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Airborne trace element pollution in 11 European cities assessed by exposure of standardised ryegrass cultures
Abstract
Within a European biomonitoring programme, Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) was employed as accumulative bioindicator of airborne trace elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Sb, V, Zn) in urban agglomerations. Applying a highly standardised method, grass cultures were exposed for consecutive periods of four weeks each to ambient air at up to 100 sites in 11 cities during 2000–2002. Results of the 2001 exposure experiments revealed a clear differentiation of trace element pollution within and among local monitoring networks. Pollution was influenced particularly by traffic emissions. Especially Sb, Pb, Cr, Fe, and Cu exhibited a very uneven distribution within the municipal areas with strong accumulation in plants from traffic-exposed sites in the city centres and close to major roads, and moderate to low levels in plants exposed at suburban or rural sites. Accumulation of Ni and V was influenced by other emission sources. The biomonitoring sites located in Spanish city centres featured a much higher pollution load by trace elements than those in other cities of the network, confirming previously reported findings obtained by chemical analyses of dust deposition and aerosols. At some heavily-trafficked sites, legal thresholds for Cu, Pb, and V contents in foodstuff and animal feed were reached or even surpassed. The study confirmed that the standardised grass exposure is a useful and reliable tool to monitor and to assess environmental levels of potentially toxic compounds of particulate matter.
... (Hemi)epiphytic plants have been used as well because they absorb toxic substances only from the air (Rodriguez et al., 2011;de Paula et al., 2015;Giampaoli et al., 2016) and grow faster than trees (e.g., Lolium multiflorum Lam. [Klumpp et al., 2009] or Taraxacum officinale Weber [Kleckerová and Dočekalová, 2014]). In addition to trace elements, the efficacy of trees for biomonitoring cesium radionuclides (Cosma et al., 2016), platinum-group metals (Bonanno and Pavone, 2015), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Rinaldi et al., 2012) has been proven. ...
... EuroBionet, a European network for the assessment of urban air quality, has developed standard methods to monitor trace elements and PAHs using ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and curly kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala), respectively (Klumpp et al., 2002(Klumpp et al., , 2009. ...
... Most previous studies reported longer exposure periods, ranging from 2 to 6 mo (Rodriguez et al., 2011;Rinaldi et al., 2012;Hassan and Basahi, 2013;Giampaoli et al., 2016) to years in the case of trees specimens (Kord et al., 2010;Sawidis et al., 2011;Karaaslan and Yaman, 2013;Daud et al., 2015). Although Klumpp et al. (2009) reported an exposure period for ryegrass cultures of 28 d, curly kale was left for 8 wk (Klumpp et al., 2002). In this study, a short period was chosen because samples had already grown to the size that they are usually consumed. ...
This study evaluates the results of the characterization of air pollution in urban green areas using edible plants. To this purpose, we examined the effect of location (i.e., three different levels of pollution), substrate (peat moss and vermiculite), and plant species (oilseed rape [Brassica napus L.] and kale [Brassica oleracea L.]) on the accumulation of trace elements on leaves. A total of 36 samples of unwashed leaves were digested with HNO3–H2O2 and analyzed for 27 elements by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Considering the location, plants exposed next to the road showed higher contents of traffic‐related elements, and additionally, outdoors samples were enriched in marine aerosol ions. Cadmium and Pb concentrations did not exceed the European legal maximum levels for vegetables, so their consumption would be safe for human health. Results support the hypothesis that edible plants such as kale and rapeseed could be used as bioindicators of atmospheric pollution.
Core Ideas
Atmospheric biomonitoring using edible plants is feasible in urban environments.
Vegetables grown near roadsides are enriched in traffic‐related trace elements.
Hydroponic urban agriculture products seem to be safe for human consumption.
... This annual plant species is characterized by high growth during the growing season, and hence has a high potential for application to absorb trace elements from the air (Hannaway et al., 1999). It is also widely used in biomonitoring programmes across Europe (Klumpp et al., 2009). The aims of the present study were as follows: (i) to compare the results of levels of nickel and chromium in ambient air in the city and surroundings areas using Italian ryegrass in Polish conditions in relation to other countries with similar investigation results and reference values; ...
... multiflorum), which was used in the present study. This plant is characterized by fast growth with high possibilities to accumulate trace elements (Klumpp et al., 2009). Moreover, it can be used for active biomonitoring for assessment of highly polluted areas (Weiss et al., 2003). ...
... Mean levels of nickel in L. multiflorum leaves were at a higher level than plants collected from unpolluted areas, but were in the range of values previously observed in Poland (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1999). Nickel concentration was lower than in other plants collected from European sites during the EUROBIONET project (Klumpp et al., 2009) and comparable to similar investigations conducted in Italian city sites (Francini et al., 2010). A several times higher level of Ni was recorded in pine needles collected from various sites of Tehran city (Kord and Kord, 2011), as well as in mosses collected around Kathmandu city (Shakya et al., 2001). ...
Nickel and chromium accumulation from the air in Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum L.) is presented in this paper. Plants were exposed at five sites varying in environmental characteristics. Four one-month series were performed during the 2011 and 2012 growing seasons. Chromium and nickel concentrations in leaves were analysed after every series and compared to control plants. The lowest levels of both trace elements were found in samples collected from control sites. Canonical variate analysis revealed differences among sites and the control, and on this basis we found the lowest values in the suburban area. The lowest trace element concentrations of Cr in leaves were observed at the beginning of the growing season and the highest from mid-June to mid-August, while Ni concentrations varied among series and years. Accumulation of both trace elements in Italian ryegrass was at a comparable level or lower than results obtained in similar investigations in other countries. Moreover, the higher concentrations of both elements were probably connected with increased traffic and elevated small industry activities in urban and rural areas.
... Lema) has been well acclimated and appropriately used as a bioaccumulator of trace metals, sulfur, fluorine, and organic pollutants since the early 1970s in temperate regions. It has shown high tolerance against most air pollutants, without showing any visible injury due to environmental pollution levels (VDI, 2003;Klumpp et al., 2009). Some studies using ryegrass cv. ...
... First, background values (bv) of each nutrient analyzed in leaf samples of both species were estimated, following the method described by VDI (2003) and employed by Klumpp et al. (2009). The mean concentration (x 1 ) of each element and respective standard deviation (s 1 ) were calculated for the original dataset obtained in all exposure experiments for each species. ...
... The dataset of Cu and Zn enrichments were mainly classified between degrees I and II; only few enrichment values were included in the 3rd and 4th contamination risk classes (Fig. 4). Although Mn, Cu and Zn are essential and non-toxic in low concentrations to plants, their levels may increase in a polluted environment due to atmospheric deposition derived from vehicular traffic (Conti et al., 2009;Klumpp et al., 2009;Guzmán-Morales et al., 2011), also increasing the possibility of toxic effects on living organisms. Therefore, Mn toxic effects might be more probable than those of Cu and Zn in the MRC. ...
... This species presents a high capacity for the accumulation of toxic substances, as well as a high tolerance against most air pollutants, without showing any visible injury due to ambient pollution levels. Being a commonly grown fodder plant, the accumulation of toxic substances in ryegrass may serve for estimating the potential biomagnification of contaminants along the food chain and the potential health risk for humans and livestock (Klumpp et al., 2009). That makes this plant particularly suitable for measuring atmospheric levels of trace elements. ...
... Data were evaluated by one method reported in Klumpp et al. (2009), which permits one to calculate process-inherent background (B V ) and threshold values (i.e. Effect Detection Limits, EDL). ...
... Notes: All values are given in mg kg -1 DW. Calculation followed the procedure described by Klumpp et al. (2009). Data of our reference plants showed a good fitting with the ranges of occurrence in higher plants proposed by Markert (1992), with the only notable exceptions of As, Br, Cd, Cl, Na and Mo, whose levels are significantly higher in our plants. ...
Ambient air contains particles, ranging from sub-micrometric aerosols to clearly visible dust and sand grains. Plants during evolution developed the ability to maximise light interception and CO 2 assimilation and also the efficiency to collect the airborne pollutants. Therefore, plant tissues have been used as indicators of trace elements air pollution. Lolium multiflorum leaves were used as a sampler to describe the distribution of selected elements in the area of Carrara (Tuscany, Central Italy). Unwashed healthy leaves collected in September 2007 from nine sampling sites were analysed by ICP-MS. Enrichment factors (EFs) were calculated taking Al as crustal reference element. Cd and Mo exhibited the highest EFs, with some values above 10,000. Varimax rotated factor analysis identified three main source groups of elements, namely crustal components, marine aerosol spray and anthropogenic sources.
... Based on a standardised procedure elaborated and published by the Association of German Engineers (VDI 1978), this procedure has been used extensively in Germany to assess the accumulation of toxic substances like lead, copper, chromium, fluoride, etc., but also ''novel'' environmental contaminants such as antimony, platinum and palladium in regional and local surveys, along major roads and around industrial plants (Dietl et al. 1996(Dietl et al. , 1997Franzaring et al. 2007;Nobel et al. 2004;among others). Similar methods have been applied in biomonitoring studies in several European countries (Öhlinger and Döberl 1992;Stabentheiner et al. 2004;De Temmerman and Baeten 1988;De Temmerman et al. 2007;Caggiano et al. 2001;Rey-Asensio and Carballeira 2007;Klumpp et al. 2009), and even in South America (Domingos et al. 1998;Klumpp et al. 1994). ...
... The standardised grass exposure method has been extensively described by (VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (2003) and summarized by Klumpp et al. (2009). Grass cultures of Lolium multiflorum var. ...
... In the Europe-wide biomonitoring study EuroBionet, conducted in eight European countries from Scotland and Denmark in the North across Central Europe to Spain and Greece in the South, the standardised grass culture method proved to be a useful and reliable tool to monitor and to assess environmental levels of potentially toxic compounds of particulate matter. Klumpp et al. (2009) recently published a comparison of biomonitoring results among 11 municipal networks which revealed a clear differentiation of trace element pollution among cities and regions. Spanish cities, e.g., featured much higher pollution loads by trace elements deriving from vehicular emission sources. ...
The toxicity and ecotoxicity of airborne particulate matter is determined by its physical features, but also by its chemical
composition. The standardised exposure of accumulative bioindicator plants is suggested as an efficient and reliable tool
to assess and monitor effects of particulate matter on man and environment. Two widely applied biomonitoring procedures, namely
the standardised ryegrass exposure for monitoring of trace metals, and the standardised exposure of curly kale for monitoring
of PAH compounds, is presented taking examples from a Europe-wide biomonitoring study conducted in 11 European cities. The
presented studies proved the suitability of the procedures applied and demonstrated the high relevance of traffic emissions
for particle-bound trace metal and PAH pollution in urban areas. Recommendations for the further standardisation of methods
and wider application of these methods in environmental monitoring programmes are made.
... Exposed-to-Control (EC) ratios Basically, to detect a significant accumulation, values at exposure sites in the study area must be significantly different from control values at the background control area. The first necessary step for testing this difference is the definition of a threshold value for the background, sometimes referred to as "effect detection limit" (Klumpp et al., 2009). Couto et al. (2004) suggested the use of the limit of quantification (LOQ) as done in analytical chemistry, consisting in the mean þ10 times the standard deviation, since it allows a "rigorous interpretation of the results obtained, because both the analytical noise and the noise associated with the methodology of the transplant technique are already included", and concluded that this approach provides a conservative and statistically solid strategy. ...
... The methodological approach followed to identify those elements really bioaccumulated in lichen transplants proved to be very effective. The definition of an effect detection limit for each element (Klumpp et al., 2009) based on the calculation of the LOQ of control samples, and the use of the LOQ value for the calculation of the EC ratios was very conservative and allowed to avoid the risk of introducing false positives (Couto et al., 2004), i.e., of interpreting as enriched sites that are not enriched with a given element. Coupling these results with the calculation of EFs allowed to distinguish airborne elements from those of soil origin (Loppi et al., 1998), i.e., an element could be accumulated in lichen samples simply because of soil contamination of samples and not because of a real atmospheric contribution. ...
In this work, we aimed to identify the contribution of a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) to the air contamination of a complex urbanized area of N Italy using lichen transplants as biomonitors, and to compare the values of contamination with the data of socio-economic deprivation of the population living in the area. The method adopted allowed the identification of the elements of atmospheric origin that contaminate the study area. Although not distinguishable from the background, the contribution of the MSWI could be apportioned and mercury emerged as atmospheric tracer. Although not posing immediate risk, it is advisable to monitor in time the accumulation of Hg in biological systems. Consistently with similar studies, in the surrounding of the MSWI, we observed also the highest socio-economic deprivation. Overall, we found a close correlation between socio-economic deprivation and air pollution, clearly showing that the most disadvantaged population is clustered in the most polluted areas.
... Abrasion of vehicle brake linings, mining and smelting activities, electronic device Klumpp et al. (2009) and Bech et al. (2012) In this article, we have tried to summarize potential accumulators of HM belonging to different plant groups. Trees and grasses have been the major focus of our study as they have wide evolutionary adaptation and are present in several different environments ranging from arid, coastal, forest, urban region and throughout the world. ...
... For biomonitoring of heavy metals in ambient air at 100 sites in 11 cities from 2000 to 2002, Klumpp et al. (2009) used Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and found relationships between metal accumulation and pollution sources around Polechonska et al. (2013) utilized Polygonum aviculare on 79 different sites with varying pollution levels. They found higher accumulation of Fe, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn that was mainly attributed to higher vehicular pollution. ...
Heavy metals (HM) are nondegradable, persistent, and toxic elements. Heavy metal contamination is a global concern and a major health hazard throughout the world. However, plants have evolved different mechanisms to combat these stresses and even have potential to accumulate them in large quantity. Natural flora has differential ability to metal tolerance with some plants showing induced tolerance at metal-enriched medium, whereas others find it difficult to sustain. Bioaccumulation potential of trees and grasses will be assessed based on peer-reviewed publications. Plants will be classified based on their accumulation potential of different heavy metals. Metal accumulation ability in plants and sources of heavy metals will be assessed for different regions of the world. Anthropogenic input of heavy metals from different sources significantly affects the biogeochemical cycling. Heavy metal depositions considerably affect the plant response. Heavy metal tolerance, uptake, and accumulation in different parts of the plant and possible metal-chelating compounds and their role in metal chelation in trees and grasses will be discussed. Morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular biomarkers of heavy metal tolerance or sensitivity among the trees and grasses will be correlated with bioaccumulation potential and heavy metal tolerance. This article will provide a broad overview of higher plant abilities and tolerance capabilities in heavy metal accumulation.
... This reliable, versatile and inexpensive method can assist us on the subject of health and environmental protection against potentially hazardous trace elements. Providing a high density of sampling points, the biomonitors are very effective for tracing maps of airborne metal contamination in the urban environments (Baycu et al., 2006;Klumpp et al., 2009). An advantage of plants as biomonitors is that they are effective collectors which reflect the accumulated effect of environmental pollution and accumulation of toxicants from atmospheric pollution (deposition, binding and solubility of metals on the leaf surface). ...
... Different biomonitors have been used for evaluation of the distribution of heavy metal pollution: mosses and lichens (Steinnes, 1993;Gonzalez et al., 1996;Culicov and Yurukova, 2006;Anicic et al., 2009;Kularatne and de Freitas, 2013), grasses (Klumpp et al., 2009), many trees as chestnut (Yilmaz et al., 2006), maple, linden, willow, birch (Piczak et al., 2003), poplar (Djingova et al., 1995), oak (Monaci et al., 2000). Leaves of deciduous trees are recognized as useful air pollution biomonitors for trace elements from almost 20 years (Markert, 1993;Bargagli, 1998), but still there are some difficulties to compare data among different phytomonitoring studies. ...
Leaves of Acer platanoides L., Aesculus hippocastanum L. and Betula pendula Roth. were collected from urban sites with different anthropogenic impact in the city of Plovdiv (Bulgaria). Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn in foliage samples were analyzed by ICP-MS. Three studied deciduous trees clearly showed variations in element concentrations depending on the sampling site (Pb, Fe, Cr) and the plant species (Zn). Betula pendula was found to be a better bioaccumulator for the elements Cr, Cd, and especially for Zn. Our approach could be successfully applied in the monitoring of air pollution due to trace elements in urban areas, regardless of their size and topography.
... For example, Celik et al. (2005) reported that the concentrations of Fe, Pb, Cu and Mn in roadside plants were approximately four times higher than in plants at control sites. Klumpp et al. (2009) found a significant accumulation of Pb and Cu in plants from traffic-exposed sites in city centres or close to major roads and moderate to low levels of accumulation in plants at suburban or rural sites. ...
... These results were consistent with Celik et al. (2005), who reported Fe, Pb, Cu and Mn concentrations in roadside plants that were approximately four times greater than those in plants at control sites. Klumpp et al. (2009) found a significant accumulation of Pb and Cu in plants from traffic-exposed sites in city centres and close to major roads and moderate to low levels in plants that were exposed at suburban or rural sites. The trace metal concentrations in the pods and grains of both species were lower than the leaf concentrations. ...
The objective of this study was to analyse the effect of the continuously increasing anthropogenic activities around Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on the accumulation of heavy metals in leguminous crops. This study determined whether four legume crops, Pisum sativum L., Vicia faba L., Glycine max and Vigna sinensis, could accumulate the heavy metals Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in their leaves, pods and grains during the summer when grown under conditions with ambient air pollution from heavy traffic and industrial activities in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The effect of the air pollution was examined by quantifying the protein and trace element Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn concentrations in the leaves, pods and grains of the four plant species. Analysis of the results indicated that air pollution significantly increased the heavy metal concentrations in the leaves, pods and grains. Toxic concentrations of the heavy metals were found in the plants grown at L3, L4 and L5. In conclusion, the air pollution increases as the traffic, industrial activities and population density increase.
... The study deals with a plant biomonitoring approach, using a mixed grass sward, established in the roadside environment, on small plots of local soil, to assess the impact of traffic-derived metal pollution [15,18] in a relatively short period of time (15 days). The difference of this study is that it is the first time in the literature that the usability of grass as a biomonitoring material is examined by collecting samples in short periods of time (15 days) depending on traffic density to avoid the disadvantages of previous biomonitoring studies. ...
... Sampling points, tire tools, fossil fuels, engine evenings of lead, cadmium, zinc, selenium, antimony, and arsenic pollution created by the thought. Car truck as high as the number of heavy vehicles increased the number of places available to be increase in pollution of zinc from rubber, is compatible with the data [4][5][6]18,22] In addition, a correlation analysis was done between the number vehicles passing by the location and the levels of pollution found in the samples collected from the locations. The purpose of this analysis was to prove that statistically significant values in Table 2 were due to the differences in the number of vehicles passing by these locations (Fig. 3a-e). ...
The metal pollution monitoring caused by traffic is a costly application in which appropriate equipment is required as well. In order to avoid such a high cost, monitoring sessions are carried out when they are highly crucial to do. The difference of this study is that the usability of grass in biomonitoring while detecting the pollution caused by traffic in short term was discussed. Considering that grass can grow in a short time even in small areas that it is an all-season plant, the usability of grass as a short term biomonitoring was examined regarding the traffic pollution in Eskisehir’s 15 urban roadside locations, a province of Turkey. In this study, 15 days later, samples were collected and copper, iron, nickel, lead and zinc analyses were performed. Heavy metals were determined by ICP-OES in all samples after acid digestion. The results were analyzed statistically by using SPSS 10 software at p < 0.05. The linearity analysis revealed the relationship between pollution and traffic density. The metal levels were significantly different than the corresponding levels at the medium and low traffic density roads. The correlation coefficient found each polluting metals as approximately 0.9 shows that grass can be used in short term biomonitoring of pollution caused by traffic.
... However, metal uptake and accumulation by plants differ among plant species, and the choice of the appropriate plant species is therefore crucial for a bioavailability study. Among accumulating bioindicator plants used for trace elements biomonitoring, Lolium multiflorum is frequently selected because of its high capacity for the accumulation of toxic substances and its tolerance against heavy metals (Klumpp et al. 2009). An alternative to these ex situ biotests is to harvest plant samples directly from polluted field (Conesa et al. 2006;Vandecasteele et al. 2002). ...
... However, this plant is a standard accumulating bioindicator plant species, which tolerates low to moderate metal concentrations without showing toxicity symptoms. This species does not exhibit mechanisms of metal exclusion or hyperaccumulation during uptake and is therefore recommended as a valuable tool for bioavailability assessment (Almås et al. 2006;Feix and Tremel-Schaub 2005;Klumpp et al. 2009). ...
A rhizospheric biotest, consisting of a thin layer of substratum in close contact with roots of Lolium multiflorum, was used on two contrasting contaminated soils (Cabezo and Brunita) issued from a former mining area in La Union (Spain).
On top of this biotest, soil characterisation, including CaCl2 selective extractions, was performed. Total heavy metal concentrations were the highest in the soil from Cabezo, but CaCl2 extractions indicated higher heavy metal mobilities in Brunita soil. On the base of heavy metal concentrations and biomass
production in L. multiflorum seedlings, availability assessed by the rhizospheric biotest was higher than the values obtained from CaCl2 extraction, except for Mn and Pb. Rhizospheric biotest also revealed higher heavy metal bioavailability for Cabezo. The low
pH of Brunita (3.47) could explain the high CaCl2-extractable heavy metal concentrations as well as the high transfer factor found for Cu, Mn and Zn in this substrate. Cu,
Mn and Zn toxicities were also detected for shoot tissues. Transpiration rates were clearly lower for seedlings exposed to
Brunita than for those exposed to Cabezo, while water use efficiency was higher for the former (4.8mg DW ml−1) than for the latter (3.8mg DW ml−1). Iron nutrition was found to interfere with heavy metal root absorption, mainly through negative interactions during root
absorption. It is concluded that rhizospheric test offers the advantage to consider the root–soil interactions in a dynamic
perspective and constitutes a useful tool for the assessment of heavy metal availability on contaminated soils. Heavy metal
bioavailability assessment should not be based on only one measure alone, but on different and complementary approaches.
KeywordsHeavy metal–Mobility–Plant uptake–
Lolium multiflorum
–CaCl2-selective extraction–Biotest
... By using bio-indicators, we can gain a better understanding of the overall health of the environment and the potential impacts of heavy metals on ecosystems (Singh and Singh, 2020). In this study, we investigated the bioaccumulation efficiency of five plant species recognized for their capability to accumulate heavy metals (Klumpp et al., 2009), i. e., Amaranthus retroflexus L., Lolium multiflorum var. Ponto (reference), Plantago lanceolata L., Rumex acetosa L., and Trifolium pratense L. The present study showed variations in heavy metal (Ni, Zn, Cd, and Pb) concentrations among different plant species. ...
... Lolium multiflorum var. Ponto was used as a known variety cumulating HMs 19,25,26 , but in our study it was found that this variety showed similar possibilities of HM accumulation to the weed species selected for the experiment. Almost all the studied species showed significant potential for Zn and Cd accumulation compared to Cu and Pb. ...
Environmental pollution by heavy metals affects both urban and non-urban areas of Europe and the world. The use of bioindicator plants for the detection of these pollutants is a common practice. An important property of potential bioindicators is their easy availability and wide distribution range, which means that they can be practically used over a wide area. Therefore, common and widely distributed weeds: Trifolium pratense L., Rumex acetosa L., Amaranthus retroflexus L., Plantago lanceolata L., ornamental species Alcea rosea L., and Lolium multiflorum L. var. Ponto were selected as a potential bioindicators of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn). Plants were exposed in the same soil conditions in three sample sites in the Poznań city. It was found that all species had heavy metal accumulation potential, especially A. rosea, P. lanceolata and L. multiflorum for Zn (BCF = 6.62; 5.17; 4.70) and A. rosea, P. lanceolata for Cd (BCF = 8.51; 6.94). Translocation of Cu and Zn was the most effective in T. pratense (TFCu = 2.55; TFZn = 2.67) and in A. retroflexus (TFCu = 1.50; TFZn = 2.23). Cd translocation was the most efficient in T. pratense (TFCd = 1.97), but PB was the most effective translocated in A. retroflexus (TFPb = 3.09).. Based on physiological response to stress, it was detected an increasing level of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in roots and leaves of all samples, with the highest in all organs of A. rosea. Enzymatic activity levels of CAT, APOX, and also the marker of polyunsaturated fatty acid peroxidation MDA, were higher after 6 weeks of exposure in comparison to control samples and varied in time of exposure and between species and exposure. After the experiment, in almost all samples we detected a reduction of chlorophyll content and relative water content, but in efficiency of photosynthesis parameters: net photosynthesis rate, intercellular CO2 concentration and stomatal conductance, we noted increased values, which proved the relatively good condition of the plants. The examined weeds are good bioindicators of heavy metal contamination, and their combined use makes it possible to comprehensively detection of environmental threats.
... The use of vegetation as a passive sampler in biomonitoring bears the advantage of high spatial and temporal resolution due to the excellent availability of plants and low sampling costs (Tiwari et al., 2022;Steubing, 1976;Laaksovirta and Oikonnen, 1977;Murin, 1995). Biomonitors present a high capacity for the accumulation of toxic substances, as well as high tolerance against most air pollutants, without showing any visible injury due to ambient air pollution levels (Klumpp et al., 2009). Accumulation of a trace element by plants is confirmed by the presence or availability of that particular trace element in soil. ...
Heavy metals emitted from different sources such as vehicular exhaust, industries, coal mines, combustion, and thermal plants can lead to severe health hazards for plants and humans. Biomonitoring of heavy metals using plants is an economical and affordable method for controlling hazardous airborne heavy metals. This review article focuses on the determination of heavy metal content in different types of particulate matter (PM) samples deposited/accumulated on the plant surfaces for the assessment of air quality. A general overview has been given to highlight the importance of heavy metal toxicity and its definitions. In addition to it, different plants are discussed which are utilised for heavy metal phytomonitoring. Current developments in phytomonitoring is also highlighted by discussing the studies conducted in different parts of the world along limitations and future prospects are also highlighted.
... Cette méthode peut minimiser l'apport relatif des ETM via le transport respiratoire, surtout si ceux-ci sont faiblement excrétés et accumulés dans les tissus. Même si chez les oiseaux, l'exposition aux ETM est majoritairement associée à la nourriture, les ETM sous forme de microparticules susceptibles d'être inhalées restent un aspect non négligeable de la pollution (Klumpp et al., 2009;Pelucchi et al., 2009 (Gall et al., 2015). Enfin, le temps d'exposition à nos cocktails ne reflète pas complètement l'exposition chronique urbaine. ...
Le milieu urbain est un milieu artificiel pouvant être contraignant pour la faune sauvage. Chez les espèces qui persistent en ville, des divergences de traits d’histoire de vie, physiologiques et morphologiques sont observées avec les populations non urbaines. Ce travail explore l’impact de l’urbanisation sur la faune sauvage en combinant des approches corrélatives in situ chez la mésange charbonnière (Parus major), et des approches expérimentales ex situ sur le diamant mandarin (Taenopygia guttata), pour comprendre les mécanismes impactant les divergences phénotypiques entre ville et forêt. Les approches in situ un faible succès reproducteur et une meilleure maintenance somatique chez les oiseaux urbains suggérant en partie un rythme de vie plus lent ou l’existence d’un filtre urbain basé sur la qualité des individus. Chez le diamant mandarin les effets de l’exposition à des cocktails de métaux urbain sur la physiologie ont été testés. Des effets toxiques ont été observé sur les télomères, un indicateur de longévité et de survie. Ce travail souligne l’importance d’utiliser les approches in situ et expérimentales de manière conjointe pour appréhender l’ensemble des mécanismes aboutissants aux divergences phénotypiques liées à l’urbanisation
... Similarly, standardized grass culture (Lolium multiflorum) and many tropical tree species, including Psidium guajava cv. Paluma and Tibouchina pulchra have been studied for their potential as bioaccumulation (Bulbovas et al., 2015;Domingos et al., 2003;Klumpp et al., 2009;Moraes et al., 2002;Nakazato et al., 2015). The study of Zhai et al. (2016) indicated that the bark followed by the leaf of Cinnamomum camphora (L) Presl has a good potential for heavy metal accumulation. ...
Heavy metals suspended in the air have been the subject of many studies since they are persistent and belong to the most widely dispersed industrial pollution. Heavy metals are naturally accruing in the soil and minerals and enter into the air through wind blowing. Other than this, trace element enters in the air from the metal processing unit and, combustion of fossil fuel in industries and transportation sector. Plants are considered a valuable tool for evaluating environmental quality and the impact of air-suspended metallic pollutants on the ecosystem. Biomonitoring of air-suspended metallic pollutant using plants is an efficient and reliable technique that complements highly expensive instrumental techniques. Further, the monitoring using plants provided a cost-effective method for large-scale monitoring with minimum resources compare to available active monitoring techniques. The presented chapter is an extensive review of plant type and parts used to monitor trace metal pollution in the atmosphere and the benefits and challenges of using plants as a monitoring tool.
... The monitoring stations, located nearby roads with higher vehicular emissions, registered high heavy metals and trace elements (Klumpp et al. 2009). In these roadside stations, sometimes, the standard value of copper exceeded or reached in certain types of fodder. ...
... Lema. This test plant has been widely used both in Europe (Klumpp et al. 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2010) and in subtropical regions (Rodriguez et al. 2015). ...
Biomonitors are considered a cheap alternative of active air samplers, especially where spatial pattern of air quality is to be monitored, requiring numerous parallel measurements. Of higher plants, Plantago lanceolata L. has been proven a good monitor species with proper accumulation capacity. While biomonitoring studies are difficult to compare due to inherent errors such as the diverse plant material used in different studies, the No. 227 OECD GUIDELINE FOR THE TESTING OF CHEMICALS: Terrestrial Plant Test: Vegetative Vigour Test provides a tool to test extract of aerosol samples under controlled laboratory conditions. In our study, this guideline was followed to experimentally treat Plantago with the aqueous extract of a diesel exhaust sample. Accumulation pattern of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was assessed and compared to samples collected in the field. Unlike most studies reported in the literature, both in the experimentally treated and field Plantago samples, high ratio of high molecular weight PAHs was experienced. Distribution pattern of accumulated PAHs showed strong correlation between the experimentally treated sample and most of the field plantain samples, underlying the usefulness of laboratory treatments for bioaccumulation studies.
... As concentrações basais foram obtidas através das exposições em câmaras de topo aberto com ar filtrado. Entretanto, é possível calcular as concentrações basais seguindo protocolo estabelecido por Klumpp (2009). Neste procedimento, os menores valores encontrados na área de estudo, que indicam somente baixo impacto pela poluição, são utilizados como valores de referência. ...
Ferramentas ambientais aplicadas ao planejamento de cidades sustentáveis-1 Organizador Maurício Lamano Ferreira FERRAMENTAS AMBIENTAIS APLICADAS AO PLANEJAMENTO DE CIDADES SUSTENTÁVEIS da geoconservação às adaptações às mudanças climáticas 1ª Edição ANAP Tupã/SP 2020
... Particulate matter from vehicle exhausts contain high enrichment factors for Sb, among other toxic elements. As these pollutants are fine particulate matter, they can easily be carried by wind currents, which disperses them across great distances, to affect terrestrial plants, soils and air (Klumpp et al. 2009). Specifically, Sb has been shown to be enriched in APM and road dust in Chilean cities ) and people exposed to contaminated APM have shown 10-fold more Sb in their whole blood, which is mainly concentrated in erythrocytes (Quiroz et al. 2009). ...
Environmental context
Antimony is found at high concentrations in airborne particulate matter in urban cities. Contaminants that enter humans through the breathing of fine particulate matter are released directly into the blood after overcoming the first barrier of the immune system including macrophages. We investigated the effects of antimony on the inflammatory response in macrophages and its potentially harmful effects.
Abstract
Antimony (Sb) is a metalloid whose increased presence in atmospheric particulate matter is of concern since its effects on living beings are unknown. The present study aims to characterise the redox chemical changes of SbV in vitro using a murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Analysis of the redox chemical changes revealed that SbV is partially reduced to SbIII when in culture. SbV induces the formation of reactive oxygen species, which may be causally related to the reduction of this chemical species. The expression of pro-inflammatory genes, which includes TNF-α and COX-2, was upregulated in response to SbV. The secretion of TNF-α protein was significantly higher from cells treated with SbV than the untreated controls. The pro-inflammatory response to SbV was determined to be dose-dependent. The signalling pathway underlying the cellular response to SbV is likely to be independent from the TLR4-mediated mechanism of lipopolysaccharide activation. This is the first study to describe the potentially pro-inflammatory effects of SbV on mammalian cells.
... (1) The first step consisted of the definition of an "effect detection limit" (EDL) [13], i.e., a threshold background value for each element, based on the calculation of the limit of quantification (LOQ) of pre-exposure samples [14], consisting of the mean +10 times the standard deviation, thus accounting for both the analytical noise and the noise associated with the methodology of the transplant technique. EDL values were used to quantify element bioaccumulation by the calculation of exposed/pre-exposure (control) ratios (EC ratios, as defined by Frati et al. [15]). ...
Air quality monitoring in many urban areas is based on sophisticated and costly equipment to check for the respect of environmental quality standards, but capillary monitoring is often not feasible due to economic constraints. In such cases, the use of living organisms may be very useful to complement the sparse data obtained by physico-chemical measurements. In this study, the bioaccumulation of selected trace elements (Al, As, Cd, Ce, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, S, Sb, Zn) in lichen samples (Evernia prunastri) transplanted for three months at an urban area of Central Italy was investigated to assess the main environmental contaminants, their sources, and the fluxes of element depositions. The results pinpointed Cu and Sb as the main contaminants and suggested a common origin for these two elements from non-exhaust sources of vehicular traffic, such as brake abrasion. Most study sites were, however, found to be subjected to low or moderate environmental contamination, and the lowest contamination corresponded to the main green areas, confirming the important protective role of urban forests against air pollution. Ranges of estimated mean annual element deposition rates in the study area were similar or lower than those reported for other urban areas.
... Borrowing from classical toxicology the concept of lowest-observed-effect concentration (LOEC), i.e. the lowest tested concentration that is significantly different from the control, basically with lichen transplants we need that values at the exposure sites are significantly different from control values. The first necessary step for testing this difference is the definition of a threshold value for the controls, sometimes in biomonitoring studies referred to as effect detection limit (Klumpp et al., 2009). In environmental regulatory studies, this value is regarded as a regulatory acceptable concentration (RAC), which, in turn, determines whether a predicted or measured environmental concentration is acceptable or not. ...
In the assessment of atmospheric deposition using lichen transplants, coping with uncertainty is mandatory in cases of environmental forensics, when understanding whether an area is polluted or not, or tracing a given pollution source is of paramount importance. In this article, we have suggested a method based on the calculation of exposed-to-control ratios of element concentrations and on the quantification of the overall uncertainty associated with such calculation, which proved to be very robust and can be applied in most cases using a minimum of three replicates. The method allowed the selection of significantly accumulated elements i.e. those polluting the site under study, as well as the evaluation of whether a site is significantly polluted or not. We recommend the use of this evaluation method in biomonitoring studies based on transplanted samples.
... Lolium multiflorum ssp. italicum (Poaceae) is a standardized species highlighted as the most efficient accumulator plant for active biomonitoring (VDI 2003;Klumpp et al. 2009;Nakazato et al. 2015). This species was applied in the investigation of spatial and seasonal variations of element concentrations in Cubatão and the MRC and showed strong correlations among the element concentrations and air pollutants. ...
In the tropical region, the greatest challenge of the biomonitoring approach is to establish linear relationships between biomarkers measured in plants and pollutant concentrations, since the bioindicator responses can be intensified or restricted by climatic variations. In southeastern Brazil, there are two regions affected by air pollution, where the Atlantic Forest remains and should be preserved. Consequently, both areas have been monitored by biomonitoring procedures using standardized and tropical plants. The industrial complex settled in Cubatão is one of the world’s most famous examples of environmental pollution and degradation, with consequent decline of the Atlantic Forest. An oil refinery is among the most polluting industries in the Cubatão region. The other region is located in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas (MRC). The MRC has been affected by high levels of air pollutants originated from road traffic and is responsible for over 80% of CO, NOx, and hydrocarbon emissions and develops industrial activities that emit about 70% of the particulate matter present in the region. Both regions are distinguished by the climate, despite the fact that they are only about 130 km far from each other. Several studies carried out by our group in these regions aimed to establish the best native tree species and respective potential biomarkers for future assessment of pollution effects on tropical Forests. We present a critical review about the efficiency of native species compared to standardized bioindicator plants considering antioxidant defense system, nutrient accumulation, and microscopic aspects when exposed to atmospheric pollutants and climate.
... Dentre as espécies de plantas consideradas bioindicadores, realiza-se uma subdivisão entre dois grupos, sendo um de plantas de acúmulo, ou seja, aquelas que acumulam substâncias em seus tecidos, tais como metais pesados e enxofre, e as plantas de alteração, aquelas que apresentam mutações genéticas em sua formação (PAULA, 2010). Tratando-se da espécie Lolium multiflorum Lam (azevém), esta se apresenta com uma alta capacidade para o acúmulo de substâncias tóxicas, bem como metais e também uma alta tolerância contra a maioria dos poluentes do ar, sem mostrar qualquer dano visível devido a níveis de poluição do ambiente (KLUMPP et al., 2009). Os poluentes são incorporados ao tecido foliar da gramínea a partir da interação com o ar atmosférico tanto quanto pelo contato com o substrato, fonte de sua sustentação, portanto para definilos e quantificá-los, torna-se importante avaliarmos a relação existente entre a planta e o seu meio de cultivo de modo a isolarmos as diferentes fontes de contaminação (SANTANA, 2002).Botelho et al., 2010reportaque os metais estão naturalmente presentes no solo, fonte da produção de substrato, devido ao seu processo de formação, porém, em baixos percentuais para a maioria deles, presentes nas formas de peudo total e biodisponível. ...
As questões ambientais ganham cada vez mais destaque unido à importância de nos tornarmos todos responsáveis pela promoção e manutenção da qualidade do ar, da água e do solo para a subsistência do ser humano. A partir do biomonitoramento da poluição atmosférica desenvolvido com o uso da gramínea Lolium multiflorum Lam, este trabalho analisou a presença de metais no substrato usado no cultivo da espécie vegetal, com o objetivo de avaliar a presença de metais e relacionar a parcela disponível para utilização pela planta com os metais provenientes de poluição atmosférica que foram incorporados ao seu tecido foliar. Os resultados obtidos na amostragem feita em quatro pontos da bacia hidrográfica do Rio dos Sinos demonstram inexistência de correlação entre os teores de metais identificados nos espécimes vegetais e os detectados no substrato, exceto para níquel, indicando assim, que a contaminação é proveniente de poluição atmosférica e reforçando a necessidade de continuidade dos estudos.
... Plants show varying degree of sensitivity and tolerance to air pollution stress. Chlorophyll content [7]; ascorbic acid content [13]; leaf pH [17][18] and relative water content have been used in the evaluation of the impact of air pollution on plants. ...
To analyze the air pollution tolerance capacity of ten selected plant species, their biochemical analysis was done, while they were growing in ambient polluted air. For this purpose, there ambient air quality monitoring was done for one year with parameters SO2, NO2, PM10 and PM2.5, Plants species selected were Alstonia scholaris, Anthocephalus kadamba, Bauhinia variegate, Cassia fistula, Tectona grandis, Ficusrumphii, Mangifera indica, Polyalthia longifolia, Pongamia pinnata and Sarca indica. Biochemical parameters analyzed were Ascorbic acid, chlorophyll,pH, and relative water content. Results indicate that some can be used as indicators and some as a sink of air pollution. Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) was calculated by calculating biochemical parameters. S. India (49.36), and Alstonia scholaris (33.66) F. rumphii (30.17) showed high; and A. kadamba (17.71), B. variegate (19.69) and Pongamia pinnata (17.72) showed intermediate response while M. indica, (12.39), P. Longifolia (11.88), Cassia fistula (9.92) and T. Grandis (9.68) showed low tolerance as calculated through achange in their biochemical parameters in response to enhanced air pollution. In silico study of enzymes involved in the air pollution tolerance in the above plants was also done and in the phylogenetic analysis of all 9 enzymes, it was found that two clusters were formed in both the cases i.e. nucleotide and protein sequences. Cluster A Superoxide dismutase and Expansion two enzymes while in Cluster B, Catalase, Peroxidases, Glycosyl-transferase, Phenylalanine ammonia lyase, Sucrose synthase, Polygalacturonase, Laccase were clustered. The insilico and biochemical analysis strongly suggested that these enzymes were highly expressed in the air pollution condition and might play a major role in the air pollution control.
... Temperatures are higher compared to their rural surroundings ('urban heat island'). Wind conditions in cities are also highly variable (Klumpp et al. 2009). ...
In urban conditions, we investigated several leaf traits (leaf area, specific leaf area, fractal dimension and specific leaf weight) on Taraxacum officinale, Tilia tomentosa, Aesculus hippocastanum and Ambrosia artemisiifolia. The analyzed organs were mature leaves, on the first indications of senescence. This study used an exact, inexpensive and efficient in terms of costs alternative methods for determining the leaf parameters. On the other hand, this paper presents an application of the leaf area and fractal dimension in the analysis of leaf shape. Our results show that leaf area and fractal dimension are sensitive parameters that can be effectively used in biomonitoring.
... The background values (BG) of each PAH analyzed in combined leaf samples from each species were estimated, following the method employed by Klumpp et al. (2009) and Bulbovas et al. (2015). The mean concentration (×1) of each PAH and the respective standard deviations (s1) were calculated for the original dataset obtained in all forest remnants for each species (n = 64). ...
... Li, et al. [12], Lee, et al. [13], Cicchella, et al. [14] found that areas with highly elevated metal concentrations were generally located in industrial and residential areas, roadsides and crowded commercial districts. Klumpp, et al. [8] found a significant accumulation of Pb and Cu in plants from traffic-exposed sites in city centres and close to major roads. ...
The objective was to look at the effect of anthropogenic activities on the accumulation of heavy metals; in four legumes crop plants. Pisum sativum L., Vicia faba L., Glycine max and Vigna sinensis, during summer and winter plants exposed to five levels of ambient air pollution by quantifying heavy metals (Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn) concentrations in the leaves, pods and grains. Results indicated that air pollution significantly increased the heavy metal concentrations in the leaves, pods and grains. Toxic concentrations were found in the plants grown at L3, L4 and L5.
... The standardization of methods is an essential step in order to obtain comparable results across different sites. Thus, the standardized ryegrass Lolium multiflorum (VDI, 2003) has been used for the monitoring the trace elements (Klumpp et al., 2009); polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Radermacher and Krause, 2002); heavy metals (Romano Sant`Anna et al., 2004;Sandrin et al., 2004); sulfur (Romano Sant`Anna et al., 2004) and fluoride (Klumpp et al., 1994;Klumpp et al., 1996;Franzaring et al., 2006;Franzaring et al., 2007). ...
A biomonitoring study was performed employing standardized grass cultures. Plants of Lolium multiflorum were exposed at 4 industrial sites over three–month periods in two seasons (dry and rainy) and the biomass produced was used for subsequent measurements of fluoride, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (phenanthrene, anthracene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]‐ anthracene and benzo[g,h,i]perylene), total chlorophyll, malondialdehyde, water, and sulfur content. The total content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) revealed seasonal variations, with the highest values corresponding to the dry season, although this species showed a high retention capacity of PAHs during rainy season. In addition, sampling sites with high vehicular traffic and metal–mechanical industries were associated with the highest content of PAHs. Furthermore, physiological degradation associated with anthropogenic activities in the sampling sites was observed. Fluoride content in the biomonitor was associated with the production and use of cement, which was higher in the dry season.
... Taking into account these facts, it is necessary to assess the atmospheric quality of agricultural and mining areas in order to evaluate possible anthropic sources affecting air and crop quality. Biomonitoring is an effective and economic technique, applicable both locally and regionally, and is recommended by European legislation [24][25][26][27]. Many biomonitoring studies have been carried out using epiphytic species of the Tillandsia genus; these have shown a great capacity for metal accumulation, mainly due to their morphological and functional properties. ...
Most biomonitoring studies worldwide have evaluated the air quality in industrial and urban areas, and even in mining areas to a lesser extent. However, air quality investigations in agricultural areas are scarce. In the present study, the trace metal accumulation and physiological response of the biomonitor Tillandsia capillaris were assessed. Plant samples were transplanted to a reference site, a former open-cast uranium mine, and agricultural sites with varying pollution levels (from normal agricultural practices and near an open rubbish
dump) in the province of Córdoba, Argentina. Biomonitors were exposed to ambient air for different exposure periods for physiological or trace element determination. The bioindicators revealed that the highest physiological damage occurred at the sites close to the open dump and the former uranium mine, while a comparison among exposure periods indicating the winter season produced the highest physiological damage in the biomonitor due to the adverse climatic conditions and air pollution. As the trace metal accumulation in the biomonitor was mainly associated with the open dump and uranium mine sites, monitoring and remediation programs should now be applied to these sites in order to alleviate the negative effects of pollution on the environment and the population.
... Lema, and tropical plant species as bioaccumulators (Domingos et al., , 2003aFurlan et al., 2004;Klumpp et al., 1996aKlumpp et al., , b, 1998Klumpp et al., , 2000Moraes et al., 2002) identified the high phytotoxicity potential of these air pollutants in Cubatão, which threatens the Atlantic Rainforest that is typically characterized by high floristic richness. These studies and also that performed by Klumpp et al. (2009) in Europe revealed that Lolium multiflorum is the most efficient accumulator plant for sulfur, heavy metals and fluorine. In addition, Rinaldi et al. (2012) showed that L. multiflorum is also an efficient bioaccumulator of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in the atmospheric particulates in Cubatão. ...
... Today Sb, V and Fe are considered that can be used as APM traffic indicator [13]. In 2009 the European biomonitoring program (which was performed in 11 European cities) showed vehicle traffic contaminate terrestrial plants, foodstuff and animal feed with Sb and other toxic elements related with brake linings [14]. In a paper by von Uexkull et al., (2005) , the environmental contamination due to the presence of Sb in brake pads was raised, and it has pointed out that there is a reasonable concern about its carcinogenic potential [15]. ...
... Among accumulating bioindicator plants used for trace elements biomonitoring, ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) is frequently selected because of its high capacity for the accumulation of toxic substances and its tolerance against heavy metals (Klumpp et al., 2009;. It does not present mechanisms of metal exclusion or hyperaccumulation during metal uptake and is therefore recommended as a valuable tool for bioavailability assessment (Lambrechts et al., 2011). ...
... There were no clear tendencies for lead, nickel, and manganese, which can also be attributed to anthropogenic sources. Extensive investigations into heavy metal pollution in airborne particles have been carried out by Amato et al. (2009) and Klumpp et al. (2009). ...
Motivated by growing considerations of the scale, severity and risks associated with human exposure to indoor particulate matter, this work reviewed existing literature to: (i) identify state-of-the-art experimental techniques used for personal exposure assessment; (ii) compare exposure levels reported for domestic/school settings in different countries (excluding exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and particulate matter from biomass cooking in developing countries); (iii) assess the contribution of outdoor background vs indoor sources to personal exposure; and (iv) examine scientific understanding of the risks posed by personal exposure to indoor aerosols. Limited studies assessing integrated daily residential exposure to just one particle size fraction, ultrafine particles, show that the contribution of indoor sources ranged from 19-76%. This indicates a strong dependence on resident activities, source events and site specificity, and highlights the importance of indoor sources for total personal exposure. Further, it was assessed that 10-30% of the total burden-of-disease from particulate matter exposure was due to indoor generated particles, signifying that indoor environments are likely to be a dominant environmental factor affecting human health. However, due to challenges associated with conducting epidemiological assessments, the role of indoor generated particles has not been fully acknowledged, and improved exposure/risk assessment methods are still needed, together with a serious focus on exposure control. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
... Lema, and tropical plant species as bioaccumulators (Domingos et al., , 2003aFurlan et al., 2004;Klumpp et al., 1996aKlumpp et al., , b, 1998Klumpp et al., , 2000Moraes et al., 2002) identified the high phytotoxicity potential of these air pollutants in Cubatão, which threatens the Atlantic Rainforest that is typically characterized by high floristic richness. These studies and also that performed by Klumpp et al. (2009) in Europe revealed that Lolium multiflorum is the most efficient accumulator plant for sulfur, heavy metals and fluorine. In addition, Rinaldi et al. (2012) showed that L. multiflorum is also an efficient bioaccumulator of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in the atmospheric particulates in Cubatão. ...
This study extends the current knowledge regarding the use of plants for the passive accumulation of anthropogenic PAHs that are present in the atmospheric total suspended particles (TSP) in the tropics and sub-tropics. It is of major relevance because the anthropic emissions of TSP containing PAHs are significant in these regions, but their monitoring is still scarce. We compared the biomonitor efficiency of Lolium multiflorum 'Lema' and tropical tree species (Tibouchina pulchra and Psidium guajava 'Paluma') that were growing in an intensely TSP-polluted site in Cubatão (SE Brazil), and established the species with the highest potential for alternative monitoring of PAHs. PAHs present in the TSP indicated that the region is impacted by various emission sources. L. multiflorum showed a greater efficiency for the accumulation of PAH compounds on their leaves than the tropical trees. The linear regression between the logBCF and logKoa revealed that L. multiflorum is an efficient biomonitor of the profile of light and heavy PAHs present in the particulate phase of the atmosphere during dry weather and mild temperatures. The grass should be used only for indicating the PAHs with higher molecular weight in warmer and wetter periods.
An interlaboratory study of the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) certified reference material (CRM) No. 28 Urban Aerosols collected from the filters of a central ventilating system in a building in the Beijing city center from 1996 to 2005 was performed to obtain an information value of the Sr isotopic composition. The Sr isotopic composition was measured using multi-collector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) to confirm the CRM’s within- and between-bottle homogeneity, and the results showed a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.710227 ± 0.000019 (2SD, n = 18). The Sr isotopic compositions were intercompared using thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), which showed good agreement with values obtained at NIES. Subsequently, a consistent 87Sr/86Sr ratio was observed between two dissolution (hotplate vs. high-pressure bomb) and Sr separation (Sr spec resin vs. cation exchange resin) methods. To validate and reproduce the accuracy of our analytical methods, the Sr isotopic compositions of secondary reference materials, JB-1b and JA-2, were also measured. Our results showed that NIES CRM No. 28 is appropriate for the quality control of Sr isotope measurements of particulate matter analyses for environmental and geochemical studies.
In this study, we aimed to investigate the accumulation of airborne trace elements in Lolium multiflorum leaves concerning photosynthetic activity parameters. Five sites for four 28-day series of plant exposition were selected. The concentration of trace elements in leaves was measured after each series, while photosynthetic activity parameters were measured three times during each series. Net photosynthesis rate (PN) and stomatal conductance (gs) were mostly negatively associated with all analyzed trace elements, unlike to CO2 concentrations (Ci). Arsenic was found with opposite trend in two exposure series. The high accumulation of Cd and Pb in plants recorded at two sites was mostly related to lowest PN and gs. Similar tendency for PN was found at sites and series with the highest Cr and Ni content in plants. L. multiflorum revealed a medium-level accumulation of trace elements and a low tolerance of the photosynthetic process to the presence of trace elements in ambient air.
This study was conducted with the purpose to evaluate the hypothesis that the air pollution deposition in the remaining Brazilian Atlantic Forest surrounded by diversified land uses, has altered the nutritional status of its tree species. The leaf concentrations of macronutrients and micronutrients were determined to estimate Concentration Factors - CF (plant/soil concentration ratios) and leaf nutrient ratios (N/P, N/K, N/Ca, N/Mg, N/S, S/K, S/Ca, S/Mg) of the most abundant tree species found in four remnants at the Metropolitan Region of Campinas, SE Brazil: Cosmopolis, Holambra, Paulínia and Campinas. The leaf samplings occurred during three dry and wet seasons. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) determined if CF for nutrients and ratios varied between forest remnants and seasons. Variations in CF values indicated that the nutritional status of the forest remnants is defined by both physical/chemical soil attributes and atmospheric deposition. The clay soils of the Campinas forest appeared to provide the highest buffering capacity against acidic deposition and nutritional imbalances induced by the anthropic activities. The air pollution emissions from diversified land uses has increased the CF medians above a reliable baseline of the nutritional plant/soil relationship in the forest remnants studied. Agriculture activities seemed to be responsible for increasing P, K, Ca, and Mg depositions; industries for N, S and Mn depositions; soil resuspension for Ca, Fe and Mg. Considering these sources, Paulínia and Campinas seemed to be the most and least forest remnants affected by air pollution, respectively.
We propose a method for monitoring heavy metal deposition in the vicinity of roads using the leaf surfaces of two expansive grass species which are greatly abundant. A principle of the proposed procedure is to minimize the number of operations in collecting and preparing samples for analysis. The monitored elements are extracted from the leaf surfaces using dilute nitric acid directly in the sample-collection bottle. The ensuing steps, then, are only to filter the extraction solution and the elemental analysis itself. The verification results indicate that the selected grasses Calamagrostis epigejos and Arrhenatherum elatius are well suited to the proposed procedure. Selected heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cd) in concentrations appropriate for direct determination using methods of elemental analysis can be extracted from the surface of leaves of these species collected in the vicinity of roads with medium traffic loads. Comparing the two species showed that each had a different relationship between the amounts of deposited heavy metals and distance from the road. This disparity can be explained by specific morphological properties of the two species' leaf surfaces. Due to the abundant occurrence of the two species and the method's general simplicity and ready availability, we regard the proposed approach to constitute a broadly usable and repeatable one for producing reproducible results.
Lead (Pb) is one of the ubiquitous soil contaminants. The strategy to increase Pb phytoremediation is of highly critical considering the difficulty in phytoextraction of Pb due to its low solubility and high retention on soil particles. The effects of application nano hydroxyapatite (NHAP) on Pb phytoextraction by ryegrass (Lolium Perenne L.) were evaluated. Ninety pots of Pb-contaminated soil with different Pb concentrations (0–800 mg/kg) were seeded with ryegrass. The effects of NHAP on biomass and Pb uptake were examined. The results indicated that the application of 5 g/kg NHAP to Pb-contaminated soils significantly increased the ryegrass biomass. The removal rates of Pb from the soil by ryegrass were enhanced obviously after NHAP addition. These results suggested that NHAP was suitable for application to in-situ Pb-contaminated soils for remediation. The observation in this study provides useful information about the effects of NHAP on lead removal, which plays an important role in the phytoremediation.
Dealing with environmental pollution promises to be one of man’s most urgent problems in the years to come. This chapter deals with different components of air pollution biomonitoring and their remediation by using different plant species of herbs, shrubs, and trees as green technology. Various methods of biomonitoring apply the whole or part of an organism to measure the exposure of a plant as well as accumulation of a pollutant. They have the great advantage to show clearly the effects of air pollutants as bioindicator plants. Bioindicators can reveal the impact and the cumulative effects of different pollutants. Phytoremediation is a set of processes such as rhizodegradation, phytostabilization, phytofiltration, phytoextraction, phytodegradation, and phytovolatilization. Through these processes plants remediate the pollutants, partially and sustainably from the atmosphere. Atmospheric gases (NO2, SO2, O3, etc.), heavy metals, and VOC pollutants are reduced by absorbing and metabolizing them into less toxic compounds by site-specific plants or through the changes in the plant genome by overexpression of pollution-fighting genes through genetic engineering.
Heavy metals are particularly present in industrial harbour areas, mainly under particle form. Three possible applications of rye-grass in heavy metals biomonitoring were studied in this work: bioaccumulation, observation of particle deposition on leaves and genotoxicity. Only lead and cadmium were detected on leaves, with higher concentrations in industrial site. This results show the application limits of French norm NF X43-901 when atmospheric concentrations of heavy metals are relatively low during the survey. However, size, composition, and quantity of particles microscopically observed on foliar surfaces (with SEM) change according to the sites. Moreover, comet assay, that was performed for the first time on rye-grass leaves, show genotoxic effects more important in road site.
Effects of residual wastewater sludge, amended with zeolites, on the early growth of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) were investigated. For that purpose growth parameters, content of photosynthetic pigments, substrate characteristics, levels of macro- and micronutrients, as well as toxic elements in plant tissue, plant inorganic matter and substrates, sewage sludge and soil, were determined. Among the growth indicators, only protein content and inorganic matter in plant tissue were found to be influenced by the type and composition of the substrate. Sewage sludge was found to contain elevated levels of Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sr and Zn, while Cu and Sn were found in an order of magnitude higher levels compared to the control sample. Application of sewage sludge, however, modified only the content of Cu and Zn in the plant tissue, inducing accumulation of these elements by a factor of 2. Despite the fact that all other measured elements (Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ti, U and V) were found in plant tissue at similar level regardless of the substrate metal loading, accumulation indices point to overall lower bioavailability of elements from digested sludge in comparison with control substrate. Moreover, metal concentrations in all analyzed plant samples were below legally established limits.
The suitability of a rootless Bromeliad species (Tillandsia usneoides) as biomonitor of airborne trace elements in urban areas of the Mediterranean basin was evaluated. The study was performed at five sites of the city of Pisa (Tuscany, Central Italy) differing for land use, anthropogenic activities and/or proximity to emission sources. The elements investigated were Al, As, B, Ba, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sr, V and Zn. Unwashed and washed samples, collected after 36 days of exposure (May-June 2011), were analyzed by ICP-MS. Results showed significant differences among sampling sites for several elements. Concentrations of Al, Ba, Bi, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Sb and Zn were the highest in urban/traffic and/or suburban/ traffic areas. Some of these elements e. g. Ba, Cu, Sb and Zn are commonly considered as traffic-related elements. In the industrial site, the main elements found were Mg, Sr and Zn. Iron, Mn, Na and V concentrations were much higher in rural/remote areas. Enrichment factors highlighted that T. usneoides showed: high resistance/tolerance to heavy metal toxicity, specificity, capability to well-definitely represent a sampling site, quantitative response to pollutant exposure. The results indicated that T. usneoides reflects the intrinsic characteristics of each sampling area and allows tracing back differences related to the various emission sources by factor analysis.
Results of investigations and assessment of air pollution by cadmium, lead, and arsenic using Italian ryegrass are presented in this paper. The experiment was carried out in the 2011 growing season in Poznań city and surroundings areas. Lolium multiflorum L. 'Lema' exhibits several properties useful for active biomonitoring of air pollution. Plants were exposed at sites varying in environmental characteristics. High cadmium and lead concentrations in leaves were noted in plants exposed within the city area. Canonical variate analysis illustrated variability in concentrations of elements in certain exposure series. The highest arsenic concentrations were observed in the first exposure series, while the highest lead concentrations were observed during the second series. Comparison of trace element concentrations at exposure sites to the control site revealed that comparable levels occurred in the city sites and the Agro-ecological Landscape Park. This was an effect of high cadmium and lead levels at city sites, and arsenic at the rural site. The lowest level of measured trace elements was observed at an exposure site located 15 km from Poznań in a rural area.
Heavy metals are particularly present in industrial harbour areas, mainly under particle form. Three possible applications of rye—grass in heavy metals biomonitoring were studied in this work: bioaccumulation, observation of particle deposition on leaves and genotoxicity. Only lead and cadmium were detected on leaves, with higher concentrations in industrial site. This results show the application limits of French norm NF X43-901 when atmospheric concentrations of heavy metals are relatively low during the survey. However, size, composition, and quantity of particles microscopically observed on foliar surfaces (with SEM) change according to the sites. Moreover, comet assay, that was performed for the first time on rye—grass leaves, show genotoxic effects more important in road site.
The successful implementation of phytostabilization is conditioned by a sound understanding of all potential metal mobilizing and/or immobilizing mechanisms acting upon contaminated soils as well as the capacity to develop synergies with other environmental and economic priorities. With these objectives in mind, this PhD thesis aimed at gaining better insights on the impacts of plants, amendments and biochar on the mobility of heavy metals in soils and the consequent implications for phytostabilization. First, the effects of the presence of plants on the release of heavy metals from a single mineral (smithsonite, ZnCO3) and anthropogenic contaminated soils were studied using continuous flow experiments, leaching column tests and Zn stable isotope analysis. Results revealed that the presence of plants generally increases the release of Cd, Zn and Pb due to plant-induced acidification and the release of soluble organic compounds from both roots and long-term accumulated plant residues. The effects of cost-effective amendments on the immobilization of heavy metals were then tested by means of a pot experiment. Although some amendments, such as bone meal, showed contrasting effects, other amendments, such as CaCO3, were found to successfully reduce both the leaching and the phytoavailability of Cd, Zn and Pb. Finally, the efficacy of biochar as an amendment for phytostabilization was evaluated using biotests and both pot and incubation experiments. Biochar was found to induce the immobilization of Cd, Zn and Pb in soils to an extent which was proportional to its rate of application. The mechanisms responsible for the metal immobilization were identified as predominantly pH-dependent even though aging reactions may also occur. Compared to CaCO3 amendment, biochar applied at 10% (w/w) tripled the production of rapeseed biomass while it was equally efficient in reducing metal concentration in shoots. Thus, in addition to sequestering C, the application of biochar to contaminated soils can improve the phytostabilization of the site while providing economic and environmental benefits via the production of a valuable biomass. The thesis provides evidence that the optimization of the phytostabilization of contaminated sites requires the application of metal immobilizing soil amendments, among which biochar turns out to be full of promise.
A factorial design was used to optimize the extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from mosses, plants used as biomonitors of air pollution. The analytical procedure consists of pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) followed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) cleanup, in association with analysis by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). For method development, homogeneous samples were prepared with large quantities of the mosses Isothecium myosuroides Brid. and Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw., collected from a Spanish Nature Reserve. A factorial design was used to identify the optimal PLE operational conditions: 2 static cycles of 5 min at 80 °C. The analytical procedure performed with PLE showed similar recoveries (∼70%) and total PAH concentrations (∼200 ng g(-1)) as found using Soxtec extraction, with the advantage of reducing solvent consumption by 3 (30 mL against 100mL per sample), and taking a fifth of the time (24 samples extracted automatically in 8h against 2 samples in 3.5h). The performance of SPE normal phases (NH(2), Florisil, silica and activated aluminium) generally used for organic matrix cleanup was also compared. Florisil appeared to be the most selective phase and ensured the highest PAH recoveries. The optimal analytical procedure was validated with a reference material and applied to moss samples from a remote Spanish site in order to determine spatial and inter-species variability.
Enhanced activity of actinides and some decay products has been reported for the leaves of cypress trees (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) at the edge of the Malvési uranium-processing facility, southwestern France. The enhanced activity is due to the release of actinides via the smokestacks and from artificial ponds inside the facility. This study was conducted to characterize airborne particulate matter deposited on the leaf surfaces and to investigate whether or not radioactive particles may be identified. Air-dried leaf samples were examined by scanning electron microscopy, in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The samples were scanned systematically in both secondary and backscattered electron modes. Particles ranging in size from <200 nm to ~40 μm were found on most portions of the adaxial leaf surface, but they are especially abundant at the boundary between facial and lateral leaves. The majority of the analyzed particles could be attributed to five principal classes: carbonates, silicates, sulfates, oxides/hydroxides, and halides. In addition, other types of particles were found, including Fe alloys; scheelite-group phases; phosphates; sulfides; and fly ash spheres. Similar particles were also observed on the surface of a wheat sample used for comparison. Of special interest are U-rich particles, which were observed on the cypress leaves only and which were identified as U oxides, except for one particle, which was a U-oxide-fluoride. These U-rich particles were released into the atmosphere by the nuclear facility prior to their deposition on the leaf surfaces. As most of the U-rich particles are <2.5 μm across, they are respirable. Once inhaled, particles containing alpha-emitting isotopes represent a potentially long-term source of ionizing radiation inside the lungs and thus, pose a threat to the health of people living nearby.
In this work, we present an experimental procedure for monitoring heavy metals concentrations in atmosphere by means of a biophysical technique and show the results of 1997 and 1998 measurement campaigns, focusing our attention on the use of rye grass species (Lolium italicum and Festuca arundinacea) as biomonitors.
Supported by the LIFE Environment Programme of the European Commission, EuroBionet, the 'European Network for the Assessment of Air Quality by the Use of Bioindicator Plants' was implemented in 1999 as a cooperative project of local authorities and scientific institutes in twelve urban agglomerations of eight EU member states. It aimed at using standardised bioindication methods in air quality monitoring and environmental awareness raising. During three years, air quality was assessed by means of accumulative and sensitive bioindicator plants at more than 100 monitoring sites. The experiments provided numerous data on the spatial and temporal distribution of air pollution impacts within the local networks and at the European level. By the use of tobacco plants, a clear gradient of ozone-induced effects with increasing plant injury levels from the north and northwest of Europe to central and southern regions became evident. The analysis of data on ambient ozone concentrations documented that current threshold and target values for the protection of the vegetation were exceeded in most of the cities. The strongest ozone-induced leaf injuries were observed at sites in Lyon, Barcelona and Hohenheim/Ditzingen, whereas only weak to moderate ozone impact occurred in Edinburgh, Sheffield, Copenhagen, and Düssel-dorf. The Tradescantia-Micronucleus-Test for the assessment of mutagenic effects was for the first time successfully tested over such a large geographical extension. Hints on an increased genotoxic potential were found at sites with intense road traffic. Our experiments also demonstrated that the use of the standardised grass culture allows to detect local hot spots of heavy metal pollution, but also to determine the small-scale distribution of the pollution load and to document even short-term changes of the emission situation. Overall, the impact by sulphur and heavy metals was rated as low to moderate. A comparably high heavy metal load, however, was noticeable in the Spanish cities. A clear distinction was found between levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in curly kale plants exposed at urban sites and at reference sites, respectively. The total PAH amounts were in an intermediate range typical for urban areas. Recommendations concerning further steps towards a Europe-wide establishment of biomonitoring procedures in routine air quality control are presented.
A survey of the literature was conducted to review historical and current surface ozone data from background stations in Canada, United States and around the world for the purpose of characterizing background levels and trends, present plausible explanations for observed trends and explore projections of future ozone levels. The annual ozone cycle at background sites in the Northern Hemisphere is characterized by a spring maximum, peaking during the month of May. Although presently there is no concensus as to the origin of the spring maximum, evidence supports both enhanced photochemistry in the free troposphere and stratospheric input. Modern day annual average background ozone concentrations over the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere range between approximately 20–45 ppb, with variability being a function of geographic location, elevation and extent of anthropogenic influence. Annual median ozone levels at Canadian background stations fall between 23 and 34 ppb, a range similar to that reported for low-elevation background stations in the United States and around the world. Comparisons of ozone levels with those measured over a century ago indicate that current levels have increased by approximately two times. Although current trends are not uniform, there is some indication that background ozone levels over the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere have continued to rise over the past three decades, and that this rise has been in the range of approximately 0.5–2% per year. Rising trends were steeper in the 1970s and 1980s compared to the 1990s, which have seen either a leveling off or a decline in the magnitude of these trends. Model sensitivity studies indicate that the rise in NOx emissions account for the greatest increase in background ozone levels over the past three decades. A substantial component of the background ozone concentration in western North America may be due to long-range transport of Asian pollution, especially during the spring months. Model projections using IPCC emission scenarios for the 21st century indicate that background ozone may rise to levels that would exceed internationally accepted environmental criteria for human health and the environment.
Leaf or needle ozone uptake was estimated for young trees at seven experimental sites across Europe using a stomatal conductance simulation model. Dose–response relationships based on cumulative leaf uptake of ozone (CUO) were calculated using different hourly ozone flux thresholds and these were compared to dose–response relationships based on daylight AOT40, which is currently used within the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). Regression analysis showed that the CUO–biomass response relationships were highly significant for both coniferous and broadleaf trees, and independent of which ozone flux threshold was applied. On the basis of this regressions analysis, an hourly flux threshold of 1.6 nmol m−2 s−1 (CUO>1.6) is proposed as the most appropriate for all species categories in deriving dose–response relationships. The analysis indicated that the current critical level for ozone impacts on European forests of AOT40 10 ppm h may not protect the most sensitive receptors and that critical levels for AOT40 and CUO>1.6 of 5 ppm h and 4 mmol m−2, respectively, are more appropriate. The research identified weaker dose–response relationships for the CUO exposure index compared with AOT40. Distinguishing between sensitive and less sensitive species substantially improved the CUO–biomass response relationships although, still, to a lesser extent than when exposure was expressed as AOT40.
An ambient air study was conducted in the city of Florence, Italy, in the summer 1996. Tropospheric ozone was continuously monitored with automatic analyzers in three stations, two located in the urban area and one in the hilly surroundings (Settignano). A biomonitoring campaign based on the tobacco cv. Bel-W3 plants was performed in the same area. The highest values were constantly recorded in the Settignano station. The highest 1-hour mean recorded was 197 nl/l; the accumulated exposure over a threshold of 40 nl/l (AOT40) was well above the critical levels standards for protection of the vegetation. A consistent temporal variation was observed and July proved to be the month with the highest ozone levels. Cumulative frequency distribution of ozone maximum daily concentrations exhibited a good fitting to log-normality. No 'week-end' effect was observed. Biomonitoring data were in good agreement with chemico-physical ones.
Often as part of environmental impact studies and, above all, to obtain authorisations in accordance with prescriptions from the Ministry for the Environment (Italy), surveys and controls that use biological indicators are required. This is because such indicators are valid instruments for evaluating the quality of the air ensuing from the subject (often an industrial plant) of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). In this context, this paper aims to analyse some of the theoretical aspects of biological monitoring and to provide a progress report on the use of lichens as bioindicators of air quality, with a particular eye to the situation in Italy. The object of this paper is that of pointing out the most important lines in the current state of knowledge in this field, evaluating the methodological applications and their advantages/disadvantages with respect to traditional surveying methods.
EuroBionet, the 'European Network for the Assessment of Air Quality by the Use of Bioindicator Plants', is an EU-funded cooperative project currently consisting of public authorities and scientific institutes from 12 cities in 8 countries. In 2000, the bioindicator plants tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum Bel W3), poplar (Populus nigra 'Brandaris'), spiderwort (Tradescantia sp. clone 4430), Italian rye grass (Lolium multiflorum italicum) and curly kale (Brassica oleracea acephala) were exposed to ambient air at 90 monitoring sites according to standardised methods. Visible injuries and growth parameters were assessed and the accumulation of toxic substances in leaves determined. The exposure of tobacco resulted in a gradient with low levels of ozone-induced foliar injury in N and NW Europe, and medium to high values in the southern and central regions. The results of heavy metal and sulphur analyses in rye grass samples generally showed low to very low sulphur and low to medium heavy metal concentrations in leaves. In some cities, however, local hot spots of heavy metal contamination were detected. Analyses of the PAH contents in curly kale leaves gave low to medium values, with locally elevated levels at traffic-exposed sites.
Status and perspectives of the standardisation work within the Commission on Air Pollution Prevention of VDI and DIN (KRdL) concerning biomonitoring in Germany are presented. The current VDI Guidelines are described shortly, partly with their historical development. Thereby advantages and disadvantages of technical measurement procedures and the differences between active and passive biomonitoring are discussed and where to use them is explained. The current work, also in other working groups, comprises e.g. the standardisation of procedures to evaluate biomonitoring results, procedures which account more for biodiversity aspects, faunistic approaches, and VDI Guidelines for a monitoring of genetically engineered organisms.
The combination of biomonitoring with standardized grass cultures and deposition monitoring of antimony (Sb), lead (Pb) and 12 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (PAH) was carried out in the conurbation of Munich, Germany in 1993 and resumed at the German-Czech border in 1995. Results from different location types in different areas and years seem to be comparable for Sb and PAH, because relevant background data fit in the same range. Biomonitoring reveals a seasonal course of PAH accumulation. Mean PAH contents are found to be significantly higher in grass cultures at locations along heavily traveled roads, compared to sites in living areas or in a rural background. The traffic related PAH bioaccumulation of both regions fits in the same range, although traffic composition is different and traffic density is ten times smaller at the German-Czech border. Correlation of Pb and Sb bioaccumulation in grass vs. deposition suggested abrasions of brake linings and tires to be one possible emission source. This might be the explanation for the mean contents of Pb and Sb in grass cultures at traffic locations in Munich exceeding those in living or rural areas. Deposition (Bergerhoff method) indicates analogous pollution dynamics (Bergerhoff method) indicates analogous pollution dynamics in association with traffic. Pb bioaccumulation and deposition along the main roads at the German-Czech border show wider ranges compared to Munich. On the whole, Pb and Sb values at border traffic are found to be lower than those in Munich two years previously.
Pre-exposure of tobacco, cv Bel W3, to ambient oxidant (primarily ozone) air pollution usually predisposed plants to foliar injury from subsequent exposure. Over eight seven-day periods, plants exposed for seven continuous days developed more than twice as much injury as the total injury on plants exposed for only one day each over the same period.The predisposition partly explains the lack of significant quantitative correlations between oxidant dose and plant injury. Thus we need to understand how this predisposition phenomenon and the plant environment interact to affect the amount of injury from a given oxidant dose. Once this is known we will be better able to make quantitative predictions of the effects of various oxidant doses on plants. Until then, the direct assessment of injury to sensitive plant species is the best indication of the incidence and severity of air pollution episodes.
The chemical composition of PM10 and PM2.5 was studied during summer and winter sampling campaigns in South and West Europe (Barcelona, Spain, and Ghent, Belgium). The chemical composition of the PM10 aerosol was markedly different in the two regions, even at similar PM10 levels. The chemical composition of PM2.5 showed more similarities. The contribution of mineral matter was higher in Barcelona (on average 12% of the PM2.5 mass), whereas the contribution from sea salt was higher in Ghent (4% of PM2.5). Volatilisation of NH4+ from the filters (negative artefact) was observed in both regions, although the extent of this artefact showed regional differences (0–4% and 22–38% of the NH4+ mass in Ghent and Barcelona, respectively) and had no impact on the compliance with EU limit values. The number of exceedances of the PM10 limit value and an arbitrary PM2.5 limit of 25μgm−3 was calculated by subtracting the mineral fraction (natural or anthropogenic in origin) from the bulk PM load, and this resulted in the elimination of the PM10 exceedances in Barcelona, and a reduction of one out of three exceedances in Ghent. The subtraction of sea-salt aerosol had no effect in Barcelona, and it removed one exceedance in each size fraction in Ghent. Exceedances of the PM10 daily limit value in Ghent coincided with back-trajectories originating from Eastern and Southern European regions. The origin of the exceedances in Barcelona during the campaigns was mostly local.
Recent records of environmental contamination noted a moderate decrease of SO2 pollution, whereas the burden of atmospheric heavy metals is still considerable. The present review refers to the entrapment, uptake, and accumulation of heavy metals by lichen thalli, made apparent by parameters of lichen vitality and stress. The particulate nature of airborne heavy metals is made evident by parameters referring to the entrapment of heavy-metal containing particles by lichen thalli. The mechanism of uptake of heavy metals, investigated by means of controlled experiments, refers to extracellular and intracellular uptake. The rate of absorption and the accumulation of heavy metals is dependent on morphological features of lichen thalli in addition to kind and intensity of emission sources and to nonanthropogenic factors such as climate and topography. The role of lichens as biomonitors is demonstrated by the case of lead. In contrast to data obtained by retrospective studies, using lichens as biomonitors of heavy metal pollution, performed in the 1970s, which indicated an increase of Pb as a result of the massive use of leaded gasoline, the subsequent disuse of this additive led to a decrease detected in later studies. The disparity of emission sources is illustrated by the case of Hg. Mercury is a product of anthropogenic activity in addition to its natural derivation. The dominance of the anthropogenic factors is made obvious by high levels of Hg recorded near chlor alkali plants and other industrial sites. The role of the substrate in the uptake and accumulation of heavy metals was investigated to detect its relative share. Airborne metals were, however, determinant factors in the metal content of lichen thalli. The interaction of contaminants and biomonitors has a definite physiological impact on the vitality of the biomonitors. Physiological processes of disintegration investigated in this context are degradation of cell membranes and chlorophyll, decrease of the quantum yield of photosynthesis, decrease of the photosynthetic rate, increase of stress-ethylene production, and severe ultrastructural change. Lichens exposed to heavy metal pollution exhibit changes of the spectral reflectance response, an increase of malondialdehyde (MDA), a decrease of ATP, and injury to enzymatic activities. A comparative analysis of data referring to the accumulation of airborne elements in lichens and of data referring to alterations in physiological parameters of lichen viability substantiates the validity of assessments of environmental quality.
Despite their significant role in source apportionment analysis, studies dedicated to the identification of tracer elements of emission sources of atmospheric particulate matter based on air quality data are relatively scarce. The studies describing tracer elements of specific sources currently available in the literature mostly focus on emissions from traffic or large-scale combustion processes (e.g. power plants), but not on specific industrial processes. Furthermore, marker elements are not usually determined at receptor sites, but during emission. In our study, trace element concentrations in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined at 33 monitoring stations in Spain throughout the period 1995–2006. Industrial emissions from different forms of metallurgy (steel, stainless steel, copper, zinc), ceramic and petrochemical industries were evaluated. Results obtained at sites with no significant industrial development allowed us to define usual concentration ranges for a number of trace elements in rural and urban background environments. At industrial and traffic hotspots, average trace metal concentrations were highest, exceeding rural background levels by even one order of magnitude in the cases of Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, As, Sn, W, V, Ni, Cs and Pb. Steel production emissions were linked to high levels of Cr, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mo, Cd, Se and Sn (and probably Pb). Copper metallurgy areas showed high levels of As, Bi, Ga and Cu. Zinc metallurgy was characterised by high levels of Zn and Cd. Glazed ceramic production areas were linked to high levels of Zn, As, Se, Zr, Cs, Tl, Li, Co and Pb. High levels of Ni and V (in association) were tracers of petrochemical plants and/or fuel-oil combustion. At one site under the influence of heavy vessel traffic these elements could be considered tracers (although not exclusively) of shipping emissions. Levels of Zn–Ba and Cu–Sb were relatively high in urban areas when compared with industrialised regions due to tyre and brake abrasion, respectively.
The chemical composition of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5−10) particulate matter was investigated in 7-week field campaigns of contrasting air pollution at six urban background sites in Europe. The campaigns were scheduled to include seasons of local public health concern due to high particulate concentrations or findings in previously conducted epidemiological studies. The sampling campaigns were carried out as follows: Duisburg/Germany October–November 2002 (autumn), Prague/Czech Republic November 2002–January 2003 (winter), Amsterdam/Netherlands January–March 2003 (winter), Helsinki/Finland March–May 2003 (spring), Barcelona/Spain March–May 2003 (spring) and Athens/Greece June–July 2003 (summer). Aerosol samples were collected in 3+4-day periods per week (N=14) using two identical virtual impactors (VI). All the filter samples were analysed with the same instruments to obtain particulate mass, inorganic ions, total and watersoluble elements, and elemental and organic carbon content. The campaign means of PM2.5 and PM2.5−10 ranged from 8.3 to 30 and 5.4 to 29 μg m−3, respectively. The “wet and cool” seasons favoured a low coarse-to-fine particulate mass ratio (<1), whereas the ratio was high (>1) during the warmer and drier spring and summer campaigns. According to chemical mass closure, the major components in PM2.5 were carbonaceous compounds (organic matter+elemental carbon), secondary inorganic ions and sea salt, whereas those in PM2.5−10 were soil-derived compounds, carbonaceous compounds, sea salt and nitrate. The major and minor components together accounted for 79–106% and 77–96% of the gravimetrically measured PM2.5 and PM2.5−10 mass, respectively. In conclusion, the measured PM2.5 and PM2.5−10 in the campaigns could be reconstructed to a large extent with the help of harmonized particulate sampling and analysis of the selected chemical constituents. The health significance of the observed differences in chemical composition and emission sources between the size-segregated particulate samples will be investigated in toxicological cell and animal studies.
The current short-term critical levels for acute ozone injury on plants were evaluated based on 32 datasets from eastern Austria, Belgium and southern Sweden with subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L., cv. Geraldton). Potential improvements using an exposure index related to ozone uptake (AF(st), Accumulated Stomatal Flux), a modified accumulated exposure over the threshold (mAOT) exposure index and the introduction of an effect threshold in the short-term critical level were investigated. The existing short-term critical levels did not accurately describe the effects in terms of observed visible injury. Using a mAOT based on solar radiation and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) improved the explanation of observed visible injury. However, using a simple stomatal conductance model, driven by solar radiation, air temperature, VPD and ozone uptake, the correlation between modelled and observed effects were considerably improved. The best performance was obtained when an ozone uptake rate threshold o
This paper synthesizes data on aerosol (or particulate matter, PM) chemical characteristics, which were obtained in European aerosol research activities at natural, rural, near-city, urban, and kerbside sites over the past decade. It includes only two (nearby) sites in the semi-arid Mediterranean area, and lacks data from Eastern Europe. PM chemical compositions are compared with the PM mass concentrations in PM10, PM2.5, and further size resolved PM fractions (chemical mass closure). Such data sets are more comprehensive than those currently provided by air quality monitoring networks (e.g. EMEP, EUROAIRNET). Data available from 24 sites in Europe were reviewed. They were processed and plotted to allow comparisons in spite of differences in the sampling and analytical techniques used in various studies. A number of conclusions are drawn among which are the following.
The clastogenic effects of volatile organic compounds in the workplace air of a chemical factory were studied by means of the Tradescantia micronucleus (Trad-MCN) assay and chemical analysis. Sampling was performed at a chemical factory producing PVC film in Cheong-ju, South Korea. Inflorescences of Tradescantia BNL 4430 were placed for 2, 6, and 9 h at the height of 1.40 m at two locations in the workplace and one outdoor of the chemical industry. Air samplings were conducted in the same places and the collected tube samples were analyzed by automatic thermal desorption/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (ATD/GC/MS). The frequencies of micronuclei in specimens exposed for 2 h in sites 1-3 were 6.13 +/- 0.47, 5.40 +/- 1.60, and 2.93 +/- 0.43 MCN per 100 tetrads, respectively. GC/MS analysis proved the presence of various volatile organic compounds such as trichloroethylene, toluene, ethyl benzene, (m, p, o)-xylene, styrene, 1,3,5-trimethyl benzene, and 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene. Mean values of toluene measured by 2 h sampling in sites 1-3 were 1946.6, 1368.3, and 340.1 microg/m3, respectively. The toluene concentrations in sites 1 and 2 were at least four to six times higher than that in site 3. The micronucleus frequencies increased with exposure time. In addition, there was a correlation between the micronucleus frequencies and toluene concentration in the air (R2 = 0.96). The results of this in situ monitoring proved the applicability of the Trad-MCN assay combined with chemical analysis for monitoring genotoxic chemicals in the work environment.
Since the beginning of time pollution has been created by human activities. However, the intensity and the severity of the different kinds of pollution have emerged only in the last few decades and many intricate facets have been revealed. It is gradually being recognized that our health and the ecosystem are being severely affected by environmental chemicals that enter the atmosphere. Plants comprise a large portion of our biosphere and constitute a vital link in the food chain. In this review, types of mutagenic chemicals found both indoor and outdoor are given and several higher plant bioassays for screening and monitoring environmental mutagens are discussed. One plant ideal for monitoring and testing for air pollution is Tradescantia. This species has been used to test for mutagenicity of radioisotope-contaminated air following the Chernobyl nuclear accident and monitoring around nuclear power plants. One of the greatest contributions of plant bioassays will be their continued use for ambient air monitoring and testing for genotoxicity which can be carried out on a global scale.
Several gaseous pollutants show marked diurnal variations, with daily maxima and nightly minima of concentration. The nocturnal decrease is held to be due to deposition at the ground, with isolation of the lowest layers of the atmosphere from the air above by the nocturnal inversion. In the morning, deep mixing is re‐established and brings material down to the surface from higher layers. Ozone exhibits this behaviour clearly and is convenient to study as an example, but it has been suggested by some authors that changes in the rates of gas‐phase reactions that produce and destroy ozone are responsible for the daily cycle of concentration. We have studied the destruction of ozone at the surface and conclude that this process can probably explain the nocturnal decline of concentration near the ground.
Deposition rates for ozone were deduced from profiles of concentration, windspeed and temperature measured over grassland in southern England. The mean deposition velocity was 0.58cms ⁻¹ by day and 0.29cms ⁻¹ by night. The aerodynamic and surface components of resistance both increased at night, but the behaviour of the surface resistance was not consistent with stomatal control.
Observations of the nocturnal decrease of ozone concentration at the same site are reported. A computer simulation of the behaviour of ozone, with a description of the nocturnal boundary layer due to Wyngaard, duplicated the major features observed, and a procedure for predicting the height of the mixed layer and the rate of decline of ozone concentration at the ground gave good agreement with observations on many occasions.
The nocturnal behaviour has important consequences for the measurement of mean concentrations in the atmosphere, and for long‐range transport. Observation of the daily cycle of concentration may indicate the likely importance of the surface sink for many gases.
Ozone is a major secondary air pollutant, the current concentrations of which have been shown to have significant adverse effects on crop yields, forest growth and species composition. In North America and Europe, emissions of ozone precursors are decreasing but in other regions of the world, especially Asia, where much less is known about its impacts, they are increasing rapidly. There is also evidence of an increase in global background ozone concentrations, which will lead to significant changes in global ozone exposure over this century, during which direct and indirect effects of other changes in the global atmosphere will also modify plant responses to ozone. This paper considers how far our current understanding of the mechanisms of ozone impacts, and the tools currently used for ozone risk assessment, are capable of evaluating the consequences of these changing global patterns of exposure to ozone. Risk assessment based on relationships between external concentration and plant response is inadequate for these new challenges. New models linking stomatal flux, and detoxification and repair processes, to carbon assimilation and allocation provide a more mechanistic basis for future risk assessments. However, there are a range of more complex secondary effects of ozone that are not considered in current risk assessment, and there is an urgent need to develop more holistic approaches linking the effects of ozone, climate, and nutrient and water availability, on individual plants, species interactions and ecosystem function.
During a survey of tropospheric ozone pollution carried out using tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cv. Bel-W3, ozone- supersensitive, and cv. Bel-B, ozone-resistant, as bioindicators, the effectiveness of the traditional biomonitoring method, based on the use of adult plants, was compared with an innovative miniaturized kit of seedlings. The ratio of foliar and cotyledonar necrosis, respectively, was estimated as ozone injury rate. The miniaturized kit proved to be advantageous, since seedlings need only easy growth procedures and a large number of individuals can be placed in a small space, supplying good data amounts for statistical elaboration. Moreover, correlation studies among cotyledonar and foliar injury index and ozone levels monitored through physico-chemical measurements and results of analysis of variance tests highlighted the high sensitivity of the innovative methodology.
Im Rahmen des „Pilotprojekts Wirkungsmessung — Aktives Biomonitoring von Immissionswirkungen im Untersuchungsgebiet München”
wurden an 19 Standorten in 10 Serien 14tägig Standardisierte Graskulturen exponiert und auf die Akkumulation mitBlei, Antimon, Arsen, Cadmium und Kupfer untersucht. Die höchsten Anreicherungen wurden bei Antimon an verkehrsnahen Standorten nachgewiesen. Der Vergleich der Ergebnisse
an den verschiedenen Standorten weist den Kfz-Verkehr als Antimonquelle aus. Erste Untersuchungen an Bremsbelägen unterstützen
diese Aussage. Blei ist nur noch in unmittelbarer Verkehrsnähe leicht erhöht. Immissionsbedingte Anreicherungen von Kupfer
wurden in der Nähe von Straßenbahnoberleitungen gefunden. Die Wirkungsnachweisgrenzen für Arsen und Cadmium wurden an keinem
Standort überschritten.
For the pilotproject „Effect Monitoring — Biomonitoring of Immission Effects in the Testing Area of Munich”, standardized
grass cultures were exposed at 19 locations during 10 series for two weeks each. The grass was analyzed for the accumulation
of lead, antimony arsenic, cadmium, and copper. Highest accumulation was observed with antimony near traffic situations. The
comparison of the results from the different sampling points identifies motor vehicle traffic as the source of antimony. First
examinations of brake linings support this conclusion. Lead is only slightly increased near traffic. Immission-caused copper
contents in the grass were found near the overhead tramway cables. The accumulation detection limits for arsenic and cadmium
were not exceeded at any of the measuring points.
Standardized grass cultures are routinely used to evaluate the accumulation of air pollutants. For the assessment of air pollutant accumulation in grass cultures, it is particularly important to distinguish between “normal” concentrations and the significantly increased accumulation caused by air pollution.
This article presents a method to determine “normal” element concentrations (background levels) and define threshold values for the significantly elevated accumulation of pollutants for individual series of grass cultures.
By applying the same method for the data from six regional air quality measuring programs, it was possible to derive universally applicable “normal” concentrations and threshold values for grass cultures.
The described method is not limited to the evaluation of data from grass cultures but is also suitable for other biological or ecological data. It allows to distinguish between “normal” element concentrations and unusually high or low concentrations.
Die Kombination von Biomonitoring mit standardisierten Graskulturen und Depositionsuntersuchungen von Antimon (Sb), Blei (Pb) und 12 polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwassserstoffen (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH) wurde 1993 im Ballungsraum München durchgeführt und 1995 an der bayerischtschechischen Grenze wiederholt. Sb- und PAH-Ergebnisse von verschiedenen Standorttypen aus unterschiedlichen Gebieten und Jahren können gemeinsam ausgewertet werden, da die jeweiligen Hintergrunddaten (Referenzwerte) vergleichbare Größenordnungen einnehmen. Das Biomonitoring von PAH zeigt zum einen einen saisonalen Verlauf. Zum anderen werden an Hauptverkehrsstraßen signifikant höhere PAH Gehalte (Mittelwerte) gefunden als in Wohngebieten und im ländlichen Hintergrund. Die verkehrsbezogene PAH-Bioakkumulation ist in beiden Gebieten hoch, obwohl die Zusammensetzung des Kraftfahrzeugverkehrs unterschiedlich ist und die Verkehrsdichte an der bayerisch-tschechischen Grenze zehnmal geringer als an Verkehrknotenpunkten in München. Die Korrelation von Pb- und Sb-Bioakkumulationen in Graskulturen vs. Pb- und Sb-Depositionen läßt den Abrieb von Bremsbelägen und Reifen als eine mögliche Emissionsquelle erscheinen. Dies könnte erklären, warum die mittleren Pb- und Sb-Werte in Graskulturen in München solche in Wohngebieten und in ländlichen Gebieten übertreffen. Die mit der Bergerhoff-Methode untersuchte Deposition zeigt analoge Belastungsdynamiken im Zusammenhang mit dem Kfz-Verkehr. Pb-Bioakkumulation und Deposition an Hauptverkehrsstraßen an der bayerisch-tschechischen Grenze haben im Vergleich zu den in München gemessenen Werten weitere Schwankungsbreiten. Insgesamt sind die Pb-und Sb-Werte, die 1995 im Grenzverkehr ermittelt wurden, niedriger als die zwei Jahre zuvor in München.
Samples of standardized grass cultures and depositions collected according to BERGERHOFF revealed differing concentration gradients of Pb, Sb and Cd vs. distance to heavily traveled roads. Results suggest varying suitability of the methods with regard to indication of metal pollution. Bioaccumulation of Pb in grass (in terms of deposition plus incorporation) was moderate compared to Pb depositions. Bioaccumulation of Sb, however, showed stronger concentration gradients compared to Sb depositions. Positive correlations (r = 0.6 to 0.8) between deposition and grass contents of Pb and Sb were found. Pb and Sb contents in grass, sampled at roadside locations correlated significantly, too. It is being suggested that varying bioaccumulation mechanisms of the metals are due to their predominance on different sizes of particles and to their individual prevalence in a number of different metal compounds.
Airborne antimony was sampled in two fractions of particles by a dichotomous sampler (dichot. fine mode and dichot. coarse mode) at two locations in Munich with different traffic impact. Parallel to the sampling of airborne dust, antimony was determined by two standard methods according to VDI-guidelines. Sampling of ‘total deposition’ (wet and dry) was achieved according to the Bergerhoff method (VDI, 1972) [VDI. Guideline 2119, part 2, measurement of dustfall. Bergerhoff instrument (standard method). In: VDI. Handbuch der Reinhaltung der Luft, 1972] and active biomonitoring was performed by exposure of standardized grass cultures (VDI, 1991) (VDI. Guideline 3792, part 3, measurement of the response dose. Measurement of the response dose of ambient lead in plants with standardized grass cultures. In: VDI. Handbuch der Reinhaltung der Luft, 1991). The highest airborne antimony concentrations of 14.0 ng/m (median) were found in close vicinity to traffic, with a maximum enrichment of 11.3 ng/m on particles of the dc-mode [aerodynamic diameters (dae) 2.5 μm ≤dae≤10 μm]. Antimony enrichment near traffic was confirmed by monitoring with standardized grass cultures and total depositions. Results of grass and deposition analysis after nitric acid digestion and subsequent digestion with hydrofluoric acid were compared. They illustrate that the second digestion step produced an increasing effect only on antimony concentrations in grass. Further, antimony on df-mode particles (dae ≤ 2.5 μm) correlated significantly positively with antimony deposition near traffic (significance level, α = 0.05, r = 0.786). These results suggest that the metal compounds of traffic-derived antimony in the two matrices might be different.
Within the scope of a biomonitoring study conducted in twelve urban agglomerations in eight European countries, the ozone-sensitive bioindicator plant Nicotiana tabacum cv. Bel-W3 was employed in order to assess the occurrence of phytotoxic ozone effects at urban, suburban, rural and traffic-exposed sites. The tobacco plants were exposed to ambient air for biweekly periods at up to 100 biomonitoring sites from 2000 to 2002. Special emphasis was placed upon methodological standardisation of plant cultivation, field exposure and injury assessment. Ozone-induced leaf injury showed a clearly increasing gradient from northern and northwestern Europe to central and southern European locations. The strongest ozone impact occurred at the exposure sites in Lyon and Barcelona, while in Edinburgh, Sheffield, Copenhagen and Düsseldorf only weak to moderate ozone effects were registered. Between-site differences within local networks were relatively small, but seasonal and inter-annual differences were strong due to the variability of meteorological conditions and related ozone concentrations.The 2001 data revealed a significant relationship between foliar injury degree and various descriptors of ozone pollution such as mean value, AOT20 and AOT40. Examining individual sites of the local monitoring networks separately, however, yielded noticeable differences. Some sites showed no association between ozone pollution and ozone-induced effects, whereas others featured almost linear relationships. This is because the actual ozone flux into the leaf, which is modified by various environmental factors, rather than ambient ozone concentration determines the effects on plants. The advantage of sensitive bioindicators like tobacco Bel-W3 is that the impact of the effectively absorbed ozone dose can directly be measured.
A study of ozone concentration measurements at 20 rural sites throughout the UK has enabled the identification of the major variables controlling surface ozone concentrations (wind velocity, topography and local NO sources). Empirical methods to quantify the spatial pattern in surface concentrations at 1 km resolution, incorporating these influences, are developed. The procedure maps ozone concentrations from the period of the day when measurements are representative of large areas of countryside. In these conditions, rural monitoring sites (∼100 km apart) are highly correlated (r2⩾0.8) and least affected by local site characteristics. The effects of boundary layer stability are quantified using the observed relationship between the diurnal variability of surface ozone concentration and altitude. This allows the detailed structure in rural concentrations to be quantified. An urban correction, to account for the gas phase titration of surface ozone by local NO sources, is added to the mapping procedure based on the relationship between urban ozone concentration measurements and those in rural areas.The spatial distribution of the annual average ozone concentration and the accumulated ozone concentration over a threshold of 40 ppb (AOT40) are calculated from UK measurements. Simple assessments of the effects of ozone on materials and vegetation are made. Although 87% of the UK exceeds the critical level for materials (20 ppb annual average), this is less than 0.1% of urban areas and so the risk of damage is probably small. For crops and semi-natural vegetation, the critical level (AOT40 3000 ppb h May–July daylight hours) is exceeded over 71% of the UK; for forests, the critical level (10,000 ppb h April–September daylight hours) is exceeded over 8% of the country. This indicates the potential for effects on large areas of crops and semi-natural vegetation but only small areas of forest.
In order to study the pollution gradient in the vicinity of an HF producing factory, a biomonitoring programme was performed employing VDI standardised grass cultures. Specimen plants of Lolium multiflorum cv. Lema were exposed at 11 sites over five monthly periods and the biomass produced was used for subsequent F-analyses. Meteorological data from the study region confirmed that wind direction accounted for changes in the pollution pattern over periods of time. Fluoride concentrations in the grass cultures, however, were unrelated to temperature and precipitation sums during the exposures. The biomass production of the grass cultures proved to be unrelated to these parameters as well but, with the enhanced growth of the plants, the fluoride concentrations were lower due to the dilution of the element with higher biomass accumulation. Because the contribution of particulate fluoride was unknown, both the washed grass cultures and the washing water were analysed in order to determine the amount of external fluoride. Washing reduced the fluoride concentrations by 22% on average, indicating that most of the element was internal fluoride stemming from stomatal uptake. Larger amounts of fluoride, however, could be washed off from grass cultures exposed at sites close to the factory indicating that dust emissions played a greater role at these locations. Because particulate emissions were supposed to arise from CaF2 and the waste-product anhydrite, grass cultures were also analysed for calcium and sulphur. While calcium concentrations were generally high but unrelated to fluoride, sulphur concentrations showed a slight relationship to the F-concentrations determined in the unwashed plants. Latter findings indicate the co-deposition of the two elements as surface bound, external loads, but bioindication could not clarify to what extent both elements were partitioned in the gas-to-particle phase. We therefore recommend using the grass culture method in air quality programmes to identify any exceedances of European feeding stuff standards in the vicinity of large emitters.
The majority of the Spanish urban population breathe air containing inhalable ambient airborne particles at average concentrations of 30–46 μg m−3 (PM10) and 20–30 μg m−3 (PM2.5). Even though the average weight of inhaled urban aerosol is commonly similar, however, there can be large chemical differences between the ambient dusts from different towns, including the more bioreactive elements such as some metals. In this context, we compare the source-apportioned trace metal content of airborne PM10 and PM2.5 collected daily over a 1-year period from six population centres in Spain: Barcelona, Alcobendas, Llodio, Huelva, Tarragona and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Total average trace metal (ΣTM) PM10 and PM2.5 contents vary by up to a factor of around 3, reaching a maximum of ΣTM10 811 ng m−3 and ΣTM2.5 503 ng m−3 at Llodio, an industrial but humid site with the lowest PM10 mass levels but high contamination by Zn, Pb, Mn, Sn, Ni and Cr. In contrast, pollution at Huelva, although another industrially influenced site, instead emphasises Cu and As, whereas Barcelona, where traffic emissions and resuspension contribute to some of the highest average PM10 levels in Spain, has unusually raised levels of Ti, V and Ba. Such variations in both daily and annual average PM bulk chemistry, particularly in potentially toxic trace metals concentrated in the finer aerosols (such as Cd, As, Pb, Hg and Ni), predict that PM health effects on resident populations from different towns are unlikely to be the same.
We sampled fine particles (PM2.5) over a 1-year period at 21 central urban monitoring sites in 20 cities of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECRHS). Particle filters were then analysed for elemental composition using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and reflectance (light absorption). Elemental analyses yielded valid results for 15 elements (Al, As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Pb, S, Si, Ti, V, Zn).Annual and seasonal means of PM2.5, reflectance, and elements show a wide range across Europe with the lowest levels found in Iceland and up to 80 times higher concentrations in Northern Italy. This pattern holds for most of the air pollution indicators. The mass concentration of S did constitute the largest fraction of the analysed elements of PM2.5 in all locations. The crustal component varies from less than 10% up to 25% across these cities. Temporal correlations of daily values vary considerably from city to city, depending on the indicators compared. Nevertheless, correlations between estimates of long-term exposure, such as annual means, are generally high among indicators of PM2.5 from anthropogenic sources, such as S, metals, and reflectance. This highlights the difficulty to disentangle effects of specific sources or PM constituents in future health effect analyses using annual averages.
Partitioning of major and trace components in PM10–PM2.5–PM1 at an urban site in Barcelona (Spain) in the Western Mediterranean was studied in the period 2005–2006. Particular attention was paid to the partitioning of mineral matter and to the evidence of possible interactions of mineral matter with other pollutants (gaseous pollutants and secondary PM). The results showed a high contribution of mineral matter (mainly anthropogenic, but sporadically associated with African dust outbreaks) in levels of both PM10 and PM2.5. A high proportion of nitrate was also present in the coarse fractions as a result of the interaction of mineral matter with gaseous pollutants. As at most urban sites in Europe, sulphate and carbonaceous aerosols are mainly present in the finer PM fractions. The PM1–2.5 fraction resembled that of PM10 in composition. The chemically unaccounted fraction (mostly bounded water) had also a fine grain size, probably because of the fine size of the hygroscopic aerosol components. The data series follow an increasing trend for PM1 levels (and less clearly for PM2.5) from 1999 to 2006, whereas no trend is observed for PM10.The contributions of African dust and regional soil resuspension to the annual PM10 levels has been estimated in around 1–2 and 2–3 μg m−3 in this part of Spain. The African dust outbreaks accounted for around 15–20 exceedances of the European daily PM10 limit value.Finally, the data obtained were compared with data from selected European sites to highlight major differences in levels and speciation of PM.
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) was sampled at 5 Spanish locations during the European Community Respiratory Health Survey II (ECRHS II). In an attempt to identify and quantify PM2.5 sources, source contribution analysis by principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on five datasets containing elemental composition of PM2.5 analysed by ED-XRF. A total of 4–5 factors were identified at each site, three of them being common to all sites (interpreted as traffic, mineral and secondary aerosols) whereas industrial sources were site-specific. Sea-salt was identified as independent source at all coastal locations except for Barcelona (where it was clustered with secondary aerosols). Despite their typically dominant coarse grain-size distribution, mineral and marine aerosols were clearly observed in PM2.5. Multi-linear regression analysis (MLRA) was applied to the data, showing that traffic was the main source of PM2.5 at the five sites (39–53% of PM2.5, 5.1–12.0 μg m−3), while regional-scale secondary aerosols accounted for 14–34% of PM2.5 (2.6–4.5 μg m−3), mineral matter for 13–31% (2.4–4.6 μg m−3) and sea-salt made up 3–7% of the PM2.5 mass (0.4–1.3 μg m−3). Consequently, despite regional and climatic variability throughout Spain, the same four main PM2.5 emission sources were identified at all the study sites and the differences between the relative contributions of each of these sources varied at most 20%. This would corroborate PM2.5 as a useful parameter for health studies and environmental policy-making, owing to the fact that it is not as subject to the influence of micro-sitting as other parameters such as PM10. African dust inputs were observed in the mineral source, adding on average 4–11 μg m−3 to the PM2.5 daily mean during dust outbreaks. On average, levels of Al, Si, Ti and Fe during African episodes were higher by a factor of 2–8 with respect to non-African days, whereas levels of local pollutants (absorption coefficient, S, Pb, Cl) showed smaller variations (factor of 0.5–2).
Transport first became a significant source of air pollution after the problems of sooty smog from coal combustion had largely been solved in western European and North American cities. Since then, emissions from road, air, rail and water transport have been partly responsible for acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change. Most recently, road traffic exhaust emissions have been the cause of much concern about the effects of urban air quality on human health and tropospheric ozone production. This article considers the variety of transport impacts on the atmospheric environment by reviewing three examples: urban road traffic and human health, aircraft emissions and global atmospheric change, and the contribution of sulphur emissions from ships to acid deposition. Each example has associated with it a different level of uncertainty, such that a variety of policy responses to the problems are appropriate, from adaptation through precautionary emissions abatement to cost–benefit analysis and optimised abatement. There is some evidence that the current concern for road transport contribution to urban air pollution is justified, but aircraft emissions should also give cause for concern given that air traffic is projected to continue to increase. Emissions from road traffic are being reduced substantially by the introduction of technology especially three-way catalysts and also, most recently, by local traffic reduction measures especially in western European cities. In developing countries and Eastern Europe, however, there remains the possibility of great increase in car ownership and use, and it remains to be seen whether these countries will adopt measures now to prevent transport-related air pollution problems becoming severe later in the 21st Century.
A dual monitoring system composed of the Tradescantia-Micronucleus (Trad-MCN) and Tradescantia-Stamen-Hair-Mutation (Trad-SHM) bioassays was utilized to monitor directly the genotoxicity of the gaseous emission at a closed landfill site and around an incinerator. Four of the commonly emitted gaseous agents from the landfill flare pipes, i.e. toluene, ethylbenzene, trichloroethylene and ethyltoluene were also evaluated for their genotoxicity in the laboratory. The in situ monitoring trips (360 km one way) were carried out by transporting the plant cuttings in a clean air box or in an air-tight plastic bag to the site and exposing these test cuttings for 5-7 h. The exposed plant samples were examined for micronuclei frequencies or the pink mutation rate after the appropriate recovery periods (24 h for MCN, 7-11 days for SHM). A total of 20 monitoring trips were made to the landfill, and 8 to the nearby surroundings (100-500 m from the chimney) of the incinerator site in a two year period. The major findings of the Trad-MCN test on the clastogenicity of the gaseous emission from the flare pipe of the landfill site showed positive responses or toxic effects in 6 out of 20 trips, and that from the incinerator showed positive responses in 5 out of the 8 trips. These positive responses were closely associated with the weather, i.e. low wind velocity, high temperature and relative humidity, and especially the distance from the chimney of the incinerator. The MCN frequencies and mutation rates of the Elementary School site (E. Sch) which is about 200 m from the fence of the landfill site were mostly negative, except the test results of three trips. Trad-SHM tests on the mutagenicity of gaseous emissions from the flare pipe of the landfill showed 12 positive responses out of 20 trials and 2 positives out of 4 trials from the incinerator gaseous emissions. The average mutation rate from 20 Trad-SHM monitoring trips is positive when the ANOVA and Dunnett's t-statistic were applied to the consolidated data. There is a significant (0.01) difference between the lab control and the gas exposed groups, and between the field control and gas exposed groups. Results of the Trad-SHM test at the E. Sch. site were mostly negative except for one trip. In general, micronuclei frequencies and mutation rates of the field control groups were relatively higher than those of the lab controls. The Trad-MCN test on pure gases showed positive responses in all 3 repeated tests on toluene (50-892 ppm). The test results of ethylbenzene yielded positive responses at 172 ppm/min and 1549 ppm/min dosages and exhibited toxicity at higher concentrations. Trad-MCN tests on trichloroethylene and ethyltoluene yielded positive responses at around 100-200 ppm/min level. Three repeated Trad-SHM tests on toluene yielded no positive response at low concentrations (4.3-12.9 ppm).
A 4-year study was conducted to investigate the suitability of the Tradescantia-micronucleus bioassay (Trad-MCN) to detect genotoxicity of emissions from municipal waste incinerators. The genotoxic potential of emissions was assessed in three ways: (i) direct fumigation of Tradescantia with diluted incinerator emissions, (ii) exposure of Tradescantia to smoke condensates and (iii) in situ monitoring of genotoxicity of emissions near a municipal incinerator. The results of direct fumigation with smoke emissions varied over the course of the study. In 1992, significantly higher micronuclei frequencies (MCN) were always observed in treated plants than in control plants, regardless of length of fumigation period. Furthermore, MCN frequencies were significantly higher in plants fumigated for 24 h than those fumigated for 8 h, and MCN frequencies were also higher in plants fumigated in chamber 1 (low dilution, high stack gas concentration) than those in chamber 2 (P<0.05). MCN frequencies were substantially lower in 1993 and 1994, and in only 1 out of the 5 fumigation experiments were MCN frequencies significantly higher in treated plants than in controls. This drop in MCN frequencies was possibly due to the installation of better pollution control devices in the incinerator in 1993. Exposure to smoke condensates induced significant increases in MCN frequencies in most exposure trials. A drop in MCN frequencies over the course of the 4-year study was also attributed to the installation of new smoke scrubbing devices. This was further confirmed by the chemical analysis of the condensate, which showed a significant reduction in organic pollutants after the installation of the new devices. The results of in situ monitoring of genotoxicity near a municipal waste incinerator showed that MCN frequencies of Tradescantia depended on the distance from the incinerator, and the direction of wind. Because exposure periods of 6 h were insufficient to elicit significant responses, periods of 10 to 24 h are recommended for in situ monitoring.
This study was designed to determine the clastogenicity of particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 microm) in the urban polluted air in the city of São Paulo. The Tradescantia-micronucleus (Trad-MCN) assay was used throughout this study to evaluate the clastogenicity of the extracts of the particulate matter. Tradescantia pallida (Rose) Hunt. cv. purpurea, an indigenous cultivar, was used in the Trad-MCN assay. The efficacy of this plant material for the Trad-MCN assay was validated with dose-response studies using formaldehyde and beta radiation. Dose-response curves were established with these known mutagens. The extracts of the PM10 particles at concentrations between 5 and 50 ppm induced a dose-related increase in MCN frequencies. The results indicate that T. pallida is equally sensitive to mutagens as the standard Tradescantia clone 4430 or 03 and the particulate matter in the urban air are clastogenic to the chromosomes of this plant. Inhalation of these particles by urban dwellers may affect their health by inducing similar genetic damage.
This research was designed to examine the presence of mutagenic/carcinogenic compounds in urban airborne particulates sampled with the inhalable PM-10 high volume sampler in two different streets of Brescia, a heavily industrialized town in northern Italy, using the Tradescantia/micronucleus test and a bacterial mutagenicity test (Kado test, a more sensitive version of the Ames test). In addition, the Tradescantia/micronucleus test was used for in situ monitoring of gaseous pollutants in other urban areas of Brescia and in two car tunnels, one with heavy car traffic in Perugia, a town in central Italy, and one in Brescia with moderate traffic. The Tradescantia-micronucleus test carried out on extracts of airborne particulates gave positive results only for the sample collected in the traffic-congested street where also higher bacterial mutagenicity was found. The in situ monitoring of the urban areas with the Tradescantia/micronucleus test always gave negative results. Monitoring carried out in the two car tunnels showed a significant increase in micronuclei frequency only in flowers exposed in the smaller and more polluted tunnel.
Tradescantia pallida cv. purpurea, a popular garden plant in Brazil, was used for the Tradescantia micronucleus (Trad-MCN) assay. In situ monitoring of the genotoxicity of air pollutants was carried out by sentinel approach, using the plant grown in the field or using the plants in pots which were carried to the monitoring sites. Two highly polluted sites, in São Paulo city (Cerqueira Cesar and Congonhas) and two rural sites (the cities of Pirassununga, 200 km and Caucaia do Alto, 50 km from São Paulo, respectively) were chosen for this study, in order to determine the gradient difference of the air pollution levels. Sentinel plants in Congonhas site presented the highest frequency of micronuclei (4.4%), in comparison with 2.2 and 2.3% found in plants from Pirassununga and Cerqueira Cesar sites, respectively (Kruskal-Wallis; P<0.020). Significant increases (F test; P<0.0001) in the frequency of micronuclei were observed in plants exposed in the polluted urban sites (Cerqueira Cesar: 5.7%; Congonhas: 7.1% and Caucaia do Alto: 2.3%). The increase in the frequency of micronuclei observed indicates the potential risk of mutagenicity in presence of high concentrations of pollutants.