiment replicated this result and also showed that people occasionally reject “free” money (i.e., offers with no strings attached). This evidence does not support earlier explanations for ultimatum anomalies and identifies conditions where subgame-perfect models apply.
Article
The concept of commitment is widely used but has received little formal analysis. It contains an implicit explanation of one mechanism producing consistent human behavior. Commitments come into being when a person, by making a side bet, links extraneous interests with a consistent line of activity. Side bets are often a consequence of the person's participation in social organizations. To understand commitments fully, an analysis of the system of value within which side bets are made is necessary