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Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233–247
Change of images of South Korea among foreign tourists after the
2002 FIFA World Cup
Samuel Seongseop Kim
a,
*, Alastair M. Morrsion
b
a
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143 747, South Korea
b
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, 1266 Stone Hall, Room 156, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1266, USA
Received 27 February 2003; accepted 1 November 2003
Abstract
This research empirically examined changes in the images of Korea over two points in time among Japanese, Mainland Chinese
and US visitors to South Korea. Between October 4 and November 10, 2002, about 3–4 months after the 2002 World Cup ended,
223 tourists from Japan, 143 from Mainland China and 173 from the US completed the survey instrument. According to the results
of paired t-tests, the visitors from all three countries had more positive images after than before the World Cup. The findings from
the ANCOVA tests indicated that the image changes due to the World Cup were different among the three nationalities. The
correspondence analyses results also showed that the image changes after the World Cup varied according to nationality,
educational level, age and occupation. Collectively, the study suggests that an internationally significant event can change the image
of a tourism destination in a short time period.
r2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: World Cup; Destination image; Event; Image modification
1. Introduction
Mega-sports events with international appeal provide
impressions of a host country to spectators from foreign
countries, television viewers and users of other informa-
tion media because, along with the sports events
themselves, a variety of social and cultural activities
supporting the events offer powerful opportunities to
promote the host country’s culture and traditions
(Allen, O’Toole, McDonnell, & Harris, 2002;Bramwell,
1997;Gamage & Higgs, 1996;Getz, 1997;Hall, 1987;
Mihalik & Simonetta, 1999). The 2002 FIFA World
Cup was held in both Korea and Japan from May 31 to
June 30, 2002. The World Cup was the first mega-event
to be held in Asia since the Seoul Olympics as well as the
first in the 21st century. This international soccer
tournament also drew more attention than before
because it was co-hosted by two rival countries, Korea
and Japan.
The World Cup had various impacts on Korean
society. First, according to a report of the economic
impacts of the 2002 World Cup, 230,000 foreign soccer
fans visited Korea during the period and spent US$2242
per person (Korea National Tourism Organization,
2002a). The direct effects of the total expenditures
produced US$1351 million of output, US$307 million of
income, 31,349 full-time equivalent jobs, US$71 million
of indirect taxes and US$713 million of value added
(Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002a). Addi-
tionally, the Samsung Economic Research Institute
(2002) reported that South Korea’s landmark victories
against strong European teams, including Italy, Spain,
Portugal and Poland, would create far-reaching eco-
nomic effects such as increased competitive power and
enhanced brand images for Korean goods. Korea’s
sovereign credit rating by Moody’s Investors Service
and Fitch Ratings was upgraded as soon as the World
Cup was over.
Second, the synergies of national unity were one of
the social benefits of the event. Street celebrations
brought out unity in a time of increasing individualism
among Koreans, especially among the younger genera-
tion (Samsung Economic Research Institute, 2002). It
ARTICLE IN PRESS
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-2-3408-3716; fax: +82-2-3408-
3312.
E-mail addresses: sskim@sejong.ac.kr (S.S. Kim),
alastair@cfs.purdue.edu (A.M. Morrsion).
0261-5177/$ - see front matter r2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.003
also added significant meaning to Korean society by
bringing different age groups together. Those in their
50s from the generation of industrialization came
together with the pro-democracy group in their 30s
and 40s and the individualists in their teens and 20s.
Many people acted as one despite their generational
differences. A record number of ‘Red Devils’, fans of the
Korean World Cup soccer team, staged outdoor
cheering events during matches in front of giant
television screens at plazas, parks, baseball stadiums
and other public places across the country. According to
the Korean National Police Agency, a combined total of
about 22 million Koreans gathered on the streets
nationwide to support the Korean team during its seven
World Cup matches (The Samsung Research Institute,
2002). The cheering fever was called the ‘‘Red Syn-
drome’’ because the cheering team wore T-shirts bearing
the slogan ‘‘Be the Red.’’ The Korean fans displayed
national fervour through street cheering for the Korean
soccer team. Thus, throughout the World Cup, the
passion, energy and enthusiasm of the supporters and
soccer players seemed to impress people around the
world (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002c).
Third, each host city arranged its own programme of
cultural events to entertain the domestic and interna-
tional fans that came to watch the games (Ministry of
Culture and Tourism, 2002). The Korean World Cup
Organization Committee worked closely with the 10
host cities to plan and schedule a series of cultural events
around the country. For example, FIFA World Cup
Plazas, which provided interesting and informal venues
for domestic and foreign visitors, were set up in eight of
the 10 host cities during the World Cup. Multi-cultural
festivals were held to celebrate the World Cup and,
during these festivals, hundreds of programs were
arranged to present the essence of the traditional
cultures of Korea and the other countries participating
in one of the world’s greatest soccer events. Information
about these events was passed on to visitors in Korea as
well as people abroad by television, newspapers,
magazines and the Internet.
According to a report by the FIFA Media Advisory,
the total viewing figures for the 2002 World Cup reached
28.8 billion with over 41,100 hours of dedicated pro-
gramming in 213 countries (www.fifa.com). Through
television and other mass media channels, information
about Korea was widely spread. Considered together,
these observations meant that the 2002 World Cup was
a significant enough international sports event to
potentially change the image of Korea.
The goal of this study was to empirically measure the
image of Korea before and after the World Cup as
perceived by foreign tourists who visited Korea 3–4
months after the World Cup. More specifically, the
objectives were to: (1) identify differences in the
perceived images of Korea among Japanese, Chinese
and US tourists before and after the 2002 World Cup;
(2) to examine the mean differences in image changes of
Korea, brand value for Korean products and the level of
familiarity with Korea through hosting the 2002 World
Cup among the three national groups after holding the
effects of the number of visits to Korea, the level of
awareness about Korea before the 2002 World Cup and
the number of matches respondents watched on TV; and
(3) to explore the relationships among respondents’
nationalities, ages, educational levels and occupations
and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.
In essence, this study attempted to investigate the
dynamics of national image change from the hosting
of this international soccer event.
2. Literature review
According to Pike’s (2002) study, more than 142
articles about tourism destination image have been
published in international tourism journals or proceed-
ings of major conferences since 1973. This wealth of
papers confirms there is a consensus on the importance
and usefulness of the study of destination image (Pike,
2002).
Among the numerous image studies, some have found
differences in image perceptions between pre-visitors
and post-visitors (Chon, 1991); before and after trips
(Andreu, Bigne, & Cooper, 2000;Chaudhary, 2000;
Pearce, 1982a,b;Phelps, 1986); before and after
advertising campaigns (Perry, Izraeli, & Perry, 1976);
between first-time and repeat visitors (Crompton,
Fakeye, & Lue, 1992;Fakeye & Crompton, 1991;
Phelps, 1986); between visitors and non-visitors (Fakeye
& Crompton, 1991;Hu & Ritchie, 1993); before and
after internationally significant political events (Gartner
& Shen, 1992); and between ideal and actual images
(Botha, Crompton, & Kim, 1999;Crompton, 1979;
Ross, 1993). Table 1 provides a summary of empirical
studies on perceptions of image change of a tourism
destination.
A summary of major studies on differences in image
perceptions follows. Gunn (1972) explained a traveller’s
experience process on the basis of seven stages indicating
an imagery modification process. This includes the
accumulation of mental images about the vacation
experience (1st stage), modification of those images by
further information (2nd stage), the decision to take a
vacation trip (3rd stage), travel to the destination (4th
stage), participation at the destination (5th stage), return
travel (6th stage) and new accumulation of images based
on the experience (7th stage). As a result, Gunn
suggested that a tourism destination image could be
modified or changed over the seven stages. He suggested
that destination images are conceptualised at two levels:
organic and induced images. That is, an organic image is
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Table 1
A review of empirical studies on image changes of tourism destinations
Authors Subjects and study
region
Analytical methods Measurement point
in time
Major factor of
image change
Findings
Perry, Izrael, and
Perry (1976)
Israeli residents in
Canada; Canada,
US the Alps,
Switzerland, Italy,
England and
France
Frequency
analysis,
correlation
analysis, perceptual
map by the smallest
space analysis
Two mail surveys
to same sample
(pre- and post-
promotional
campaign)
Promotional
campaign
They examined the image
changes of Canada at two points
in time as the result of a
promotional campaign over a
5-month period. Changes for a
few items indicating Canada’s
image were found after the
promotional campaign
Crompton (1979) US tourists;
Mexico
Unstructured
method
One mail survey to
one sample group
Actual tour Ideal images and actual images
of Mexico as a holiday
destination were significantly
different
Chon(1991) US tourists; Korea Factor analysis,
t-test
Two mail surveys
to different sample
groups
Actual tour Post-visitors tended to show
more positive perceptions of the
image of Korea than pre-visitors
Pearce (1982a,b) British tourists;
Greece and
Morocco
Repertory grid
analysis
Two mail surveys
to same sample
Actual tour Tourists’ perceptions of post-
travel images of Greece and
Morocco were different from
those of pre-travel images of the
two countries
Phelps (1986) Tourists; Minorca Rank order,
frequency analysis,
discriminant
analysis
Two mail surveys
to same sample
Actual tour This study compared perceived
images of Minorca between first-
time and returning visitors.
Results indicated a large gap in
image changes for a few
attribute items between the two
groups
Gartner (1986) US residents; 4 US
states
t-test Two mail surveys
to same sample
Seasonality and
environmental
change
This study found temporal
influences on respondents’ image
changes due to seasonal
differences and changes of
environment
Fakeye and
Crompton (1991)
US tourists; the
Lower Rio Grande
Valley in Texas
Factor analysis,
one-way ANOVA
One mail survey
each to three
different sample
groups
Tour experience They found differences on five
extracted image factors among
non-visitors, first-time visitors
and repeat visitors in the images
of the Lower Rio Grande Valley
in Texas
Gartner and Shen
(1992)
US citizens; China t-test Two mail surveys
to same sample
(Pre- and post-
Tiananmen
Square)
Tiananmen Square
conflict
They found that respondents
showed higher levels of negative
perceptions of the touristic
attributes of China after the
Tiananmen Square conflict
compared to before the event
Ross (1993) Backpacker
visitors; north
Australia
Comparison of
ranks among
attributes of ideal
and actual images
One mail survey to
one sample group
Actual tour This study reported that there
was a gap between the ideal and
actual images of north Australia
as a backpacker destination
Hu and Ritchie
(1993)
Canadian
residents; Hawaii,
Australia, Greece,
France, China
One-way ANOVA,
t-tests
One telephone
interview survey to
one sample group
Tour experience Those who had more tour
experience to a tourism
destination indicated more
positive responses on image
items than non-visitors
Andreu, Bigne, and
Cooper (2000)
British tourists;
Spain
Frequency analysis One mail survey to
one sample group
Actual tour They found differences in British
tourists’ perceptions on
projected and perceived images
of Spain
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 235
formed by non-tourism market-oriented information,
whereas an induced image is formed by efforts of
marketers through advertising and promotions (Cromp-
ton et al., 1992;Fakeye & Crompton, 1991;Gunn, 1972).
Perry et al. (1976) investigated the image change of
Canada as a tourism destination as a result of a
promotional campaign conducted over a 5-month
period. Respondents indicated that after the promo-
tional campaign their perceptions of Canada changed
on items such as ‘Canada is a boring country,’ and ‘the
ease of accessibility,’ and ‘cheaper transportation
through Canada to the U.S.’ However, even after the
promotional campaign, perceptions of Canada did not
change on, ‘Canada is a good place to ski,’ ‘it has many
business opportunities,’ and ‘it is a huge country.’ In
addition, the study found that after the advertising
campaign to improve Canada’s image was completed,
respondents indicated they had better images of Canada
than they had before the promotional campaign. This
study concluded that the image of a country could be
modified by advertising efforts.
In a study of images of Mexico as a potential
destination for US tourists, Crompton (1979) reported
that the ideal images and actual images of Mexico as a
holiday destination were significantly different. For
example, negative perceptions were found in a compar-
ison of Mexico’s actual and ideal destination images
related to climate and low cost. Crompton suggested
that the larger the gap between actual and ideal images,
the less was the likelihood that a potential US tourist
would make a decision to travel to Mexico.
Chon (1991) investigated how American tourists’
perceptions of Korea changed through the 4th stage
and 6th stages in the traveller’s experience process, as
suggested by Gunn (1972). His study found significant
differences in the perceptions of the image of Korea
between pre-visitors and post-visitors. Post-visitors
showed more positive perceptions of the national image
of Korea than pre-visitors.
Pearce (1982a,b) investigated whether tourists to
Greece and Morocco had different images of these
countries after their trips. His study revealed changes in
tourists’ perceptions of these countries as a holiday
tourism destination. For example, tourists to Greece
considered the country’s holiday environment to be
more adventurous, better for cheap shopping and freer
from other tourists than they did before their travel.
Phelps (1986) found differences in the images of
Minorca between first-time and returning visitors. For
example, first-time visitors had images of Minorca as
having Spanish-like holiday features such as large
hotels, olive groves, disco and flamenco dancing,
whereas returning visitors did not have dominant
perceptions of these image items. In a comparison of
expected and perceived images of Minorca, respondents
believed that the island was less commercialised, quieter,
greener and less populated than expected, while the
weather was hotter than anticipated. Thus, Phelps’
study concluded that there was a gap between expected
and perceived images in Minorca’s case. Finally, the
study suggested that false images of a country could be
modified by consistent promotional efforts.
Gartner (1986) found that the images of states in the
US as perceived by tourists showed minor changes
between November 10, 1982 and February 25, 1983. He
suggested that advertising or promotions can be
effective in modifying image even over a short-term
period because images are sensitive to seasonality and
changes of environment.
Fakeye and Crompton (1991) explored differences
among non-visitors, first-time visitors and repeat visitors
in images of the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas.
Significant differences among the three groups were
found on five extracted image factors. For example,
repeat visitors perceived the highest level of image on the
social opportunities and attractions factor, followed by
first-time visitors and non-visitors. In addition, they
extended Gunn’s (1972) concept of two levels of
destination image (organic and induced images) by
adding a complex image, which is achieved after the
actual travel to a destination.
A study conducted by Gartner and Shen (1992)
attempted to investigate whether the Tiananmen Square
conflict, which occurred in June 1989, affected China’s
tourism destination image by comparing the images
before and after the event. They found that US citizens
showed more negative perceptions of the attributes of
China as a tourism destination after the event compared
to before the conflict. They concluded that an interna-
tional event could have an effect on a country’s image.
In a study of ideal and actual images of backpackers
to Northern Australia, Ross (1993) reported that high
levels of ideal destination images were found on the
friendliness of local residents, high quality tourist
information and easily available accommodation,
whereas high levels of actual destination images were
found on the varied physical environment, friendly local
residents and the destination’s authenticity. It was
concluded that there was a gap between the ideal and
actual images of north Australia as a tourism destination.
Andreu et al. (2000) explored differences between
projected and perceived images of Spain in the British
market. They argued that the projected image of a
tourism destination is transmitted through the promo-
tion or advertising efforts by tourist destination bodies
and tour operators as well as news and information
about the destination, while perceived image is gener-
ated from previous knowledge and direct experience.
They empirically found that differences existed between
projected and perceived images of Spain.
In summary, these studies have concluded that images
measured over one or two points in time can vary
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through the influence of such factors as actual travel
experiences with a tourism destination, the amount and
kind of information or promotional efforts and changes
in the political or social environments. Other factors can
directly influence or mediate the perceived image of a
tourism destination. The factors include nationality
(Kozak, 2002;MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000), socio-
demographic variables (Jenkins, 1999;Stabler, 1988),
the level of awareness about or familiarity with a
tourism destination (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002;
Baloglu, 2001) and the role of promotional media
(Gunn, 1972;Jenkins, 1999).
Previous empirical studies identifying that the per-
ceived images or attractiveness of tourism destinations
differ according nationality are especially limited
(Kozak, 2002;MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Therefore,
this study was designed to explore the relationship
existing between nationality and perceived image
changes. As discussed above, some studies (Jenkins,
1999;Stabler, 1988) have suggested that perceived image
changes are likely to be different according to socio-
demographic variables. However, there has been a lack
of an effort to examine these relationships empirically.
This study attempted to find whether or not perceived
image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup
varied with gender, educational level and occupation.
This study was designed to identify the mediating
effects of the number of visits to Korea, the level of
awareness about Korea before the 2002 World Cup and
the number of matches respondents watched on TV in
exploring relationship between nationalities and image
changes of Korea after the World Cup. This effort of
identifying the role of mediating effects of these three
factors is an extension of findings of previous studies,
which have suggested that images are affected by these
factors.
Finally, the 2002 World Cup was an international
soccer event of such scope as to modify the image of
Korea as a host country. The images of Korea among
foreign tourists before the World Cup may have been
different from those after the event. Unfortunately,
there is an absence of empirical studies dealing with
effects of a sporting mega-event on the image changes of
a host country. This research empirically investigated
changes in the images of Korea before and after the 2002
World Cup using three different national tourist groups
to South Korea.
3. Methodology
3.1. Measurement
Twenty-one items representing the image of Korea
were generated based on a literature review on the image
of a region or nation as a tourism destination (Ahn, Var,
& Kim, 1989;Chen & Hsu, 2001;Chon, 1991;Fakeye &
Crompton, 1991;Goodrich, 1978;Kim, 1999;Kim,
Crompton, & Botha, 2000;Korea National Tourism
Organization, 2002c;Lee, 1997). Additionally, since this
study was concerned with the image of Korea before
and after the World Cup, items such as ‘‘Korea is one of
the major sports powers,’’ ‘‘Korea hosts a wide variety
of festivals and events,’’ and ‘‘Korea is a passionate
nation’’ were included. A pretest, involving a sample of
50 doctoral and Master’s students majoring in hospital-
ity and tourism, was conducted to refine the list of image
items.
Items relating to the image of Korea were measured
by having respondents indicate their agreement–dis-
agreement with statements describing tourism attributes
of Korea that might be differently perceived after the
2002 World Cup. More specifically, respondents were
asked: ‘‘We would like to know the image of Korea you
perceived before the 2002 World Cup. For each
statement below, please circle the number that you
agree with best on items of the image of Korea.’’ For
example, one image item was ‘‘Korea is a calm
country.’’ Then, respondents were presented with a
7-point Likert scale [strongly disagree (l)-neutral
(4)-strongly agree (7)]. The same items were used
for perceived images of Korea after the World Cup.
The impacts of the 2002 World Cup on perceptions of
the brand values of Korean products and the level of
familiarity of Korea were operationalised by the
questions, ‘‘Do you think the brand value of Korean
products increased after the 2002 World Cup?’’ and ‘‘Do
you think the level of familiarity with Korea after the
2002 World Cup increased?’’ The questions were
followed by 5-point Likert scales [strongly disagree (1),
probably disagree (2), neutral (3), probably agree (4),
strongly agree (5)]. The perceived image change of
Korea after the 2002 World Cup was operationalized by
the question, ‘‘Do you think overall image of Korea was
changed after the 2002 World Cup?’’ Responses to the
question were recorded on a nominal scale [changed
negatively (1), the same (2), changed positively (3)]. The
responses on the number of visit to Korea were
measured with an open-ended question. A question on
level of awareness about Korea before the World Cup
was operationalised by the question, ‘‘Were you aware
about Korea well before the 2002 World Cup?’’ The
question was followed by a 5-point Likert-type scale
[strongly disagree (1), probably disagree (2), neutral (3),
probably agree (4), strongly agree (5)]. The responses on
the number of matches respondents watched on TV
were in four categories [0 game (1), 1–4 games (2), 5–8
games (3), 9–12 games, (4), 13 games or above (5)].
Since the respondents were Japanese, Mainland
Chinese and US tourists, the Korean questionnaire
was translated into Japanese, Chinese and English.
During the translation process, various people with
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S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 237
knowledge of the languages involved were consulted.
For the Japanese version, two Korean–Japanese citizens
and a professional Japanese translator were consulted.
The original Korean questionnaire was translated and
then the original meanings were discussed compared to
the translated Japanese version. The Chinese version
was referred to three Korean–Chinese citizens and one
Chinese resident of Korea. Finally, for the English
version, two Korean–American citizens and two Amer-
ican professors living in Korea were consulted. The
original Korean questionnaire was translated and
then the original meanings were discussed compared to
the translated English version. Then, in a meeting of the
seven overseas Korean residents who participated in
the translation process, each of the language versions
was translated back to Korean. This was done to
compare the accuracy of the translated version with that
of the original Korean version. After this meeting,
questionnaires in each of the three languages were
developed.
3.2. Data collection
The data used in this study were collected from
tourists to South Korea between October 4 and
November 10, 2002, about 3–4 months after the 2002
World Cup ended. The sample for the study was
composed of Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US
visitors to Korea, because they are the three major
national visitor origin groups to Korea, representing
approximately 43.2%, 10.3% and 8.8%, respectively, of
all visitors (Korea National Tourism Organization,
2002b).
The primary data were collected by personal inter-
views using a standardized instrument with a conve-
nience sampling procedure. This procedure was used
because of the number of people available for inter-
viewing, the inability to use a probability sample
especially because of the lack of availability of a known
sampling frame and the study’s resource limitations
(Parasuraman, 1986). Efforts of the interviews involved
an on-site, self-administered questionnaire to those
sitting and waiting in restaurants before their departure
processing at the Incheon International Airport.
Also questioned were tourists who asked for tourism
information at six major Tourism Centres in Seoul.
A total of 617 usable questionnaires were collected, for
230 Japanese, 190 Mainland Chinese and 197 US
tourists, respectively. However, the questionnaires of
respondents who visited Korea during the World Cup
had to be excluded, because the images of Korea formed
through direct experiences during the World Cup might
influence the images during subsequent visits. Finally,
223 questionnaires from Japanese, 143 from Mainland
Chinese and 173 from US tourists were used for the
statistical analyses.
3.3. Analysis
Each set of 21 images of Korea for the three
nationalities was factor analysed to define the under-
lying dimensions. On the basis of the Kaiser (1974)
criterion, only factors with eigenvalues greater than one
were retained. In addition, only items with factor
loadings and communalities of greater than 0.4 were
included in the final factor structure. Cronbach’s alpha
values within each dimension were calculated to confirm
the factor’s internal consistency. Paired t-tests were used
to identify mean differences in the extracted images
before and after the 2002 World Cup.
ANCOVA tests were used to find mean differences in
three dependent variables (perception on image change
of Korea after the 2002 World Cup, perception on
brand value of Korean products after the 2002 World
Cup and perception of the level of familiarity with
Korea after the 2002 World Cup) among respondents
from the three different nationalities, after holding the
number of visits to Korea, the level of awareness of
Korea before the 2002 World Cup and the number of
matches respondents watched on TV as the three
covariates. The ANCOVA test is more powerful than
a one-way ANOVA because removing predictable
variance associated with covariate(s) from the error
term (Stevens, 1990) increases the power of an F test for
a main effect or interaction.
The theoretical reasons for the inclusion of the
number of visits to Korea as a covariate can be
supported by the results of previous empirical image
studies, which have found that images of tourism
destinations were affected by the number of visits to
the destinations (Andreu et al., 2000;Chon, 1991;Hu &
Ritchie, 1993;Pearce, 1982a,b;Phelps, 1986;Ross,
1993). Likewise, the level of awareness of a destination is
similar to the number of visits because awareness can be
developed through the experience of visits to the
destination (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002;Baloglu,
2001). Another way that the level of awareness of a
destination can be influenced by induced image forma-
tion is through promotional information or mass media
(Gunn, 1972;Jenkins, 1999). Thus, the number of visits
to Korea, the level of awareness of Korea before the
World Cup and the number of matches respondents
watched on TV were likely to mediate relationship
between three treatment groups (different nationalities)
and the three dependent variables. Thus the effects of
the three covariates on the dependent variables were
considered by holding them as covariates through the
ANCOVA procedures.
As some image studies (Pearce, 1982a,b;Phelps, 1986;
Stabler, 1988) have indicated, results from assessments
of image change may be influenced by the socio-
demographic characteristics of the sample of respon-
dents chosen, such as age, income, educational level and
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gender. In this study, correspondence analysis was used
to identify difference in image changes of Korea after
the 2002 World Cup among the three national groups by
gender, age and educational level. Correspondence
analysis was selected because it is a technique that can
handle problems of spatial configuration with catego-
rical data and allows the researcher to portray two sets
of data points simultaneously in a joint space (Calan-
tone, Benedetto, Hakam, & Bojanic, 1989). The
graphical output from correspondence analysis offers a
distinct pattern that facilitates further investigation of
the differences among diverse groups with respect to the
characteristics of activities and perceptions of an object
(Malhotra, 1996).
4. Results
4.1. Demographic profile of respondents
For all three national visitor origins, the proportion
of males was higher than for females. Individuals under
the age of 39 represented the majority of respondents for
the three groups, ranging from 60.5% to 67.7%. Most
of the Japanese and US respondents were college
graduates (54.2% and 61.8%, respectively), whereas
the Mainland Chinese respondents had a higher
proportion of senior high school graduates (49.3%).
The main purpose of visit to Korea for all three national
groups was pleasure and most of the respondents were
visiting Korea for the first time. The US tourists had a
longer length of stay in Korea than the other two
national tourist groups. The Japanese and Mainland
Chinese respondents watched a larger number of the
matches on television than their US counterparts.
Detailed information on the demographic profiles of
respondents is presented in Table 2.
4.2. Factor analysis of the image scale
As shown in Table 3, the factor analysis of the 21
image items identified five underlying domains. These
domains were labelled: (1) various tourism resources;
(2) negative image; (3) stability; (4) passionate image;
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Table 2
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Variables Categories Japanese tourists
ðn¼223Þ
Mainland Chinese
tourists ðn¼143Þ
US
tourists ðn¼173Þ
Gender Male 65.9% 67.4% 73.0%
Female 33.2% 32.6% 27.0%
Age Less than 20 30.1% 13.9% 26.4%
20–29 18.6% 18.8% 27.6%
30–39 19.0% 27.8% 17.8%
40–49 15.9% 26.4% 18.4%
50 or more 16.4% 13.2% 9.8%
Education level Junior high school 5.8% 10.6% 6.4%
Senior high school 30.7% 49.3% 27.2%
University students 9.3% 9.2% 4.6%
University graduate 50.2% 30.3% 52.6%
Post graduate school 4.0% 0.7% 9.2%
Purpose of visit Pleasure trip 56.4% 60.4% 58.6%
Friends/relatives 3.6% 2.8% 9.8%
Convention 3.1% 2.8% 9.8%
Business 5.3% 10.4% 15.5%
Events/festivals 25.8% 20.5% 1.7%
Others 5.8% 3.1% 4.6%
Number of nights spent in Korea 1–2 nights 0% 3.6% 1.1%
3–4 nights 40.3% 54.7% 14.9%
5–6 nights 37.5% 25.3% 44.8%
7 nights or more 22.2% 16.4% 39.1%
Total number of visit to Korea One time 55.2% 79.7% 71.3%
Two times 22.7% 11.2% 19.1%
Three times 10.2% 7.6% 5.2%
Four times or more 11.9% 2.1% 4.0%
Number of matches watched on TV 0 match 5.3% 1.1% 6.9%
1–4 matches 12.0% 29.5% 39.1%
5–8 matches 28.0% 36.4% 35.6%
Nine matches or above 54.7% 33.0% 18.4%
Watched games in Korea Yes 0% 0% 0%
No 100% 100% 100%
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 239
and (5) industrial products. All factors had eigenvalues
greater than one and explained 67.6% of the total
variance. All factors had high reliability coefficients
ranging from 0.70 to 0.87. Moreover, with all factor
loadings being greater than 0.54, this indicated a
reasonably high correlation between the factors and
their individual items.
The first factor of various tourism resources consisted
of six items and has been found in most studies of
destination image. The negative image factor contained
six items, representing negative perspectives of Korea.
The third factor included five items, which all reflected
aspects of political stability, safety, or security. The
fourth factor was composed of five items, representing
national passion and energy. The final factor contained
two items related to attributes of Korean advanced
industrial goods.
4.3. Paired t-tests comparing images of Korea before and
after the 2002 World Cup
Paired t-tests were performed on each national group
to identify if there were significant differences in the
overall images of Korea before and after the 2002 World
Cup. The results of the paired t-tests reported in Table 4
showed that there were significant enhancements in
Korea’s image for the four positive factors. Addition-
ally, the mean for the negative image factor significantly
decreased. The greatest positive modifications in images
of Korea after the World Cup occurred among the
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Table 3
Principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation for images of Korea
Image domains and items Factor loadings Communalities
12345
Various tourism resources
Korea has unique cultural resources. 0.87 0.82
Korea is rich in historic and heritage tourism resources. 0.85 0.78
Korea has successfully preserved its traditions. 0.82 0.81
Korea has natural beauty. 0.74 0.64
Korea has a wide variety of tourist attractions. 0.71 0.60
The tourist industry is advanced in Korea. 0.51 0.54
Negative image
Korea is a weak (powerless) nation. 0.75 0.69
Korea is a trivial nation. 0.71 0.62
Disorder is prevalent in Korea. 0.72 0.63
Korea is a small nation. 0.68 0.71
Korea is a calm nation. 0.52 0.72
Korea has become a poor nation due to the Korean financial 0.45 0.71
Crisis of 1997–1998.
Stability
Korea is exposed to danger of aggression from North Korea.
a
0.79 0.70
Korea is run democratically. 0.67 0.66
It is safe to travel within Korea. 0.66 0.72
Korea is politically stable. 0.41 0.61
Korea maintains social stability. 0.40 0.75
Passionate image
Korea has an impressive image. 0.81 0.67
Korea is a passionate nation. 0.77 0.66
Korea has been changing very fast. 0.71 0.63
Korea hosts a wide variety of festivals and events. 0.70 0.55
Korea is one of the major sports Powers (countries). 0.75 0.65
Industrial products
The telecommunication industry is advanced in Korea. 0.81 0.70
Products made in Korea are of excellent quality. 0.78 0.67
Eigenvalue 5.69 5.40 2.13 1.87 1.13
Variance explained 23.7 22.5 8.9 7.8 4.7
Reliability coefficient 0.87 0.70 0.71 0.75 0.80
a
Reverse coded.
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247240
Mainland Chinese and Japanese respondents, while the
image changes for the five factors among US tourists
were significant but not as great.
4.4. Analysis of covariance for the impacts of the World
Cup on image changes of Korea, enhancement of brand
value of Korean products and enhancement of familiarity
with Korea
ANCOVA tests were used to investigate image
changes of Korea among the three national groups
after holding three covariates, number of visit to Korea,
the level of awareness about Korea before the World
Cup and the number of matches respondents watched
on TV. According to the ANCOVA results reported in
Table 5, nationality had a differential effect on image
changes of Korea after the World Cup because the main
effect was significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the image
changes of Korea after the World Cup were different
among the three nationalities. The ANCOVA results
were similar to those of paired t-tests, which showed
differences in image changes of Korea among the three
nationalities. The level of awareness of Korea before the
World Cup and number of matches respondents
watched on TV as covariates were significant at the
0.001 or the 0.05 level, respectively. This means that
those who were more aware of Korea before the World
Cup and watched more World Cup soccer matches on
TV showed more positive image change of Korea after
the event. The results of a Duncan’s multiple range test
showed a significant difference in image changes bet-
ween the Mainland Chinese and US visitors (Table 8).
The Mainland Chinese had a significantly larger positive
image change of Korea after the World Cup.
The results of the ANCOVA test to assess the
perceived enhancement of the brand value of Korean
products after the World Cup among the three national
groups are reported in Table 6. The main effect was
significant at the 0.001 level, indicating the three
national groups differently perceived the enhancement
of brand value of Korean products after the World Cup.
All three covariates were significant at 0.001, showing
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Table 4
Paired t-test for comparison between images of Korea before and after the 2002 WorldCup
National groups Image factors and items Mean for images
before the 2002
World Cup
Mean for images
after the 2002
World Cup
Paired T-value P-value
Japanese tourists ðn¼224ÞVarious tourism resources 4.47 4.86 10.41 0.000
Negative image 3.24 2.82 10.89 0.000
Stability 4.06 4.54 13.20 0.000
Passionate image 4.38 5.22 17.78 0.000
Industrial products 4.62 5.40 13.69 0.000
Mainland Chinese tourists
ðn¼143Þ
Various tourism resources 4.14 4.61 10.13 0.000
Negative image 3.33 2.89 10.03 0.000
Stability 4.24 4.75 10.62 0.000
Passionate image 4.22 5.24 17.28 0.000
Industrial products 5.22 5.54 4.20 0.000
US tourists ðn¼174ÞVarious tourism resources 4.25 4.65 7.95 0.000
Negative image 4.26 3.85 8.74 0.000
Stability 3.82 4.13 6.82 0.000
Passionate image 4.14 4.82 11.04 0.000
Industrial products 4.06 4.52 7.97 0.000
7-point Likert-type scale: strongly disagree (1)—neutral (4)—strongly agree (7)
Table 5
Results of analysis of covariance for image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup
Source of variation Sum of squares d.f. Mean square F-value P-value
Covariate (number of visits to Korea) 0.00 1 0.00 0.01 0.920
Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) 6.15 1 6.15 24.17 0.000
Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) 2.09 1 2.09 8.22 0.004
Main effect (three nationalities) 1.43 2 0.72 3.00 0.050
Explained 13.07 5 2.62 10.27
Jlesidual 132.41 520 0.26
Total 145.48 525
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 241
the covariates had an effect on perceptions of the brand
value of Korean products after the World Cup among
the three different national groups. The Duncan’s
multiple range results in Table 8 showed a significant
difference between the Mainland Chinese and the
Japanese and US visitors. More specifically, the Main-
land Chinese respondents had the highest mean score
for the enhancement of the brand value of Korean
products after the World Cup.
The ANCOVA test to identify differences in the level
of familiarity with Korea after the World Cup was
significant at the 0.05 level (Table 7). This indicates that
the three national tourist groups had different levels of
familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup. The
two covariates of level of awareness of Korea before the
World Cup and the number of matches respondents
watched on TV were significant at the 0.001 level. The
Duncan’s multiple range test (Table 8) indicated there
was a significant difference between the Mainland
Chinese and Japanese and US respondents. The Main-
land Chinese and Japanese had higher levels of
familiarity with Korea after the World Cup.
4.5. Relationships among the three national groups and
image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup
The correspondence analysis results in Fig. 1 provide
graphical information of the principal coordinates
of the three national groups and perceived image
changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup in a
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Table 7
Results of analysis of covariance for perception of level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup
Source of variation Sum of squares d.f. Mean square F-value P-value
Covariate (number of visits to Korea) 0.39 1 0.39 0.88 0.348
Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) 15.63 1 15.63 35.85 0.000
Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) 19.48 1 19.48 44.67 0.000
Main effect (three nationalities) 2.31 2 1.16 3.03 0.050
Explained 68.98 5 13.80 31.64
Residual 226.74 520 0.44
Total 295.72 525
Table 6
Results of analysis of covariance for perception of brand value of Korean productsafter the 2002 World Cup
Source of variation Sum of squares d.f. Mean square F-value P-value
Covariate (number of visits to Korea) 4.78 1 4.78 11.07 0.001
Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) 13.19 1 13.19 30.58 0.000
Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) 14.74 1 14.74 34.15 0.000
Main effect (three nationalities) 5.02 2 2.51 5.82 0.003
Explained 38.72 5 7.75 17.95
Residual 224.39 520 0.43
Total 263.11 525
Table 8
Results of one-way ANOVAs and Duncan’s tests to identify image changes, brandvalues and levels of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World
Cup
Japanese
tourists
ðn¼224Þ
Mainland
chinese
tourists
ðn¼143Þ
US
tourists
ðn¼174Þ
Fvalue Pvalue
Do you think overall image of Korea changed after the 2002 World Cup?
a
2.50ab 2.60b 2.43a 3.94 0.020
Do you think brand value of Korean products increased after the 2002 World Cup?
b
3.30a 3.49b 3.26a 4.65 0.010
Do you think level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup increased?
b
4.04b 3.99b 3.56a 23.34 0.000
a and b indicate the source of significant mean differences (b>a).
a
Nominal scale, changed negatively (1)—the same (2)—changed positively (3).
b
7-point Likert scale, strongly disagree (1)—neutral (3)—strongly agree (5).
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247242
two-dimensional solution. The first two principal com-
ponents together explained 89.5% of the variance, with
62.1% of the variance for the first dimension and 27.4%
of the variance for the second dimension. The results of
the correspondence analysis can be interpreted in terms of
the proximity of the three national groups and perceived
image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup in the
joint space. As Fig. 1 shows, the Mainland Chinese
respondents indicated positive image changes of Korea,
while the images of US respondents were more similar
before and after the World Cup in Korea.
4.6. Relationship between educational level and perceived
image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between gender and
image changes. The two dimensions accounted for
95.3% of the variance, with 66.1% for the first and
29.2% of the variance for the second dimension.
Respondents with university graduate school experience
reported positive image changes of Korea. Meanwhile,
respondents with high school or less education indicated
that they perceived the image of Korea as being the
same after as before the 2002 World Cup.
4.7. Relationship between age and perceived image
changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup
The principal coordinates of the three national groups
and the five age categories are plotted in Fig. 3. The two
dimensions collectively explained 90.1% of the variance,
with 69.1% for the first and 21.0% of the variance for
the second dimension. The joint display revealed that
those in their 50s and 60s or above had similar images of
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Fig. 2. Correspondence analysis between educational levels and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.
Fig. 1. Correspondence analysis between three national groups and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 243
Korea before and after the World Cup. The respondents
in their 20s had positive image changes of Korea after
the World Cup.
4.8. Relationship between occupational level and
perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World
Cup
Fig. 4 shows the relationship between perceived image
changes of image of Korea and occupational levels. The
two dimensions collectively accounted for 88.9% of the
variance, with 61.2% for the first and 27.7% of the
variance for the second dimension. Salespersons, com-
pany employees and businessmen had similar images of
Korea before and after the World Cup. However, civil
servants and technicians had more positive images of
Korea after the World Cup.
5. Implications and conclusions
The goal of this study was to empirically examine the
image changes of South Korea as perceived by Japanese,
Mainland Chinese and US tourists as a result of hosting
the 2002 World Cup. The findings and implications of
this study will be helpful to the Korean government in
establishing tourism policies to effectively attract foreign
tourists after the 2002 World Cup. In addition, the
research should be of interest to academics that want to
understand the impact of an internationally known
event on the image change of the host country and the
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Fig. 4. Correspondence analysis between occupation and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.
Fig. 3. Correspondence analysis between age and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247244
factors affecting image change. The major findings and
their marketing implications are as follows.
First, significant differences were found for the five
image factors before and after the World Cup for the
three national tourist groups. The visitors from all three
countries had more positive images after than before the
World Cup. This seems to suggest that the 2002 World
Cup contributed to an improvement in the image of
South Korea as a tourism destination.
Second, due to recent media coverage, prospective
foreign visitors might consider travel to South Korea to
be threatening or unsafe because of the danger of
potential aggression from North Korea. However, this
study’s results indicated that all three national tourist
groups were less concerned about safety, including the
threat of aggression from North Korea, after the World
Cup. These results could be helpful in reducing the levels
of anxiety and in more effectively promoting the notion
that South Korea is a safe tourism destination.
Third, the three national groups had higher levels of
disagreement with the negative statements about South
Korea after than before the World Cup. Stated in
another way, the respondents had higher levels of
agreement with the negative statements before the
World Cup; including being a small nation, a poor
country due to the Korean financial crisis of 1997–1998,
a trivial nation, a calm nation and a weak (powerless)
country.
Fourth, the images of the three groups after the
World Cup were consistently the most positive for
the various tourism resources factor, which reflected the
variety and uniqueness of Korea’s tourism resources.
While other factors may be involved, it appears that the
2002 World Cup effectively contributed to enhancing
the image of Korea as an attractive tourism destination.
Fifth, according to results of correspondence ana-
lyses, Mainland Chinese tourists, those with university
educations or in their 20s, civil servants, technicians and
housewives, had more positive images of Korea after the
2002 World Cup. In contrast, American tourists, those
with education levels of high school or less or in their
50s or above and sales workers, company employees and
businessmen, reported had similar images of Korea
before and after the 2002 World Cup was held in Korea.
This information should be helpful to the Korean
government in establishing marketing strategies to
attract foreign tourists after the World Cup.
The results of this study are also expected to
contribute to the literature on destination image. There
were different image changes among three nationalities
and this corresponds with the results of previous
empirical studies (Kozak, 2002;MacKay & Fesenmaier,
2000). The results confirm that foreign tourists are not
homogenous and thus differentiated marketing strate-
gies need to be applied according to nationality, both in
terms of promotions and in product development.
The mediating effects of the level of awareness about
Korea before the World Cup and the number of
matches respondents watched on TV as covariates were
found in investigating the relationship of perceived
image changes and nationality. The results indicated
that respondents who were more aware about Korea
before the World Cup and exposed to more of the
matches through TV, had more positive image change
and enhanced levels of familiarity of Korea after the
World Cup. These findings are consistent with those of
previous studies that have discussed the association
between perceptions of positive image and levels of
awareness (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002;Baloglu,
2001) and the amount of promotional media (Gunn,
1972;Jenkins, 1999).
Many previous studies have suggested that the
number of visits is likely to affect destination images
(Andreu et al., 2000;Chon, 1991;Fakeye & Crompton,
1991;Hu & Ritchie, 1993;Pearce, 1982a,b;Phelps, 1986;
Ross, 1993). However, the results of this study did not
provide further support because the number of visits to
Korea was not significant as a covariate in investigating
the relationship between nationality and image changes.
Additionally, the number of visits to Korea did not play
a role as a covariate in affecting the relationship between
nationality and levels of familiarity of Korea after the
2002 World Cup. The findings did not indicate a clear
relationship between the number of visits to Korea,
image changes of Korea and the level of familiarity with
Korea after the 2002 World Cup. Future research is
needed to further investigate the role of the number of
visits in affecting image changes of tourism destinations.
The correspondence analyses results indicated that
image changes of Korea after the World Cup varied
with nationality, educational level, age and occupation.
The findings are consistent with previous studies, which
have suggested the influence of socio-demographic
variables on destination images (Pearce, 1982a,b;
Phelps, 1986;Stabler, 1988).
Finally, the results support those of previous studies
that have suggested the image of a tourism destination
can be changed and thus that image formation is a
dynamic process (Chon, 1991;Gartner, 1986;Gartner &
Shen, 1992;Pearce, 1982a,b;Perry et al. 1976;Schreyer
& Beaulieu, 1986). In contrast, this study’s results
contradict some previous studies, which have argued
that the overall image of a tourism destination does not
fluctuate much over time, even though components of
image may be changeable (Crompton, 1979;Crompton
& Lamb, 1986;Gartner & Hunt, 1987).
This study suggests that an internationally significant
event can change the image of a tourism destination in a
short time period. Moreover, the results indicate the
2002 World Cup may have caused temporal changes in
the overall national image of South Korea. However,
there is a need to investigate whether or not these image
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.S. Kim, A.M. Morrsion / Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233– 247 245
modifications are stable or will return to their previous
levels over a longer time period. This study suggests that
tourism destination images can be enhanced positively
through international events and actual visits. Future
research is needed to understand whether image changes
occur due to negative events such as wars, terrorism and
other conflicts, health problems and worsening econom-
ic conditions.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Miss Sunyoung Oh for her
efforts to collect data.
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