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Antioxidant activity of chlorophylls and their derivatives
Abstract
The antioxidant activity of six natural isolated chlorophyll derivatives and Cu-chlorophyllin was investigated by measuring their protective action against lipid oxidation. For this, the β-carotene bleaching method and the stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryldrazyl (DPPH) scavenging assay were employed. The results obtained by the β-carotene bleaching method showed that all chlorophyll derivatives presented a dose-dependent response. Pheophorbide b and pheophytin b were the strongest natural antioxidant compounds, whose activities were comparable to BHT. The high antioxidant activity found for pheophorbide b, in comparison to pheophorbide a, demonstrated the importance of the aldehyde group for functionality. On the other hand, by the DPPH assay, all natural pigments showed low antioxidant activity when compared to Trolox. Cu-chlorophyllin, tested by both methods, presented a higher antioxidant activity than that of natural chlorophylls, showing the importance of the nature of the chelated metal in the porphyrin ring. The mechanism of antioxidant activity displayed by the natural chlorophyll derivatives does not seem to be based on the ability to donate hydrogen but maybe, on the protection of linoleic acid against oxidation and/or preventing decomposition of hydroperoxides.
... The structure and configuration of chlorophylls influence their antioxidant activity, mainly for chlorophylls a and b. Pérez-Gálvez et al. (2020) [48] showed that chlorophyll a is three times more effective at quenching radicals than chlorophyll b, which is consistent with previous results obtained using singlet oxygen lipid peroxidation assays. However, some researchers have found that chlorophyll b exhibits higher antioxidant activity, suggesting an unknown role of its C7 aldehyde group in antioxidant capacity [49,50,51] . ...
... Along with the ability to reduce the level of oxidation in the main biomolecules, chlorophyll derivatives are effective enhancers of the activity of the main enzymes involved in the antioxidant defense mechanism at the cellular level. In addition to scavenging free radicals, chlorophylls perform the function of trapping mutagens based on their flat structure, which reduces the availability of harmful compounds in the cell, i.e. performs metabolic activation of detoxification pathways [48] . A decrease in light levels in a greenhouse is an unfavorable factor for photosynthetic activity [52] . ...
... The understanding of carotenoids as antioxidant compounds has evolved in recent years, from simply radical scavenging molecules to biomarkers associated with reduced incidence of various degenerative diseases, including lung, gastrointestinal, pancreatic, breast, and prostate cancers; cardiovascular diseases; and age-related macular degeneration [48] . ...
... Epidemiological studies have shown that regular intake of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of the cancer [15]. The chlorophyll which is found in most of the vegetables can prevent many diseases due to its potent antioxidant activity [16]. Chlorophyll and its derivatives are used as traditional medicines [17] owing to their therapeutic properties such as wound healing [18], anti-inflammatory [19], internal deodorization [20], antimutagenic/antigenotoxic activity [21], and probable anticancer properties [22]. ...
... The Chla and Chlb (shown in Fig. 1) are found in higher plants, green algae, and some prochlorophytes in significant amount [23]. Lanfer-Marquez et al. [16] studied the antioxidant properties of six naturally occurring chlorophyll derivatives (Chla, Chlb, pheophytin a, pheophytin b, pheophorbide a, and pheophorbide b) and the synthetic Cu-chlorophyllin against lipid oxidation using two methods, viz., the bleaching of β-carotene in a water/linoleic acid emulsion and the scavenging of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. They reported that at high concentrations of about 1 mMol/L, Chla exhibited considerable antioxidant activity as compared to Chlb [16,24]. ...
... Lanfer-Marquez et al. [16] studied the antioxidant properties of six naturally occurring chlorophyll derivatives (Chla, Chlb, pheophytin a, pheophytin b, pheophorbide a, and pheophorbide b) and the synthetic Cu-chlorophyllin against lipid oxidation using two methods, viz., the bleaching of β-carotene in a water/linoleic acid emulsion and the scavenging of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. They reported that at high concentrations of about 1 mMol/L, Chla exhibited considerable antioxidant activity as compared to Chlb [16,24]. Among different derivatives of chlorophyll, the metallo-derivatives such as Mg-chlorophylls, Zn-pheophytins, Zn-pyropheophytins, Cu-pheophytins, and Cu-chlorophyllin were found to be better antioxidants than their metal-free derivatives such as chlorins, pheophytins, and pyropheophytins [16,24]. ...
To understand the scavenging action of chlorophyll (Chla) found in most of the vegetables towards hydroxyl (OH∙) radicals, its reactions with OH∙ radicals via RAF, HAT, and SET mechanisms have been investigated theoretically using two layer ONIOM [M06-2X/6-31G(d) (High):M06-2X/3-21G (Low)] method and M06-2X/6–311 + G(d,p) level of density functional theory. The molecular electrostatic potential (MEP), highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) plots, HOMO–LUMO energy gap, global hardness (η), global softness (S), electronegativity (χ), and electrophilicity index (ω) of Chla molecule were computed and analyzed to determine its stability and reactive sites. It is found that RAF and HAT reactions are exergonic in both gaseous and aqueous media whereas SET reactions are endergonic in both media. However, all the RAF, HAT and SET reactions studied here are found to be more favourable in aqueous media vs. gas phase. The rate constants of RAF reactions at different sites are found to be of the order of ~ 6.2 × 10⁷–1.8 × 10¹⁰ s⁻¹ indicating that RAF reactions would be appreciably fast. This study concludes that chlorophyll can efficiently scavenge OH∙ radicals preferably via RAF and HAT mechanisms and intake of water with chlorophyll can enhance its scavenging actions.
... Previously, it was reported that chlorophylls can exert preventive action against the oxidative damage of DNA and the peroxidation of lipids, both by reducing reactive oxygen species and DPPH radicals and through the chelation of metal ions, such as ferrous ion (Fe 2+ ), which can participate in the formation of reactive oxygen species [24]. Despite chlorophylls being the most abundant pigments in nature, there is a scarcity of information about their action, which could be attributed to the difficulty of obtaining chlorophylls in a purified form and also their instability [25]. In addition, chlorophyll content is not only significant for the health benefits it provides; it also impacts the appearance of the microgreens, since the greenness of microgreens adds to their aesthetic appeal [6]. ...
... Since antioxidants can act by various mechanisms (such as the chelation of transition metal ion catalysts, reducing capacity and free radical scavenging, peroxide decomposition, preventing continuous hydrogen abstraction, etc.) to exert their antioxidant properties, it is important to use more than one test, i.e., methodologies with distinct mechanisms, to evaluate the antioxidant activity of plant extracts with complex mixtures of different antioxidant compounds [25,34,35]. In our study, ABTS, DPPH and RP assays were used for the assessment of the antioxidant activity of microgreens. ...
In this study, the content of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity was determined in five selected vegetable microgreens (daikon, i.e., Japanese radish; Chinese red radish; pea; beetroot; and onion). Total phenolics and chlorophylls were analyzed spectrophotometrically in all investigated microgreens. In addition, the content of betalains was determined spectrophotometrically in beetroot microgreens. HPLC analysis was used to identify and quantify individual phenolic compounds. The antioxidant activity of microgreens was determined by DPPH, ABTS and reducing power assays. The highest content of total phenolics, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b was found in beetroot microgreens (639.85 mg GAE/100 g DW, 202.17 mg/100 g DW and 79.53 mg/100 g DW, respectively). In beetroot microgreens, the content of total betalains, betacyanins and betaxanthins was determined to be 57.27 mg/100 g DW, 43.58 mg BE/100 g DW and 13.68 mg VE/100 g DW, respectively. Among the investigated microgreens, beetroot microgreens showed the highest antioxidant activity, while pea microgreens exhibited the lowest antioxidant activity in all applied assays. The highest correlation was observed for the content of total phenolics and phenolic acids, as determined by HPLC analysis with antioxidant activity using all applied assays, indicating that these compounds were most important contributors to the antioxidant activity of the investigated vegetable microgreens.
... Even though the phenolic content of L and B was nearly comparable, the antioxidant activity of L was about three times that of B. This may suggest that the antioxidant principles in L are different in nature i.e. chlorophyll, 37 carotenoids, or others. It is worth noting that all parts were previously reported to have antioxidant activity. ...
... In the case of GA, it may be oxidized to some level, resulting in a brown color that impairs the gel's whiteness when stored for an extended period. However, the effect of MPLE on the discoloration of chicken meat gel was greater than that of GA because MPLE was purposefully made without dechlorophyllization due to chlorophyll's established beneficial antioxidant function (Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005). Other color-containing ingredients are commonly used in the commercial production of chicken meat gel, which can effectively mask the MPLE's green-brown tone. ...
This study evaluated the antioxidant potential of Mon-Pu (Glochidion wallichianum Mull. Arg.) leaf extract (MPLE) as a natural antioxidant in Ligor chicken meat gels. The investigation focused on the impacts on gelation functionality and oxidative stability during refrigerated storage. MPLE with 21.16 mg/100 g of extractable phenolic compounds and antioxidant potency (DPPH• scavenging activity, ABTS•+scavenging activity, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) at 2.79, 21.13, and 3.20 mmole TE/g, respectively) was applied during thermal-induced gel preparation at different concentrations (0 %, 0.01 %, 0.1 %, and 1 %) in comparison with 1 % gallic acid, a reported key phenolic compound in MPLE, based on the total weight of the meat sample. MPLE at concentrations of 0.1-1 % effectively reduced lipid oxidation in Ligor meat gel during storage. Additionally, MPLE at 0.1 % inhibited protein oxidation, preserving the physical and textural qualities of meat gels during processing and refrigerated storage. Notably, MPLE at 0.1 % proved to be the most beneficial, retaining gel properties, enhancing water-holding capacity, stabilizing color, and reducing oxidative degradation. These findings indicate that MPLE, at an optimal concentration of 0.1 %, has significant potential as a natural preservative, providing a safer and more effective alternative to synthetic additives for maintaining gel properties and preserving oxidative stability of chicken meat products, particularly Ligor chicken meat gel.
... IT were significantly ameliorated with CL addition. IT values are lower than meats like lamb and rabbit (1.2 and 1.1, respectively), or processed meals like Bologna sausages (1.55), beef burgers (1.40), and Margherita pizza (2.42) but it is comparable to the range seen for brown seaweeds and chicken [51,[53][54][55]. ...
According to the Sustainable Blue Economy Communication, the Farm to Fork Strategy, and the European Green Deal, novel business models supporting the use of resources from oceans and seas are of primary importance. Interestingly, several infesting seaweeds are consumed as foods in Asia and are fundamental ingredients in several traditional dishes. Herein, according to the circular economy approach, we investigate the use of Chaetomorpha linum (CL) as a Tenebrio molitor larvae feed in different percentages: 20%, 50%, and 100%, respectively. We analyzed the effects of CL on the survival and biometric parameters of larvae. The survival rate remained comparable to the control, while the mean weight was inversely proportional to the CL%. The nutrient composition was substantially different from the control, showing increased protein and reduced fat content. Analysis of the secondary metabolites revealed a better fatty acid composition, rich in PUFA, with lipid nutritional indexes comparable to seaweeds and crabs. The simulated gastrointestinal digestion highlights the increased content of essential amino acids, and a two times higher antioxidant activity with respect to the control. Taken together, our results confirm that CL can be used as a TML supplement, with beneficial effects in protein content and fat quality.
... According to Izadpanah et al. (2024) and Sherin et al. (2022), chlorophyll-rich cultivars have better photosynthetic efficiency and growth potential. Also, previous research suggesting chlorophyll-rich cultivars offer increased nutritional benefits due to their robust photosynthetic and antioxidant activities (Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005;Sherin et al., 2022;Martins et al., 2023). In our study, Carotenoids, such as β-carotene and lutein, were most abundant in Carotena, underscoring its nutritional value and antioxidant properties. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the biochemical and nutritional profiles of three cauliflower cultivars—Valentena, Carotena, and Snow White—focusing on chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, vitamin C, flavonoids, phenolics, and antioxidant activity. Uniform curds were harvested at 60 days post-sowing from Baratia, Dumuria, Khulna, and analyzed at Khulna Agricultural University. Valentena exhibited the highest chlorophyll content (40.06±0.39 µg/100g FW chlorophyll a, 28.98±3.35 µg/100g FW chlorophyll b), superior lycopene (8.71±0.38 µg/100g FW) levels. Carotena showed the highest total carotenoid content (60.52±1.76 µg/100g FW) and β-carotene (26.99±0.44 µg/100g FW), while Snow White had the lowest values across most parameters. Valentena also led in anthocyanins (101.56±3.9 mg/L FW) and total flavonoids (79.56±10.36 mg/100g FW), with Carotena having the highest vitamin C content (60.05±2.93 µg/g FW). DPPH assays indicated that Valentena showed the most effective antioxidant (IC50 = 43.65±3.56 mg/mL FW), followed by Carotena and Snow White. Hierarchical clustering and pricipal component analysis (PCA) revealed distinct biochemical profiles: Valentena and Carotena shared similarities in carotenoids and antioxidant activity, whereas Snow White differed significantly. Linear discriminant analysis identified lycopene, chlorophyll b, and β-carotene as major differentiators, highlighting the diverse nutritional and antioxidant properties of these cauliflower varieties. The findings highlight the potential of Carotena and Valentena for health-conscious consumers seeking nutrient-rich, antioxidant benefits in functional meals.
... Indeed, chlorophylls' antioxidant properties are based on their scavenging effects towards harmful free radicals known to contribute to oxidative stress-induced cellular damage associated with several chronic diseases involving inflammation [51][52][53][54] . In vitro studies demonstrated that derivatives of chlorophylls a and b have a high antioxidant capacity 55,56 . Moreover, in vivo experiments revealed that pretreatment with chlorophyll b reduced the oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation induced by cisplatin in in mice 57 . ...
Defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as indigenous knowledge and practices used for maintaining health and treating illnesses, traditional medicine (TM) represents a rich reservoir of ancient healing practices rooted in cultural traditions and accumulated wisdom over centuries. Five indigenous Kenyan plant species traditionally used in African TM, named Afzelia quanzensis, Azadirachta indica, Gigasiphon macrosiphon, Grewia bicolor, and Lannea schweinfurthii, represent a valuable resource in healing practices, yet their chemical composition and bioactivity remain understudied. To depict a primary bio-chemical characterization of these plants, their antioxidant and antimicrobial features have been evaluated by the use of methods validated in this context. G. bicolor, and G. macrosiphon were found to have great potential as sources of bioactive metabolites, such as chlorophyll a (1456.29 µg/ g DW; 1104.33 µg/ g DW), chlorophyll b (712.48 µg/ g DW; 443.31 µg/ g DW), and carotenoids (369.71 µg/ g DW; 300 µg/ g DW) as well as phenols (31.78 mg GAE/g DW; 27.54 GAE/g DW), and exhibiting high antioxidant activity, according to TEAC, DPPH and FRAP assays. Additionally, L. schweinfurthii and G. macrosiphon demonstrated antimicrobial activity against the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli, as well as against Gram-positive ones, S. aureus and B. subtilis.
... It has demonstrated efficacy as a potent photosensitizer and is frequently employed in combination with photodynamic therapy (Saide et al., 2020). Other studies proved that pheophorbide a also revealed antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties (Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005;Lauritano et al., 2020). However, RE was the only one presenting other pigments than pheophorbide a, some of them with considerably high concentrations such as chlorophyll b epimer (263.9 μg/g), chlorophyll a epimer (164.2 μg/g) and chlorophyll b (143.7 μg/g). ...
... However, these are not the only compounds responsible for • NO scavenging. Previous studies revealed the strong influence of pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids as antioxidant components [68][69][70][71], and our extracts are particularly rich in fucoxanthin and pheophytin-a, a chlorophyll-a derivative. In fact, chlorophylls (p < 0.01) and carotenoids (p < 0.05) also play an important role in this biological activity. ...
The natural products industry is gaining increasing interest, not only due to modern lifestyles becoming more aware of environmental and sustainability issues but also because of the loss of efficacy and undesirable side effects of synthetic ingredients. This pioneering study provides a comprehensive comparison between extracts obtained from wild and commercial samples of Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, highlighting their multifaceted benefits in cosmetic applications. The antiaging potential of acetone (70 and 90%) and ethanol 60% extracts from wild and commercial samples of F. vesiculosus, focusing on their application in cosmetics, was explored. The extracts were chemically characterized, their carotenoid profiles being established by HPLC, and the total phenolic content and phlorotannins by spectrophotometry. The extracts were evaluated for their antioxidant potential against the physiologic free radicals superoxide anion radical (O2•−) and nitric oxide (•NO), for their ability to inhibit the enzymes hyaluronidase and tyrosinase, and for their anti-inflammatory potential in the macrophage cell model RAW 264.7. The acetone 70% extract of wild F. vesiculosus was the richest in fucoxanthin, which accounted for more than 67% of the total pigments identified, followed by the acetone 90% extract of the same sample, where both fucoxanthin and pheophytin-a represented 40% of the total pigments. The same behavior was observed for phenolic compounds, with the ethanol 60% presenting the lowest values. A chemical correlation could be established between the chemical composition and the biological activities, with acetone extracts from the wild F. vesiculosus, richer in fucoxanthin and phlorotannins, standing out as natural ingredients with anti-aging potential. Acetone 90% can be highlighted as the most effective extraction solvent, their extracts presenting the highest radicals scavenging capacity, ability to inhibit tyrosinase to a greater extent than the commercial ingredient kojic acid, and potential to slow down the inflammatory process.
... C. vulgaris is rich in pigments, with chlorophyll being the most dominant, accounting for its characteristic green color. Chlorophyll serves not only as a key component in photosynthesis but also possesses antioxidant and detoxifying properties, making it a valuable functional compound in nutraceutical and medical applications [44,46]. In addition to chlorophyll, C. vulgaris contains carotenoids such as beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, which are known for their roles in protecting against oxidative stress and promoting eye health Specifically, lutein and zeaxanthin have been shown to accumulate in the retina, where they help protect the retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptors from oxidative stress and blue light damage, significant contributors to age-related macular degeneration (AMD) [47][48][49][50]. ...
This review presents the chemical composition, bioactive properties, and diverse applications of Chlorella vulgaris, a green microalga widely recognized for its exceptional nutritional value and therapeutic potential. The study emphasizes the presence of key nutrients, including high-quality proteins, essential vitamins, minerals, and an array of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, chlorophyll, and polysaccharides. These compounds have been shown to exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activities, including potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, lipid-lowering, and detoxifying effects. The review explores the multifaceted applications of C. vulgaris in various sectors, including its growing role as a functional food ingredient, a nutraceutical supplement in animal feed, and a promising therapeutic agent for combatting chronic diseases. This paper also highlights its potential for enhancing immune responses, mitigating oxidative stress, promoting detoxification of heavy metals, and improving overall health outcomes. However, current limitations in clinical evidence surrounding its medicinal efficacy present challenges that need to be addressed. Furthermore, significant obstacles remain in scaling up C. vulgaris production, including optimizing cultivation techniques and improving bioavailability. Additionally, this review identifies crucial research gaps, particularly in optimizing cultivation techniques, improving bioavailability, and validating the clinical efficacy of C. vulgaris. By addressing these challenges, C. vulgaris holds significant promise in contributing to global health, sustainable nutrition, and environmental conservation efforts by serving as a source of protein and bioactive components for a growing population while simultaneously having a lower environmental impact and requiring fewer resources in production compared to traditional ingredients like soybean meal.
... 18 Sodium copper chlorophyllin (SCC) and grape seed extract (anthocyanins) can absorb wavelengths within the ranges of 240-320 nm and 340-450 nm, respectively, and effectively prevent UV damage by converting their energy into lowenergy heat. [19][20][21] An in vitro experiment documented that vitamin C can withstand UV, diminish the production of free radicals caused by UV, and function as an antioxidant role. 22 Lutein and ⊎-carotenoids also have similar properties. ...
BACKGROUND
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are recognized as effective biocontrol agents against various soil‐dwelling pests. However, their efficacy in managing leaf pests is often constrained by factors such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation and desiccation.
RESULTS
We evaluated the protective effects of five plant‐derived substances, including grape seed extract, sodium copper chlorophyllin, vitamin C, β‐carotene and lutein, on Steinernema carpocapsae upon exposure to three wavelengths of artificial ultraviolet radiation (UVA, UVB, UVC). The five protectants showed efficient protective effects. Notably, grape seed extract, sodium copper chlorophyllin and vitamin C exhibited significant protective effects on infective juveniles (IJs) even after exposure to UVC for 4, 8 and 12 h. Under natural sunlight conditions, we combined these UV protectants with three humectants and evaluated their effects on IJ viability. Orthogonal experiments revealed that the combination treatment of 0.2% grape seed extract and 0.1% fire blocking gel yielded the highest IJ survival rate. This foliar formulation was tested in the field, leading to significantly higher mortality of Tuta absoluta compared with EPNs only.
CONCLUSION
Our findings suggest that the formulation containing UV protectants and humectants effectively overcome the limitations encountered in the foliar application of EPNs, thereby enhancing their potential for pest management in agricultural contexts. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Due to the presence of chlorophyll, Chl-M showed higher DPPH radical scavenging activity compared with the control sample. Various studies show that chlorophyll can scavenge oxidizing compounds such as DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) [33]. Therefore, it can be used as a pigment and natural antioxidant in various food products. ...
Nowadays, the need to use natural pigments instead of artificial colorants in food has increased due to health risks. Chlorophyll is a natural colorant with antioxidant properties. Chlorophyll is a natural pigment with superior antioxidant properties. However, this pigment is unstable in the different conditions of food processing. To increase the stability of chlorophyll extracted from Ulva intestinalis algae, encapsulation of chlorophyll with maltodextrin (MD) and whey protein isolate (WPI) carriers by two drying methods including spray drying and freeze drying was achieved. The optimum combination of wall and core materials to achieve the highest response including encapsulation efficiency (EE) and chlorophyll content (CC) was obtained by response surface methodology and central composite design. The optimal chlorophyll microcapsule (Chl-M) obtained was chosen for subsequent tests containing solubility, moisture content, and antioxidant properties. The results showed that the highest EE and CC were 90.27 ± 0.21 %, 55.36 ± 0.36 μg/mL, and 90.46 ± 0.62 %, 85.85 ± 0.43 μg/mL, respectively in SD and FD. The microcapsules produced by the freeze dryer (FD) had higher antioxidant activity (79.1 ± 0.24) than the microcapsules produced by the spray dryer (SD) (67.5 ± 0.16). The highest solubility (95.32 %) and the lowest moisture content (3.7 ± 0.05) were related to the SD. Freeze drying method (FDM) had the highest EE (91.2 %), CC (89.67 μg/mL), and antioxidant properties (79.1 %). It is hoped that the encapsulated chlorophyll can be used as a health-promoting food color additive in the food industry.
... In recent years, growing awareness of the benefits of functional foods has driven a surge in interest in natural antioxidants, which play a crucial role in protecting human health against free radical damage (Lanfer et al., 2005). Chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments synthesized within chloroplasts function as essential optical probes for monitoring different plant phases. ...
Growing health awareness has stimulated a focus on natural immune enhancement. Lablab beans {Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet}, abundant in bioactive compounds, were investigated for protein, mineral, and vitamin profiles. This research specifically conducted a comparative analysis between two distinct botanical forms: Lablab purpureus var. typicus L. and L. purpureus var. lignosus L, focusing on their nutritional profiles. Among L. purpureus var. typicus L. genotypes, RCPD-6 exhibited the highest protein content (25.46 § 0.29 g/100 g) followed by RCPD-1 (23.74 § 0.26 g/100 g). In contrast, L. purpureus var. lignosus L., L. purpureus var. lignosus L. particularly genotype RCPD-22, had lower protein content (19 § 0.15 g/100 g). Significant variations in Fe content were observed within L. purpureus var. typicus L., ranging from 5.97 § 0.01 to 10.5 § 0.02 mg/100 g, with RCPD-2 reported the highest. Zn content ranged from 1.7 § 0.01 to 3.65 § 0.02 mg/100 g in both forms. The calcium content in L. purpureus var. typicus L. genotypes are found to be high, ranging from 372.72 § 0.02 mg/100 g to 458.75 § 0.03 mg/100 g, suggesting that var. typicus holds promise as a significant dietary source of Ca. P content exhibited variability, ranging from 317.12 § 0.01 to 460.07 § 0.06 mg/100 g. L. purpureus var. typicus L. shows correlated levels of protein/Zn, vitamins A/C, and antioxidant activities (DPPH/ ABTS) suggesting targeted breeding for co-improved health benefits. It is noteworthy that L. purpureus var. typicus L., whose pods are consumed as vegetables, exhibits higher nutritional content in terms of protein, iron, calcium, and vitamin A. This clearly suggests that L. purpureus var. typicus L. surpasses L. purpureus var. lignosus L. in nutritional value. To strengthen findings, chemometric techniques such as principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) were employed for differentiation between the two botanical forms. These methods highlight the disparities in their nutritional profiles and functional characteristics. PCA analysis demonstrated that the first three components encapsulated 80.67 % of the overall variability. Meanwhile, AHC grouped cultivars into two major clusters which can be divided into two subgroups based on the evaluated parameters. The data obtained provide a significant contribution to the scientific evaluation of the two botanical forms of lablab bean, particularly in terms of their nutritional profiles and functional attributes.
... A few studies suggested chlorophylls and chlorophyll derivatives (CDs) may exert therapeutic effects and could improve human health [15,16]. The unique chemical structure of these substances allows them to act as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy of tumors [10,[17][18][19][20]. Chlorophylls and CDs also possess antioxidant and antimutagenic activity that can be harnessed for cancer prevention [21], for example, by interacting with multi-drug resistant pumps [22] or through antioxidant functions [23][24][25]. They were also shown to act as protease activity inhibitors, thereby demonstrating antiviral properties [26,27]. ...
The Cannabis plant contains many groups of bioactive metabolites with potential pharmacological properties. These properties have mainly been attributed to cannabinoids and terpenoids, with other groups receiving little attention. The usefulness of the abundant group of chlorophyll derivatives (CDs) was illustrated in various applications, but little is known regarding their presence and significance in Cannabis. We hypothesized that the heating accompanying the process extract preparation would result in a pool of CDs that have lost the central magnesium (Mg) ion. Herein, we introduce a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry approach for separating, identifying, and quantifying Mg-free CDs in Cannabis extracts after decarboxylation. We assessed 14 Cannabis cultivars representing the four types of chemovars and identified 69 distinct Mg-free CDs. These were separated into five families: Pheophorbide a, Pheophorbide b, Pheophytin a, Pheophytin b, and Purpurin 18. The structure of the Mg-free CDs was determined through their MS/MS fragmentation spectra as phytylated derivatives compared to dephytylated ones, and then further to pyroderivatives, alkylated and oxidized CDs. Substantial variation was found between the four different chemovar types and within different cultivars of the same chemovar, with the family of Pheophytin a, the most prevalent in all extracts. Type III chemovar high-cannabidiol plants contained significantly higher amounts of Mg-free CDs. These differences in abundance may result in variations in the therapeutic effects of plants that are considered similar according to their cannabinoid profiles.
... These pigments possess several health benefits too (Mishra et al., 2011). Chlorophyll possesses antioxidant activity (Ferruzzi et al., 2002;Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005), anticancer activity (de Vogel et al., 2005), acts as an anti-inflammatory agent (Bowers, 1947;Larato & Pfau, 1970), internal deodorant (Young & Beregi Jr, 1980), potent anti-mutagen and anti-carcinogen(R. Dashwood, 1997;R. ...
Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna) is a perennial, natural dye-producing, shrub or small tree and sole species of the genus Lawsonia in the Lythraceae family. The plant contains various compounds, including flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, terpenoids, lawsone, and secondary metabolites is used in modern pharmacopeia and cosmetics. The plant's extracts show anti-mosquito, antimicrobial, antioxidant, wound healing, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, tuberculostatic, diuretic, hypoglycemic, and antiparasitic activities. Physical conditions affect dye properties and quality. Conventional methods for Lawsonia inermis L. propagation face problems like short viability, disease, pests, and unreliable seed propagation due to natural habitat conditions for large-scale production. Therefore, vegetative propagation via stem cuttings to multiply superior healthy plants is important for achieving increased productivity in terms of biomass. Auxins have a significant effect on the rooting and shooting of cuttings. Pigments and secondary metabolites are two good indicators of the physiological conditions, and medicinal properties.
In the present study, firstly cutting of 8-10 cm each of having 3 replications were treated with 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, and 1750 ppm solutions of auxins (IAA, IBA, and NAA) respectively (a total of 22 treatments) following quick dip method and planted in the sand filled polybag). Vegetative growth data were collected at 30, 60, and 90 DAP (Days after planting) in 10 parameters. Secondly, the dynamics of foliar pigments (chl-a, chl-b, and carotenoids) and the qualitative presence of secondary metabolites in the leaves of Lawsonia inermis L. were assessed. Finally, the quantitative measurement of polyphenol content was done. The whole experiment was conducted following the CRD (completely randomized design) method from June 2022 to June 2023 at the Botanic Garden and Department of Botany, University of Chittagong. Statistical analysis was done using MS Excel-2021.
In the field experiment of vegetative propagation through stem cutting, the maximum growth performance viz. The number of shoots (4) was observed in T20 (NAA-1250 ppm), length of shoot (26.93 cm) was observed in T7 (IAA-1500 ppm), Number of root (7.67) was observed in T14 (IBA-1500 ppm), length of root (8.37 cm) was observed in T15 (IBA-1750 ppm), Number of leaves (34) was observed in T6 (IAA-1250 ppm) at 90 DAP. In the case of the biomass of leaf study, fresh weight and dry weight of leaves highest amount (4.70g and 4.53g) was observed in T17 (NAA-500 ppm) treatment at 90 DAP. whereas minimum in control (T1).
In the lab test, Maximum foliar pigments viz. Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-b, Carotenoids, and total pigment content were obtained 1.22 mg g-1, 1.34 mg g-1, 1.20 mg g-1, and 3.76 mg g-1 FW in T12 (IBA-1000 ppm) treatment at 90 DAP whereas minimum in control (T1). Qualitative assessment of 10 different secondary metabolites showed positive results in the methanolic extracts of leaves. In Quantitative measurement for polyphenol contents maximum amount were observed 0.3048 %, 0.4004 %, and 0.4957 % at 30, 60, and 90 DAP respectively. The highest amount of polyphenol content (0.4957%) was found in T5 (IAA-1250 ppm) treatment at 90 DAP whereas minimum in control (T1). All the data from the above experiments were subjected to ANOVA. Treatments for most of the parameters were found significant (p<0.01 or 0.05).
Therefore, the present study concludes that the above-mentioned concentrations would be considered as the most suitable treatment for producing maximum vegetative growth in stem cutting at 90 DAP. Qualitative presence of a high number of secondary metabolites approved the medicinal importance of the plant Lawsonia inermis L. Quantitative analysis of polyphenol content showed the presence of antioxidant properties in this desired medicinal plant.
... These organisms synthesize several bioactive compounds such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, proteins, and oils, which hold significant potential for the food and pharmaceutical industries [5]. Chlorophyll is one of the most abundant phytochemicals in microalgae and exhibits antioxidant [6][7][8], anti-inflammatory [9,10], anticancer [11,12], and anti-obesity properties [13]. ...
Recent advancements in the large-scale cultivation of Tetraselmis sp. in Korea have enabled year-round production of this marine microalgae. This study explores the potential industrial applications of Tetraselmis sp. biomass by investigating the antiviral properties of its extracts and primary components. The antiviral effects of Tetraselmis sp. extracts were evaluated in Zika virus (ZIKV)-infected cells. Following extensive isolation and purification, the main compounds were characterized using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. Their antiviral activities were confirmed using in vitro and in silico tests. Tetraselmis sp. extracts reduced infectious viral particles and non-structural protein 1 messenger RNA levels in ZIKV-infected cells without inducing cytotoxicity. Additionally, they modulated the interferon-mediated immune system responses. Tetraselmis sp. extracts are composed of four main chlorophylls: chlorophyll a, chlorin e6-131-152-dimethyl-173-phytyl ester, hydroxychlorophyll a, and hydroxypheophytin a. Among them, chlorophyll a, chlorin e6-131-152-dimethyl-173-phytyl ester, and hydroxypheophytin showed the antiviral activities in ZIKV-infected cells and molecular docking simulations predicted interactions between these chlorophylls and ZIKV. Our findings suggest that Tetraselmis sp. chlorophyll extracts exert antiviral effects against ZIKV and could serve as potential therapeutic candidates against ZIKV infection.
... However, optimal culture conditions and nitrogen availability can enhance its production, as seen at 3 mM nitrate. Moreover, chlorophyll a can act as an antioxidant agent (Lanfer-Marquez et al. 2005;Pérez-Gálvez et al. 2020) and its high concentrations in samples under stress conditions (absence and/or low availability of nitrate) may function as a defense molecule. ...
Fertilizer use in agriculture and aquaculture significantly contributes to nitrate-rich effluent discharge into aquatic environments. Porphyra's high surface area/volume enables efficient nutrient assimilation. This study aimed to identify a cost-effective, efficient artificial seawater medium for Porphyra linearis cultivation and determine the optimal nitrate concentration to enhance photosynthetic activity. Porphyra linearis was grown in three different salt media, with photosynthetic and biochemical parameters assessed, showing no differences. The nitrate experiment (7 days) using low-cost salt and varied concentration (0 to 6.5 mM) revealed optimal nitrate uptake at 3 and 5 mM, while 6.5 mM indicated saturation/toxicity. The phycobiliproteins contents did not increase compared to the 0 mM, but exhibited greater functionality, as evidenced by the enhanced photosynthetic parameters. Chlorophyll a peaked in 3 mM, whereas lutein and β-carotene peaked in 0 and 3 mM. The thalli turned greenish and appeared to have degraded branches under 0 mM. Growth rate was the same under all nitrate concentration and higher than under 0 mM. The presence of nitrate increased ETRin situ and ETRmax, whereas the absence decreased the range between optimal irradiance for photoinhibition (EoptETR) and saturated irradiance for photosynthesis (EkETR) and between saturated irradiance for non-photochemical quenching (EkNPQ) and EkETR, suggesting that under more nitrate available the algae dissipate less energy. P. linearis showed a wide range of nitrate use without variation in pigment composition in contrast to photosynthetic capacity. The 1.5 and 3 mM in cultivation significantly enhance the photosynthetic response of P. linearis, supporting their potential application in IMTA and bioremediation.
... According to another study results reported by(Lanfer-Marquez, Barros, & Sinnecker, 2005). Cu chlorophyllin had a greater antioxidant activity than natural chlorophylls, demonstrating the significance of the chelated metal's nature in the porphyrin ring, according to the results of the β-carotene bleaching procedure and the DPPH assay. ...
Sodiumcopper chlorophyllin (SC-C) iswidely used for its biological properties and color. This
study evaluated SC-C's antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in male rats treated with
indomethacin. Fifty rats were divided into five groups: control, indomethacin, rabeprazole,
and two SC-Cdosages (35mg/kg and 70mg/kg). Indomethacin reduced serumGPx levels, but
rabeprazoleandSC-Ctreatments restoredthem.MDAlevels increasedwithindomethacinbut
normalized with other treatments. Indomethacin also lowered IL-10, IL-4, and TNF, which
returned to normal in treated groups. Histopathology showed SC-C reversed liver damage
from indomethacin. SC-C demonstrates strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities,
suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent.
... Antioxidant compounds are beneficial to prevent injuries due to oxidative stress. As reported by Lanfer-Marquez et al., free radicals, particularly reactive oxygen species (ROS), initiate oxidative stress, which is a major factor in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, alcoholic liver cirrhosis, cancer, etc. [42]. SWs have a high content of hydrophilic antioxidant compounds. ...
Globalization and climate change are both contributing to an increase in the number of potentially invasive algae in coastal areas. In terms of biodiversity and financial losses, the invasiveness of algae has become a significant issue in Orbetello Lagoon. Indeed, studies from the Tuscany Regional Agency for Environmental Protection show that the reduction in dissolved oxygen caused by algal diffusion is detrimental to fisheries and biodiversity. Considering that wakame and numerous other potentially invasive seaweeds are consumed as food in Asia, we assess the nutritional and nutraceutical qualities of two potentially invasive seaweeds: Valonia aegagrophila and Chaetomorpha linum. We found that both algae are a valuable source of proteins and essential amino acids. Even if the fat content accounts for less than 2% of the dried weight, its quality is high, due to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Both algae are rich in antioxidants pigments and polyphenols, which can be exploited as nutraceuticals. Most importantly, human gastrointestinal digestion increased the quantity of polyphenols and originated secondary metabolites with ACE inhibitory activity. Taken together, our data strongly promote the use of Valonia aegagrophila and Chaetomorpha linum as functional foods, with possible application in the treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.
... Contents of chls and anthocyanins can serve as reliable quality indicators in radish cultivars, as these pigments extend beyond capturing light for photosynthesis, impacting consumer preferences by indicating maturity, quality, and freshness . In addition, chls demonstrate significant antioxidant properties, and dietary anthocyanins consumption has been linked to reduced cardiovascular disease risk factors (Garcia and Blesso, 2021;Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005). In this study, the average total chls content ranged from 9.97 mg g − 1 DW in the control 'Jin-Mi' to 10.78 mg g − 1 DW in MeJA treated 'OP 20′ (Table 5 and Fig. 4A). ...
... The green to red (a* values) and blue to yellow (b* values) observed in Figure 1 are directly proportional to the chlorophylls, lycopene and β-carotene contents (Figures 2 and 3). Chlorophylls, lycopene and β-carotene demonstrate significant antioxidant properties, and dietary anthocyanin consumption has been linked to reduced cardiovascular disease risk factors [14,35,36]. ...
This study was conducted to characterize different colored lines of cherry tomatoes and derive information regarding their metabolite accumulation. Different colored cherry tomato cultivars, namely 'Jocheong', 'BN Satnolang', 'Gold Chance', 'Black Q', and 'Snacktom', were assessed for their firmness, taste characteristics, and nutritional metabolites at the commercial ripening stage. The cultivars demonstrated firmness to withstand impacts during harvesting and postharvest operations. The significant variations in the Brix to acid ratio (BAR) and the contents of phenylalanine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid highlight the distinct taste characteristics among the cultivars, and the nutritional metabolites are associated with the color of the cultivars. The cultivar choices would be the black-colored 'Black Q' for chlorophylls, β-carotene, total flavonoids, and anthocyanins; the red-colored 'Snacktom' for lycopene; the orange-colored 'Gold Chance' for total phenolics; and the green-colored 'Jocheong' for chlorophylls, vitamin C, GABA, glutamic acid, essential amino acids, and total free amino acids. The antioxidant capacity varied among the cultivars, with 'Gold Chance' consistently exhibiting the highest activity across the four assays, followed by 'Snacktom'. This study emphasizes the importance of screening cultivars to support breeding programs for improving the nutritional content and encourages the inclusion of a diverse mix of different colored cherry tomatoes in packaging to obtain the cumulative or synergistic effects of secondary metabolites.
... Natural antioxidants have long been used in food as IOP Publishing doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1358/1/012003 2 they generally have low toxicity. In addition, concerns about synthetic antioxidants' possible unknown side effects have made natural antioxidants a much-needed alternative [3]. ...
Antioxidants are considered important in maintaining the balance of free radicals in the body due to exposure to air pollution. Piper retrofractum Vahl which is a traditional Indonesian medicinal herb which is said to have the characteristics of being an antioxidant in preventing free radicals in the body. Therefore, this research aims to investigate possible interactions between new amides of Piper retrofractum Vahl. and Keap1, one of the key proteins of the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway, the major system involved in redox regulation. Molecular docking study, using molecular mechanic calculations with Yasara to investigate binding energy and pkCSM to predict ADMET. Results this study showed that dipiperamides F has binding energy of 9.855 kcal/mol (closest to that of the crystallographic ligands), dipiperamides G (9.543 kcal/mol), piperodione (8.448 kcal/mol), (E)-N-cinnamoyl-2-methoxypiperidine (7.560 kcal/mol), (2E, 12E)-pipertride cadienamid (7.084 kcal/mol), N-isobutyl-(2E, 4E, 10Z)-hexadeca-2, 4, 10-trienamide (6.788 kcal/mol), (R)-1-(2-oxopyrrolidin-3-yl)-5, 6-dihydropyridin-2(1H)-one (6.524 kcal/mol), 2E, 14Z)-N-isobutyleicosa-2, 14-dienamide (5.116 kcal/mol). Visualization of receptors-ligands complex showed data on hydrogen bonds and no-covalen interactions, including hydrogen bond distances. Finally, ADMET (Adsorption, Desorption, Metabolism, Excretion, Toxicity) predictions and drug-likeness properties were performed on the tested compound. Our study indicates that new amides from Piper retrofractum Vahl may behave as potential natural antioxidant agents by targeting the Keap1 inhibitor.
... However, an analysis of the literature shows no clear opinion on the differences in AA between chlorophylls a and b. For example, some of the authors [55,56], showed that chlorophyll b compounds have higher AA than chlorophyll a, suggesting an unknown role for the aldehyde group at the C7 position in shaping the antioxidant capacity of these compounds. Others [57] came to a different conclusion, proving that chlorophyll a is three times more effective as a radical quencher than chlorophyll b [57]. ...
The purpose of the study was to determine the antioxidant activity (AA) and fatty acid (FA) profile of sous-vide beef previously marinated in brine with a 10, 20 and 30% addition of kiwiberry (Actinidia arguta cv. 'Ananasnaya') fruit pulp, as well as changes in the parameters studied after 0, 1, 2 and 3 weeks of refrigerated storage in a vacuum package. The FA profile, FRAP (ferric-reducing antioxidant power assay), ABTS (2,2 ′-azinobis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-acid)), total polyphenols, chlorophylls and carotenoids were also determined in the fruit pulp. Lipid indices for meat were calculated based on the obtained FA profile. The values of FRAP and ABTS of experimental meat products were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than those of control samples but decreased with storage time. The proportion of unsaturated FA in the lipids of sous-vide meat was higher in samples with pulp than in control samples and insignificantly decreased with storage time. Meat marinated with kiwiberry pulp was characterized by a significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher proportion of ALA (α-linolenic acid) and LA (linoleic acid), considerably affecting the more favorable value of polyunsaturated FA/saturated FA ratio. A troubling finding was the heightened level of palmitic acid (C16:0) in the lipids of beef subjected to 30% kiwiberry pulp, a factor recognized to play a significant role in the development of various diseases. Beef marinated with 20% kiwiberry pulp addition provides greater nutritional and health benefits than other sample variants because of optimal AA and FA profile changes during refrigerated storage.
... Chlorophylls are used in the food industry as natural colorants in foods and beverages; however, other important features are being reported, namely their antioxidant, antitumoral, and antimicrobial activities (according to Lordan et al., 2011 [133], Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005 [134], Luo et al., 2015 [135] and Sudakin 2003 [136], respectively). A recent study conducted by Diogo et al., 2018 [137] proved the possibility of chlorophylls to be used as precursors of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy, namely for cancer treatment and inactivation of microorganisms [130]. ...
Green algae, phylum Chlorophyta, due to their green appearance as higher plants, are seen
as one of the raw materials to be widely used by humanity for different purposes. How can these
different purposes achieve ONU Sustainable Development Goals? The genus Ulva sp. is widely
distributed through all continents, tolerating different ecosystems (freshwater and marine), different
intensities of light, temperature, and salinity. The Ulva sp. life cycle is isomorphic and biphasic type,
also affected by biotic factors such as thallus age, phytohormones, microbiome, sporulation inhibitors
and metabolomic. Due to that, types of farming can be implemented depending on the cultivation
method and it is final biomass exploitation. Thus, this critical review analyzes the laminar Ulva
species from the ecology and demonstrates that the seaweed biomass application, may make significant contributions to marine ecosystems, humans, aquaculture, and biotechnological innovation,
indicating its importance in both environmental and socioeconomic contexts based on experiments
across the world, time and critical thinking. This means that explaining the actual road and future
roads of laminar Ulva into a multi-tool development from humankind welfare. With right management of resources and human empowerment, Ulva sp. products can be produced facing climate
change and support different industries. However, responsible management of Ulva populations and
farming is essential to prevent overgrowth, green floods, and maintain environmental equilibrium.
... Beyond their role in photosynthesis, pigments play a crucial part in influencing consumers' preferences by indicating maturity, quality, and freshness [41]. Moreover, Chls demonstrate significant antioxidant properties [42], while dietary anthocyanin consumption has been associated with reduced risk factors for cardiovascular diseases [43]. Hence, the content of Chls and anthocyanins content could serve as quality indicators in radish microgreens. ...
This study investigated the impact of Methyl Jasmonate (MeJA) application on the nutritional content and yield of five different colored radish microgreens. Microgreens were produced without substrate and subjected to 0.5 mM and 1.0 mM MeJA treatments on the 7th day, three days before harvest. The parameters measured included yield, dry matter, minerals, amino acids, secondary metabolites such as chlorophylls (Chls), anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolics, glucosinolates (GSLs), vitamin C, and antioxidant capacity. MeJA at 1.0 mM generally improved yield and dry weight across cultivars, and all microgreens exhibited rich mineral and amino acid composition, with the influence of cultivar being more significant than MeJA treatment. However, MeJA enhanced all cultivars’ anthocyanins, GSLs, phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activities. Generally, as the antioxidant capacity is the primary factor influencing the nutritional quality of microgreens, MeJA-treated microgreens, especially with selected superior cultivars such as ‘Asia purple’ and ‘Koregon red’, could offer a potential for the cultivation of value-added, eco-friendly microgreens with substrate-free cultivation.
Seaweeds are photosynthetic organisms that harvest sunlight and convert it into essential energy through a highly effective biochemical process powered by light, which in turn is captured and directed to the reactive centers by pigments. Seaweed pigments are fundamental to the seaweed photosynthetic process and are also responsible for their current taxonomic classification into three distinct divisions. The Chlorophyta comprises the green seaweeds, which hold high levels of both chlorophyll a and b, along with lesser amounts of β-carotene and xanthophylls. The Ochrophyta integrates the brown seaweeds (class Phaeophyceae), which are particularly rich in the xanthophyll fucoxanthin, while also showing lower levels of other xanthophylls, chlorophyll a and c, and β-carotene. The Rhodophyta houses the red seaweeds, which are characterized by holding high levels of phycoerythrin, as well as lower quantities of phycocyanin, chlorophyll a, β-carotene, and xanthophylls. However, regardless of their designation, seaweed species exhibit a significant range of colors and hues that go beyond “green,” “brown,” and “red,” rendering them visually unique, due to the relative composition and abundance of each pigment within their living cells. Nowadays, science has unveiled not only the diversity of these pigments, but also their biological function. Targeted extraction methods and potential end-use applications for these pigments have been researched and developed, with the resulting product often designed to protect and promote human health. Today, humankind acknowledges the benefits of natural products obtained from the oceans, including those obtained from seaweed pigments. This chapter aims to supply insight on the diversity, functions, and applications of the pigments found in all the three divisions, thus contributing to a greater understanding of the benefits these functional molecules can provide to humanity.
The aim of present study was to investigate the effect of different storage temperatures on physiology, quality, antioxidant activity and shelf life of avocado fruits. The optimum mature avocado fruits were harvested (150 days after fruit set) from accession CHES-HA-I/I and CHES-HA-VII/I, and brought to the laboratory. These fruits were stored at 5, 9 and 12 °C with 90–95% relative humidity (RH) and at ambient condition (26–32 °C with 55–62% RH). The results showed that, low-temperature storage significantly reduced the physiologic and biochemical processes in the fruit. Lower physiologic loss in weight (PLW), slower rate of ripening, reduced respiration and ethylene production and higher carbohydrates, protein and crude fat content were recorded in low-temperature storage, whereas higher antioxidant activity in terms of total phenolic content (TPC), free radical scavenging activity (FRSA) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) was found in avocado fruits stored at ambient temperature. It was also observed that chilling injury (CI) developed in fruits stored at 5 °C. From the present study, it is concluded that among different low temperatures, fruits stored at 9 °C had better storage life with more fruit quality, higher antioxidant activity and least spoilage as compared to other temperatures.
La cianocobalamina, la hemoglobina y la clorofila son moléculas responsables del transporte de oxígeno y por lo tanto, esenciales en el funcionamiento de la vida y del medio ambiente, ya que sin ellas mucho del oxígeno presente en el ambiente y en cuerpo humano no tendría manera de llegar a cada una de las células y órganos que lo necesitan para su correcto funcionamiento; sin embargo, la cianocobalamina, la hemoglobina y la clorofila vistos desde la perspectiva de la química organometálica, son compuestos orgánicos unidos a un metal (cobalto, hierro y magnesio respectivamente), a través de enlaces de coordinación presentes en sus estructuras, porfirinas para la cianocobalamina y protoporfirinas en la hemoglobina y la clorofila
This study aims to evaluate the optimal conditions for extracting chlorophyll from spinach leaves using various extraction methods, including Soxhlet, ultrasound, and maceration. Chlorophyll was extracted using different solvents, namely methanol, ethanol, and acetone, under varying conditions such as temperature and extraction time. The results showed that the highest chlorophyll recovery, reaching 12.88 μg/ml, was achieved using methanol as the solvent combined with the ultrasonic extraction method at a temperature of 40°C for 180 minutes. Following the extraction process, the chlorophyll was used as a sensitizer in the fabrication of TiO2-based dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The performance of the DSSC sensitized with chlorophyll was evaluated by measuring its conversion efficiency, which was found to be 0.119%. Additionally, the short-circuit current (Isc) was recorded at 0.1 mA/cm², the open-circuit voltage (Voc) at 0.1 V, and the fill factor (FF) at 0.122. These findings suggest that spinach-extracted chlorophyll could serve as a promising natural sensitizer for DSSC applications, offering an eco-friendly alternative for solar energy conversion.
The investigation of seaweeds to identify their bioactive metabolites and potential broader applications has gained significant relevance. This study aimed to analyze the proximate composition, mineral content, fatty acid profiles, water and oil-holding capacities, and antioxidant activity of various solvent extracts of Ulva lactuca. The results indicated that Ulva lactuca is characterized by its fiber content (12.68 ± 0.5%), carbohydrates (61.12 ± 1.42%), proteins (22.15 ± 1.7%), and lipids (1.3 ± 0.1%). It has a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, an excellent ω-3/ω-6 ratio, and a high nutritional value. Additionally, it serves as a significant source of essential minerals, particularly potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P). The methanolic extract exhibited higher levels of phenolics (45.69 ± 3.24mg gallic acid equivalents/g DM), flavonoids (15.49 ± 0.064 mg quercetin equivalents/g DM), and tannins (22.52 ± 8.23mg catechin equivalents/g DM) compared to other extracts. Using total antioxidant capacity, DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and reducing power assays, the results demonstrated that all three examined extracts possessed antioxidant properties. Notably, the methanolic extract showed the highest antioxidant activity, with a half-inhibitory concentration of 33.6 ± 1.31µg/ mL in the DPPH radical scavenging assay. The study also revealed that the water and oil-holding capacities of Ulva lactuca varied with temperature and were comparable to those of many commercial fiber-rich products. Sourced from the coastal waters of Kenitra, Ulva lactuca presents a viable option for applications in nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and the agri-food industry due to its biochemical composition, functional characteristics, and antioxidant properties.
Liposomes and niosomes can be considered excellent drug delivery systems due to their ability to load all compounds, whether hydrophobic or hydrophilic. In addition, they can reduce the toxicity of the loaded drug without reducing its effectiveness. Synechocystis sp. is a unicellular, freshwater cyanobacteria strain that contains many bioactive compounds that qualify its use in industrial, pharmaceutical, and many other fields. This study investigated the potential of nano-liposomes (L) and nano-niosomes (N) for delivering Synechocystis sp. extract against cancer cell lines. Four different types of nanoparticles were prepared using a dry powder formulation and ethanol ex-tract of Synechocystis sp. in both nanovesicles (N1 and N2, respectively) and liposomes (L1 and L2, respectively). Analysis of the formed vesicles using zeta analysis, SEM morphological analysis, and visual examination confirmed their stability and efficiency. L1 and L2 in this investigation had effective diameters of 419 and 847 nm, respectively, with PDI values of 0.24 and 0.27. Furthermore, the zeta potentials were found to range from −31.6 mV to −43.7 mV. Regarding N1 and N2, their effective diameters were 541 nm and 1051 nm, respectively, with PDI values of 0.31 and 0.35, and zeta potentials reported from −31.6 mV to −22.2. mV, respectively. Metabolic profiling tentatively identified 22 metabolites (1-–22) from the ethanolic extract. Its effect against representative human cancers was studied in vitro, specifically against colon (Caco2), ovarian (OVCAR4), and breast (MCF7) cancer cell lines. The results showed the potential activities of the prepared N1, N2, L1, and L2 against the three cell lines, where L1 had cytotoxicity IC50 values of 19.56, 33.52, and 9.24 µg/mL compared to 26.27, 56.23, and 19.61 µg/mL for L2 against Caco2, OVCAR4, and MCF7, re-spectively. On the other hand, N1 exhibited IC50 values of 9.09, 11.42, and 2.38 µg/mL, while N2 showed values of 15.57, 18.17, and 35.31 µg/mL against Caco2, OVCAR4, and MCF7, respectively. Meanwhile, the formulations showed little effect on normal cell lines (FHC, OCE1, and MCF10a). All of the compounds were evaluated in silico against the epidermal growth factor receptor tyro-sine kinase (EGFR). The molecular docking results showed that compound 21 (1-hexadecanoyl-2-(9Z-hexadecenoyl)-3-(6′-sulfo-alpha-D-quinovosyl)-sn-glycerol), followed by compounds 6 (Sulfoquinovosyl monoacylgycerol 5), 7 (3-Hydroxymyristic acid), 8 (Glycolipid PF2), 12 (Palmitoleic acid), and 19 (Glyceryl monostearate), showed the highest binding affinities. These compounds formed good hydrogen bond interactions with the key amino acid Lys721 as the co-crystallized ligand. These results suggest that nano-liposomes and nano-niosomes loaded with Synechocystis sp. extract hold promise for future cancer treatment development. Further research should focus on clinical trials, stability assessments, and pharmacological profiles to translate this approach into effective anticancer drugs.
Purpose
Natural food colors used in food are generally perceived as additives. Therefore, many studies have been conducted to prove the health benefits and risks of using natural food colors, which play an important role in the food industry, and to identify realistic stabilization methods. This paper aims to examine the health effects of natural food colors from a pharmacological approach.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper searches for relevant literature using keywords such as “natural food coloring”, “stabilization” and “antioxidant effects”. For the case study area, this paper added “food science and technology” to identify methods for stabilizing natural food coloring. From this review, the authors ultimately selected 79 articles that appeared to meet the research objectives.
Findings
When using natural food coloring in food, there are concerns about stabilization. However, with the development of food science and technology, the authors have found that there are multi-layer emulsification methods that can be applied before, during and after food manufacturing, and storage standards are also important. Natural food coloring is playing a diverse role in food science.
Originality/value
Natural food coloring has been reported in various types of literature to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. The most common pigments are carotenoids. Considering the positive effects of natural food coloring on human health, the authors suggest future directions for the development of food science and technology and provide a perspective for changing consumer perceptions.
Given the health risks associated with synthetic colorants, natural pigments have emerged as a promising alternative. These renewable choices not only provide health benefits but also offer valuable technical and sensory properties to food systems. The effective application of natural colorants, however, requires the optimization of processing conditions, exploration of new sources, and development of novel formulations to ensure stability and maintain their inherent qualities. Several natural pigment sources have been explored to achieve the broad color range desired by consumers. The purpose of this review is to explore the current advances in the obtention and utilization of natural pigments derived from by-products, which possess health-enhancing properties and are extracted through environmentally friendly methods. Moreover, this review provides new insights into the extraction processes, applications, and bioactivities of different types of pigments.
The presented study aimed to produce low-fat cookie (C) with substitution of Chlorella vulgaris biomass (0.5 % as CB1, 1.0 % as CB2, and 1.5 % as CB3) and to investigate the bioavailability of minerals, total phenolic content, and antioxidant capacities. Microalgae Chlorella sp. is known for their high phenolic content and antioxidant capacity as well as a promising source for essential minerals. For the determination of total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity extractable and hydrolysable fractions were prepared. Total phenolic content of CB samples ranged m 200.82 to 274.07 mg GAE per g, whereas bioaccessibility values ranged from 32.31 to 47.26 mg GAE per gram. Of the three methods used to determine antioxidant capacity, CUPRAC method gave the highest antioxidant capacity values (116.57-154.38 µmole TE per g) and ABTS method gave the highest bioaccessibility values ranged from 6.76 to 9.21 µmole TE per g. Cookie samples were also screened for Na, Mg, P, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Se content and their bioaccessibility. It was found that the incorporation of Chlorella resulted in a notable enhancement in the mineral content of all samples. Compared to control samples (C) all CB samples were in a trend of, approximately, a 2-fold increase in mineral bioaccessibility.
Ulva, a genus of green macroalgae commonly known as sea lettuce, has long been recognized for its nutritional benefits for food and feed. As the demand for sustainable food and feed sources continues to grow, so does the interest in alternative, plant-based protein sources. With its abundance along coastal waters and high protein content, Ulva spp. have emerged as promising candidates. While the use of Ulva in food and feed has its challenges, the utilization of Ulva in other industries, including in biomaterials, biostimulants, and biorefineries, has been growing. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status, challenges and opportunities associated with using Ulva in food, feed, and beyond. Drawing on the expertise of leading researchers and industry professionals, it explores the latest knowledge on Ulva’s nutritional value,
processing methods, and potential benefits for human nutrition, aquaculture feeds, terrestrial feeds, biomaterials, biostimulants and biorefineries. In addition, it examines the economic feasibility of incorporating Ulva into aquafeed. Through its comprehensive and insightful analysis, including a critical review of the challenges and future research needs, this review will be a valuable resource
for anyone interested in sustainable aquaculture and Ulva’s role in food, feed, biomaterials, biostimulants and beyond.
Lichens are symbiotic associations of algae and fungi. They are edible as food and have been used in traditional medicine for years. It is aimed to screen Peltigera praetextata (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Zopfand and Peltigera elisabethae Gyeln. phytochemically by LC/QTOF/MS and according to the constituents to evaluate the antioxidant, tyrosinase inhibitory, and antibacterial activities. In total 54 of metabolites detected by LC/QTOF/MS were common in both species. According to LC/QTOF/MS scanning results, alkaloids, iridoid glycosides, phenolics, cyanogenetic glycosides, and terpenic structures were detected. DPPH, ABTS, superoxide radical scavenging activities, and metal chelating capacity IC50 values were 84.55, 9.349; 51.27, 9.127; 95.01, 58.65 and 20.57, 70.08 µg/mL., respectively. The CUPRAC reducing power was determined as 4.69 and 9.57 TEACCUPRAC, respectively. Tyrosinase inhibitor activity were found to be 86.95 and 196.7 µg/mL. Both lichens did not show antimicrobial effects. As a result of the antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitor activities it was seen that their activities were significant and further in vivo studies could be carried out on this lichens.
Algae are a large and diverse group of autotrophic photosynthetic organisms in the aquatic environment that includes eukaryotic multicellular algae and unicellular prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Algae comprise proteins, amino acids, fatty acids (PUFA), vitamins, polysaccharides, pigments, and other secondary metabolites. Algae are considered as suitable vegetable-like food sources and are also used as supplements for healthy food. The presence of bioactive metabolites and beneficial compounds in some macro- and microalgae can be an active ingredient for various nutraceuticals and healthcare medicines. Algae also represent a valuable source of minerals, antioxidants, and natural colorants; hence, the whole algae biomass and the extracted compounds have used as active food and feed supplements for infant food and specialist food for some diseased patients. This chapter outlines the food, feed, nutrient, and nutraceutical uses of macro- and microalgae and their health benefits along with special function food formulations.
Chlorophyll (Chl) is a natural pigment, widely distributed ranging from photosynthetic prokaryotes to higher plants, with an annual yield of up to 1.2 billion tons worldwide. Five types of Chls are observed in nature, that can be distinguished and identified using spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Chl is also used in the food industry owing to its bioactivities, including obesity prevention, inflammation reduction, viral infection inhibition, anticancer effects, anti-oxidation, and immunostimulatory properties. It has great potential of being applied as a colorant and dietary supplement in the food industry. However, Chl is unstable under various enzymatic, acidic, heat, and light conditions, which limit its application. Although some strategies, such as aggregation with other food components, microencapsulation, and metal cation replacement, have been proposed to overcome these limitations, they are still not enough to facilitate its widespread application. Therefore, stabilization strategies and bioactivities of Chl need to be expected to expand its application in various fields, thereby aiding in the sustainable development of mankind.
Fertilizer use in agriculture and aquaculture significantly contributes to nitrate-rich effluent discharge into aquatic environments. Porphyra 's high surface area/volume enables efficient nutrient assimilation. This study aimed to identify a cost-effective, efficient artificial seawater medium for Porphyra linearis cultivation and determine the optimal nitrate concentration to enhance photosynthetic activity. P. linearis was grown in three different salt media, with photosynthetic and biochemical parameters assessed, showing no differences. The nitrate experiment (7 days) using low-cost salt and varied concentration (0 to 6.5 mM) revealed optimal nitrate uptake at 3 and 5 mM, while 6.5 mM indicated saturation/toxicity. The phycobiliproteins contents did not increase compared to the 0 mM, but exhibited greater functionality, as evidenced by the enhanced photosynthetic parameters. Chlorophyll a peaked in 3 mM, whereas lutein and β-carotene in 0 and 3 mM. The thalli turned greenish and appeared to have degraded branches under 0 mM. Growth rate was the same under all nitrate concentration and higher than under 0 mM. The presence of nitrate increased ETR in situ and ETR max, whereas the absence decreased the range between optimal irradiance for photoinhibition (Eopt ETR ) and saturated irradiance for photosynthesis (Ek ETR ) and between saturated irradiance for non-photochemical quenching (Ek NPQ ) and Ek ETR , suggesting that under more nitrate available the algae dissipate less energy. P. linea ris showed a wide range of nitrate use without variation in pigment composition in contrast to photosynthetic capacity. The 1.5 and 3 mM in cultivation significantly enhance the photosynthetic response of P. linearis , supporting their potential application in IMTA and bioremediation.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic organisms present in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial environments. In addition to their role in oxygen production and nitrogen fixation, cyanobacteria are also known for producing pigments that have a large variety of applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Some of the cyanobacterial pigments have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and are being investigated for their use in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases, such as diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease. Additionally, some of these pigments have shown antitumoral activity and are being investigated for cancer therapy. The pigments are used as natural colorants in food industry or as active ingredients in skincare products in the cosmetic industry. This chapter delves into the use and properties of these pigments, especially from the food and pharmaceutical point of view. Additionally, possible future applications based on their diverse properties have also been highlighted.
The search for endogenous components in food ingredients exhibiting antioxidant activity has been intensified in order to
eliminate synthetic antioxidants. Tocopherols are widely used as natural antioxidants, although their protective ability is
not always sufficient. Buckwheat seed components were evaluated for antioxidant and free radical-scavenging activities using
solvents of different polarities to isolate components from hulls and groats. Components extracted from buckwheat hulls were
pro-oxidant in canola oil. Antioxidant activity of extracts from buckwheat groats increased when more polar solvents were
used for extraction. The highest activity was observed for the methanolic extract. Radical-scavenging activity of buckwheat
extracts was analyzed with DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl). This activity increased when the more polar solvents were
used for extraction, with the highest activity observed for the methanolic extract. It was also observed that the radical
scavenging effectiveness of extracts was concentration dependent. Analysis revealed the presence of tocopherols in the hexane
extract, while methanolic extracts were rich in phenolic acids and flavonoids.
Among photosynthetic pigments, carotenoids are well known to protect photosynthetic organisms against potentially harmful photooxidative radical. Recently, antioxidant activity of chlorophyll (Chl) derivative, pheophytin a was reported from marine alga Arame (Eisenia bicyclis). Interestingly, these pigments are essential structural components of the photosynthetic antenna and reaction center complexes. In contrast to extensive study of carotenoids as antioxidant in photosynthetic organisms, however, little is known on the antioxidant activity of Chls and their derivatives. In this report, we describe the antioxidant activity of Chls and discuss their structural relation to the activity.
Two antioxidative components in commercial preparations of sodium copper chlorophyllin were isolated as their methyl esters. Through the identification of the methyl esters by comparison with authentic samples and the saponification of the methyl esters, disodium copper isochlorin-e4 and trisodium copper chlorin-e6 were demostrated to be included in sodium copper chlorophyllin as constituents. The antioxidative activities of both sodium copper chlorins on Fe2+ and ascorbic acid-induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenates were about 8-fold greater than that of sodium copper chlorophyllin. The two components were concluded to play a principal role in the antioxidative action of sodium copper chlorophyllin.
The effect of chlorophyll (Chi) and pheophytin (Phy) on the photooxidation of triglycerides was examined. Prooxidant behavior similar to that noted in previously reported experiments using methyl linoleate as a substrate was observed. The prooxidant activity of Phy was found to be higher than that of Chi. Moreover, Chi b accelerated photooxidation to a greater degree than did Chi a, and Phy b was more active than Phy a. From the compositional variation of Chi and Phy during photooxidation, it was found that Phy was stable during oxidation of oils. These facts suggest that the Phy content must be noted when considering the oxidative stability of edible oils.
An HPLC method for rapid identification and quantification of picogram quantities of chlorophylls, chlorophyllides, pheophytins and pheophorbides in canola seeds is described. With this method, pigment changes during seed maturation in canola (Brassica napus cv. Westar) were analyzed. During seed maturation, the embryos undergo controlled degradative processes resulting in loss of chlorophyll. Both chlorophyll a and b degradation is biphasic. The breakdown products, chlorophyllide a and pheophytin a reach a peak during the period of rapid chlorophyll a degradation. Thereafter, loss of these pigments and chlorophyll a are linearly correlated. The relationship between chlorophyll b and its degradation products is not clear. However, this may reflect the low levels of these pigments in the seed rather than a lack of causal relationship. Despite the fact that green canola oil contains a high proportion of pheophytin, neither pheophytin nor pheophorbide accounted for a large proportion of the pigments in the seed. Electrophoretic profiles and EM micrographs indicate the presence of normal chloroplasts with pigments bound in chlorophyll-protein complexes. Furthermore, there is a gradual breakdown of the chlorophyllprotein complexes during degreening. The mature nongreen seed does not contain any components of the photosystems.
A new pheophorbide a related compound named as chlorophyllone a (1), C33H32N4O3, was isolated as an antioxidative compound from the extract of the short-necked clam, . It suggests a new degradative pathway of chlorophylls.
Free radical generation is directly related with oxidation in foods and biological systems. Therefore, the search for methods to determine free radical scavenging is important. In this work are described the methods used for this purpose in both substrates as well as in specific cases of their application. The main methods comprise superoxide radicals scavenging (O2·-); hydrogen peroxide scavenging (H2O2); hypochlorous acid scavenging (HOCl); hydroxyl radical scavenging (HO.); peroxyl radical scavenging (ROO.), among them are the methods that use azo-compounds to generate peroxyl radicals, such as the ``TRAP'' method (Total Radical-Trapping Antioxidant Parameter) and the ``ORAC'' method (Oxygen-Radical Absorbance Capacity); the scavenging of radical cation 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) or the ABTS or the ``TEAC'' method (Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity); the scavenging of stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl or DPPH . method and the scavenging of radical cation N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine or DMPD method. At present, in spite of the diversity of methods, there is a great need to standardize measurements of antioxidant activity. The search for more specific assays, giving us chemical information that could be related directly to oxidative deterioration of foods and biological systems could be the objective of future research.
Solubilization of senescent thylakoids from rape cotyledons in the presence of Triton X-100 was employed to establish an in vitro system that allowed the assessment of enzymatic conversion of phaeophorbide a into an uncoloured fluorescent chlorophyll catabolite, Bn-FCC-2. The action of the putative dioxygenase responsible for the cleavage of the porphyrin macrocycle depends on reduced ferredoxin as reductant. Apart from this thylakoidal catalyst, stromal protein is also required for the production of FCC-2 in vitro. The cleavage reaction does not occur with phaeophorbide b as substrate. Saturation kinetics with phaeophorbide a as substrate yielded an apparent Km-value of c. 200 μ. The enzyme contains iron as suggested by inhibitory effects of appropriate chelators. Enzyme activity lost upon treatment with bipyridyl was partly restored in the presence of Fe-ions; other metal ions such as Cu, Zn and Co were ineffective. The enzyme is absent in the thylakoids of mature green cotyledons. It appears upon the induction of foliar senescence and reaches the highest levels towards the end of the yellowing process.
METHODS for measuring antioxidants and appraising antioxidant activity appear to be of two general types. If the chemical nature of the antioxidant is known, one may strive for a test specific for the compound or group of interest; for example, the nitroprusside test for sulphydryl groups. Alternatively one may observe the inhibition of some natural oxidative process such as the β-oxidation of fats, as a function of the added antioxidant.
Chlorophylls a and b and their derivatives were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (LC). The method involves a gradient elution reverse-phase separation. The two solvents were a methanol-water mixture and ethyl acetate. Compounds were detected at 654 nm. Twelve chlorophylls and derivatives were resolved. The method was applied to monitor changes in chlorophyll during processing of spinach. Chlorophylls a and b were the only pigments detected hi fresh spinach. Blanching for 2.5 min at 100 °C showed the appearance of chlorophylls a′ and b′. Blanching for 10 min increased the relative amounts of the a′ and b′ isomers. Frozen spinach contained chlorophylls a, a′, b, and b′ and pheophytin a. In canned spinach, almost all chlorophylls were converted to pheophytins and pyropheophytins. Pyropheophytins were not previously reported to be present in canned spinach. They were identified by their visible absorption spectra, LC retention times, and NMR spectra.
Nine chlorophyll derivatives from different spinach preparations were separated and identified using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). These pigments included chlorophylls a and b, chlorophyllides a and b, pheophorbide a, pheophytins a and b, and pyropheophytins a and b. HPLC-MS measurements were carried out using HPLC-f&-fast atom bombardment (FAB)-MS, which is a continuous-flow FAB-MS interface. The highly hydrophobic chlorophyll derivatives were eluted from a reversed-phase HPLC column using a gradient of increasing ethyl acetate concentration. Glycerol was included in the mob& phase to serve as the matrix for FAB ionization. During analysis by positive-ion HPLC-frit-FAB-MS, abundant protonated molecules, [M + HI+, were detected for all nine chlorophyll derivatives. Fragment ions were observed in the mass spectra that were similar to those produced during standard probe FAB-MS. These HPLC-MS procedures were shown to be useful for the rapid separation and identification of a variety of chlorophyll derivatives from natural sources.
In vitro antioxidant and antimutagenic activity of dietary chlorophyll derivatives was assessed. Antioxidant activity was determined by the ability of each compound to scavenge the long-lived free radicals 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS+). Antimutagenic activity was assayed with a modified microscreen bacterial reverse mutagenicity assay using Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and benzo[a]pyrene as the tester strain and mutagen respectively. Derivatives of chlorophyll a were found to be more effective radical quenchers than those of chlorophyll b. Furthermore, metal-free derivatives such as chlorins, pheophytins, and pyropheophytins exhibited significantly lower antiradical capacity than metallo-derivatives such as Mg-chlorophylls, Zn-pheophytins, Zn-pyropheophytins, Cu-pheophytina, andCu-chlorophyllins. Both metal-free and metallo-chlorophyll derivatives demonstrated similar dose-dependent inhibitory activity against B[a]P induced mutagenesis. These results demonstrate that dietary chlorophyll derivatives prevalent in both fresh and processed foods and dietary supplements have antioxidant and antimutagenic activities.
An HPLC procedure is described which enables both identification and quantitation of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and their major degradation products which can occur during solvent extraction of chloropigments from green plant leaves
or during storage and canning of green vegetables. The method has been applied to visualize enzymatic as well as chemical
degradation of chloropigments from spinach. Complex mixtures of phytyl esters of chlorophyllides, pheophorbides, pyrochlorophyllides,
and pyropheophorbides and their respective hydrolysis products were separated, identified and quantitated in the presence
of carotenoids in a process lasting less than 40 min.
The quantities of chlorophyll (CHL) A and B, and pheophytin (PHY) A and B in 10 kinds of refined edible oils were estimated
by the fluorometric method. The results revealed that CHL and PHY were present in commercial edible oils. PHY A showed the
highest content at ca. 67% in total pigments. Compositional ratios of CHL and PHY were similar in different kinds of plant
oils. Through the analysis of rapessed oils at every refining step, we determined that PHY is not formed during oil refining.
In the autoxidation of soybean oils to which various amounts of CHL mixtures had been added, the peroxide value of tested
oils increased in proportion to the total chlorophyll content. In addition, the compositional changes of the 4 components
during autoxidation were investigated.
The effects of chlorophyll and pheophytin on the autoxidation of oils in the dark were investigated by oven tests. The results
indicated that both chlorophyll and pheophytin show antioxidant activity when methyl linoleate is used as substrate. Furthermore,
chlorophyll retarded the oxidative deterioration of triglycerides in rapeseed and soybean oils at 30 C. Among the four chlorophyll
derivatives (chlorophylls a and b and pheophytins a and b), chlorophyll a showed the strongest antioxidant activity. The antioxidant
effects of chlorophyll and pheophytin depended on the storage temperature and the kinds of oil used as substrate.
To understand the mechanism of the antioxidant effect of chlorophyll on the autoxidation of oils in the dark, antioxidant
activities of several derivatives of chlorophyll were compared. Antioxidant activities were observed in chlorophyll derivatives
such as protopor-phyrin methyl ester and its magnesium chelated compound. Porphyrin seems to be an essential chemical structure
for the antioxidant activity of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll did not decompose the hydroperoxides, but reduced free radicals such
as 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl. Electron spin resonance spectrum of the π-cation radical was recorded during the oxidation
of chlorophyll in methyl linoleate solution. These observations suggest that chlorophyll may act as a hydrogen donor to break
the chain reaction.
A rapid, sensitive method for evaluating antioxidants is described. The antioxidant comparisons are based on minimizing β-carotene
loss in an emulsified, aqueous, coupled oxidation of linoleic acid and β-carotene. The effects of linoleic acid levels were
observed. Attempts to replace β-carotene with vitamin A or linoleic acid with ergosterol gave undesired results. The quantitative
applications of the method are discussed.
A procedure is described for rapid evaluation of antioxidants. Dilute aqueous emulsions of an antioxidant, carotene and lipid
were prepared in spectrometer tubes. The oxidative destruction of carotene in the emulsion was observed directly with a colorimeter.
The antioxidants were then evaluated according to their effect on the rate of carotene decolorization.
Increasing research on natural antioxidants in foods and development of new assays has prompted critical reflection on the field. It has been common practice to identify health benefits from antioxidant activity on the cellular level with antioxidant capacity of food measured in vitro. The use of antioxidants and their positive effects on food quality has been demonstrated in a large variety of foods and beverages using various methods for detection of lipid and protein oxidation or various assays based on electron transfer or hydrogen-atom transfer. A direct positive effect on markers of oxidative status after dietary intervention has, however, been difficult to confirm and much has still to be learnt about antioxidant action in vivo including synergistic or inhibitory roles, the uptake, biotransformation, and tissue distribution of potential antioxidants. This review critically evaluates various types of assays for antioxidative capacity, i.e. the stoichiometry, and antioxidative activity, i.e. the kinetics of the antioxidant action, with focus on the antioxidant mechanism of natural dietary antioxidants, particularly phenolic compounds, on lipid oxidation. It is concluded that it is difficult to transfer antioxidant mechanisms established in model systems and in foods to the in vivo situation and that no simple relationship has been recognized so far between antioxidant capacity determined for various foods and beverages and health benefits for humans. Screening of antioxidant capacity using simple assays in order to predict positive health effects of food are not scientifically justified. Different protocols will have to be used for evaluation of the protection of food by antioxidants and for evaluation of the health effect of antioxidants.
The growing interest in the substitution of synthetic food antioxidants by natural ones has fostered research on vegetable sources and the screening of raw materials for identifying new antioxidants. Oxidation reactions are not an exclusive concern for the food industry, and antioxidants are widely needed to prevent deterioration of other oxidisable goods, such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and plastics. Polyphenols are the major plant compounds with antioxidant activity, although they are not the only ones. In addition, other biological properties such as anticarcinogenicity, antimutagenicity, antiallergenicity and antiaging activity have been reported for natural and synthetic antioxidants. Special attention is focussed on their extraction from inexpensive or residual sources from agricultural industries. The aim of this review, after presenting general aspects about natural antioxidants, is to focus on the extraction of antioxidant compounds (mainly polyphenols) from agricultural and industrial wastes, as well as to summarize available data on the factors affecting their antioxidant activity and stability, and, in some cases, the reported major active compounds identified.
The degreening of soybean seeds was studied relative to their maturity stage, moisture content at harvest and postharvest drying temperature. Studies were performed on Brazilian soybean over its whole maturation period (R6–R8) according to the Fehr and Caviness scale. Chlorophyll and its colored derivatives were quantified as a function of three drying conditions: slow drying at room temperature (25 °C) and oven drying at 40 and 75 °C in order to quantify degreening and pigments produced under these temperatures. Pathways for chlorophyll degradation, enzymatic, chemical or both, could be elucidated by this experimental design. Pigments were quantified by HPLC and identities were confirmed by spectral characteristics, retention times and plasma desorption mass spectrometry (PDMS). Postharvest drying at 25 °C allowed almost complete degradation of chlorophyll in seeds harvested at maturity stage R6 (Fehr scale) or later, with no green pigment detected, which mimics maturation in the field. Fast drying at 40 or 75 °C blocked the breakdown process at all stages of maturity and only seeds harvested at R8 lost their green color. At 40 °C, chemical and/or enzymatic mechanisms of degradation seemed to have occurred, the former is supported by high levels of pheophytins and the latter, by the appearance of small amounts of chlorophyllides and pheophorbides. At 75 °C, considerable levels of only chlorophylls and pheophytins were observed probably due to the inactivation of enzymes. So, chemical pheophytinization was the primary mechanism of degradation. It was concluded that the degree of maturation at harvest time and the temperature of postharvest drying significantly affect the chlorophyll content of soybeans. In order to avoid retention of chlorophyll and to guarantee marketing quality of seeds, harvesting at full maturity followed by fast or slow drying is suggested. If premature harvesting is necessary, the drying should be performed at temperatures lower than 40 °C or seed quality can be compromised.
The antiradical activities of various antioxidants were determined using the free radical, 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH*). In its radical form. DPPH* has an absorption band at 515 nm which dissappears upon reduction by an antiradical compound. Twenty compounds were reacted with the DPPH* and shown to follow one of three possible reaction kinetic types. Ascorbic acid, isoascorbic acid and isoeugenol reacted quickly with the DPPH* reaching a steady state immediately. Rosmarinic acid and δ-tocopherol reacted a little slower and reached a steady state within 30 min. The remaining compounds reacted more progressively with the DPPH* reaching a steady state from 1 to 6 h. Caffeic acid, gentisic acid and gallic acid showed the highest antiradical activities with a stoichiometry of 4 to 6 reduced DPPH* molecules per molecule of antioxidant. Vanillin, phenol, γ-resorcylic acid and vanillic acid were found to be poor antiradical compounds. The stoichiometry for the other 13 phenolic compounds varied from one to three reduced DPPH* molecules per molecule of antioxidant. Possible mechanisms are proposed to explain the experimental results.
The activity of green tea extracts (GTE) on the oxidation of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) seal blubber oil (SBO) and menhaden oil (MHO) was examined under Schaal oven conditions at 65 °C. Progression of oxidation was monitored using weight gain, peroxide value (PV) and 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) data. GTE exhibited a pro-oxidant effect in both oils examined, perhaps due to the catalytic effect of their chlorophyll constituents. Therefore, in follow-up experiments, a column chromatographic technique was employed to remove chlorophyll from GTE. The resultant dechlorophyllized green tea extract (DGTE) was applied to both SBO and MHO at 100, 200, 500 and 1000 ppm levels. The antioxidant activity of DGTE was compared with the effects of the commonly-used antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at 200 ppm and α-tocopherol at 500 ppm. DGTE at ≥200 ppm exhibited excellent antioxidant activity in both oils and its efficacy was higher than that of BHA, BHT and α-tocopherol, but less than that of TBHQ.
Three methods widely employed in the evaluation of antioxidant activity, namely 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging method, static headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) and beta-carotene bleaching test (BCBT), have been compared with regard to their application in the screening of plant extracts. The strengths and limitations of each method have been illustrated by testing a number of extracts, of differing polarity, from plants of the genus Sideritis, and two known antioxidants (butylated hydroxytoluene and rosmarinic acid). The sample polarity was important for the exhibited activity in the BCBT and HS-GC methods but not for the DPPH method. The complex composition of the extracts and partition phenomena affected their activity in each assay. The value of the BCBT method appears to be limited to less polar samples. Although slow, the HS-GC method is preferable for assessing the antioxidant inhibitory properties on the formation of unwanted secondary volatile products. Being rapid, simple and independent of sample polarity, the DPPH method is very convenient for the quick screening of many samples for radical scavenging activity.
The study of free radicals and antioxidants in biology is producing medical revolution that promises a new age of health and disease management. From prevention of the oxidative reactions in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics to the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in chronic degenerative diseases including cancer, autoimmune, inflammatory, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative (e.g. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, Downs syndrome) and aging challenges continue to emerge from difficulties associated with methods used in evaluating antioxidant actions in vivo. Our interest presently is focused on development of neurodegeneration models based on the integrity of neuronal cells in the central nervous system and how they are protected by antioxidants when challenged by neurotoxins as well as Fenton chemistry models based on the profile of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for the assessment of antioxidant actions in vivo. Use continues to be made of several in vitro analytical tools to characterise the antioxidant propensity of bioactive compounds in plant foods and supplements. For example, the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), total oxidant scavenging capacity (TOSC), the deoxyribose assay, assays involving oxidative DNA damage, assays involving reactive nitrogen intermediates (e.g. ONOO(-)), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. There is need to agree governance on in vitro antioxidant methods based on an understanding of the mechanisms involved. Because some of the assays are done in non-physiological pH values, it is impossible to extrapolate the results to physiological environment. The consensus of opinion is that a mix of these tools should be used in assessing the antioxidant activities in vitro. The proof of bio-efficacy must emanate from application of reliable in vivo models where markers of baseline oxidative damage are examined from the standpoint of how they are affected by changes in diet or by antioxidant supplements.
Chlorophyllone-A, a new pheophorbide – a related
- K Yamamoto
- K Ishikawa
- H Yagi
- A Etoh
- H Ina
, K., Yamamoto, K., Ishikawa, H., Yagi, A., Etoh, H., & Ina, K. (1990). Chlorophyllone-A, a new pheophorbide – a related