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A phytosterol database: Fatty foods consumed in Sweden and the Netherlands
Abstract
The aim of this study was to quantify seven specific dietary phytosterols (PS) (campesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, brassicasterol, 5-avenasterol, β-sitostanol and campestanol) in fatty foods. Gas–liquid chromatography procedure was applied to 87 items of Swedish and Dutch origin. In general, β-sitosterol was the dominating phytosterol (60% represented the median total concentration), followed by campesterol (24%), stigmasterol (7%) and 5-avenasterol (5%), brassicasterol (3%), β-sitostanol (1%) and campestanol (<0.1%). The median total content of PS for the 42 fat spreads and margarines was 204 mg/100 g with minimum 73 mg/100 g in a low-fat margarine and maximum 775 mg/100 g in a polyunsaturated fat spread. Among 19 plant oils, median total PS content was 348 mg/100 g, with minimum 39 mg/100 g in palm oil and maximum 978/100 g in corn oil. Median value for 12 nuts and seeds was 144 mg/100 g, with minimum 68 mg/100 g in coconut rasps and maximum 404 mg/100 g in sesame seeds. Median value for total PS was 100 mg/100 g among 14 miscellaneous fatty foods with minimum 11 mg/100 g in Dutch non-dairy ice cream and maximum 484 mg/100 g in mayonnaise. The results are discussed against a background of methodological aspects with the chosen analytical procedure and the importance of setting up valid PS databases for epidemiological studies.
... In this study, data for fats and oils were extracted from the British database of Food Composition [24], the USDA Database [14], and Normen et al. [27]. Data on plant sterols in cereals were extracted from the British database of Food Composition [24] and Normen et al. [28]. ...
... The plant sterol contents in fruits and berries were compiled from the USDA Database [14], Piironen et al. [31], Normen et al. [29], and Han et al. [30]. The plant sterol contents in nuts and seeds were taken from the USDA Database [14], the British database of Food Composition [24], and Normen et al. [27]. The plant sterols for legumes were compiled from Li et al. [33], Han et al. [30], the USDA Database [14], Ryan et al. [32], and Yamaya et al. [34]. ...
... For pastry and cookies, data were extracted from the British database of Food Composition [24], the USDA Database [14], and Piironen et al. [31]. For chocolate and chocolate candies, data were compiled from Normen et al. [27]. Data on plant sterols in foods are available in Supplementary Table S1. ...
Plant sterols are compounds with multiple biological functions, mainly cholesterol-reducing. There are no comprehensive databases on plant sterols, which makes it difficult to estimate their intake in the Polish population. This work attempted to use international food databases, additionally supplemented by scientific data from the literature, to create a database of plant sterols, which would cover various kinds of foods and dishes consumed in Poland. The aim was to assess the size and sources of dietary plant sterols in the adult population of Poland. The literature search was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar to identify possible sources of published food composition data for plant sterols. The study group consisted of 5690 participants of the WOBASZ II survey. We identified 361 dietary sources of plant sterols based on the consumption of foods and dishes reported by participants. Cereals and fats provided 61% of the total plant sterols, and together with vegetables and fruits, this totaled 80%. The median intake of plant sterols in the Polish population was 255.96 mg/day, and for men and women 291.76 and 230.61 mg/day, respectively. Canola oil provided the most plant sterols at 16.92%, followed by white bread at 16.65% and soft margarine at 8.33%. The study found that plant sterol intake in Poland is comparable to other populations, and women’s diets are more dense in plant sterols. Due to the lack of literature sources on plant sterol content in some foods, future studies should expand and complete the databases on plant sterol content in foods.
... GC-FID has been the most employed method for analyzing the sterol profile in oily fruits and nuts oils (Abdallah et al. 2015;Alasalvar et al. 2006Alasalvar et al. , 2009Bada et al. 2004;Chahed et al. 2008;Costa et al. 2010;Gao et al. 2018;Givianrad et al. 2013;Kalogeropoulos et al. 2013;Massimo et al. 2020;Miraliakbari and Shahidi, 2008;Phillips et al. 2005;Rico et al. 2016;Robbins et al. 2011;Shin et al. 2010;Tokusoglu, 2011;Yorulmaz et al. 2009) (Table 7). However, alternative methods such as GC-MS (Derewiaka et al. 2014;Gao et al. 2019a;Martínez et al. 2006;Massimo et al. 2020;Miraliakbari and Shahidi 2008;Normén et al. 2007;Özcan et al. 2020;Phillips et al. 2005;Shin et al. 2010;Veličkovska et al. 2016;Zanqui et al. 2020aZanqui et al. , 2020b and HPLC (Campos-Mondragón et al. 2009;Kornsteiner-Krenn, 2013;Maguire et al. 2004;Ryan et al. 2006;Vecka et al. 2019) have also been applied in this analysis (Table 7). ...
... ), peanuts (shin et al. 2010), cashew nuts (rico et al. 2016), Brazil nuts(Costa et al. 2010) GC-Ms several nuts(derewiaka et al. 2014;Miraliakbari and shahidi 2008;normén et al. 2007;Phillips et al. 2005;, walnuts(Gao et al. 2019a;Martínez et al. 2006), almonds(Özcan et al. 2020), peanuts (shin et al. 2010; veličkovska et al. 2016), cashew nuts(Zanqui et al. 2020b), pistachios(Massimo et al. 2020) others HPlC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in several nuts (vecka et al. 2019), HPlC-Pda in several nuts(Maguire et al. 2004;ryan et al. 2006), HPlC-uv/vis in peanuts(Campos-Mondragón et al. 2009) and several nuts (Kornsteiner-narP-HPlC-esi-Ms n with silver cationization in peanuts(Cherif et al. 2014(Cherif et al. , 2013, rP-HPlC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in olives (alves et al. 2019), narP-HPlC-aPCi-Ms in avocados, olives and several nuts (lísa and Holčapek 2008), rP-HPlC and 13 C nMr spectroscopy in olives (vlahov et al. 1999), HPlC-rid in avocados (tan et al. 2017; Yanty et al. 2011), hazelnuts (Bada et al. 2004), pistachios (rabadán et al. 2018) and several nuts (Fernandes et al. 2017), HPlC-aPCi-Ms, HPlC-elsd and HPlC-uv in several nuts (Holčapek et al. 2005), GC-Fid in walnuts (Gao et al. 2019a, 2018), HPlC-elsd in walnuts (amaral et al. 2004) and hazelnuts (alasalvar et al. 2009, 2006; Parcerisa et al. 1999), tlC and scanning densitometry in walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds (Momchilova and nikolova-damyanova 2007), HPlC-elsd in almonds (Barreira et al. 2012), HPlC-Pda in hazelnuts (taş and Gökmen 2015), HPlC-aPCi-Ms in peanuts (dong et al. 2015), easi-Ms in cashew nuts (Zanqui et al. 2020b) and Brazil nuts (Zanqui et al. 2020a) Phospholipid profile HiliC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in several nuts and oily fruits (alves et al. 2019; song et al. 2018), naCe-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in olives (Montealegre et al. 2013), tlC in avocados (takenaga et al. 2008) and peanuts (Yoshida et al. 2005), nP-HPlC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in avocados (Pacetti et al. 2007), almonds (Boukhchina et al. 2004) and hazelnuts (napolitano et al. 2018), tlC-Fid-iatroscan in several nuts (Miraliakbari and shahidi 2008), 2d-tlC and colorimetric tests in walnuts and hazelnuts (angelova-romova et al. 2013), Maldi-toF/Ms in almonds (shen, dong, Yang, li, et al. 2013), olives (shen, dong, Yang, Baibado, et al. 2013) and avocados (shen et al. 2014), HPlC-elsd in hazelnuts (Parcerisa et al. 1999), tlC and colorimetric tests in Brazil nuts (Chunhieng et al. 2008) Glycolipid profile HiliC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in olives (alves et al. 2019), tlC in avocados (takenaga et al. 2008), HPlC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in avocados (Pacetti et al. 2007) and hazelnuts (napolitano et al. 2018) sphingolipid profile HiliC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in olives (alves et al. 2019), tlC in avocados (takenaga et al. 2008), tlC-Fid-iatroscan in several nuts (Miraliakbari and shahidi 2008), HPlC-aPCi-Ms in several nuts (Fang et al. 2005), HPlC-esi-Ms and Ms 2 in hazelnuts (napolitano et al. 2018), almonds and pistachios (Paroni et al. 2019) ...
Tree nuts and oily fruits are used as a diet complement and are highly consumed worldwide. The production and consumption of these foods have been increasing, and an enormous global market value is forecasted for 2023. Besides their high nutritional value and lipid content, they provide health benefits to fat metabolism, heart, skin, and brain. The industrial by-products of these oily foods represent promising raw materials for many industries. However, the lipidomic analysis of nuts and oily fruits is still in its early stages. State-of-the-art analytical approaches for the lipid profiling and fingerprinting of nuts and oily fruits have been developed using high-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry for the accurate identification and structural characterization at the molecular species level. It is expected to bring a new understanding of these everyday foods’ nutritional and functional value. This review comprises the oil content and lipid composition of various nuts and oily fruits, particularly those mostly consumed worldwide and having recognized beneficial health effects, biological activities associated with the lipids from different oily foodstuffs, analytical methodologies to analyze lipids in nuts and oily fruits, and the potential biotechnological applications of their industrial by-products for a lipid-based commercial valorization.
... Significant improvements are seen if at least 2 g of phytosterols are ingested per day, though smaller intakes have also demonstrated positive effects [18]; typical daily intake is around 200-320 mg [17]. Phytosterol content in oils typically ranges from 150 mg 100 g −1 in palm oil to 893 mg 100 g −1 in canola and 990 mg 100 g −1 in corn oil, but wheat germ (967 mg 100 g −1 ) and rice bran (1891 mg 100 g −1 ) oil are regarded as especially rich [19,20]. Legumes are not a major contributor to phytosterol intake [17]. ...
... Different letters in the same column indicate statistically significant differences at p ≤ 0.05; nd, not detected. The following sterols were detected only in some of the species and expressed in mg/100 g oil (values are provided in brackets): α-amyrin in C. fistula (58) and S. sesban (60); brassicasterol in D. regia (19) and P. pterocarpum (24); clerosterol in A. odoratissima (18) and P. pterocarpum (24); gramisterol in A. odoratissima (30), D. regia (66) and P. pterocarpum (64); ∆5,23-stigmastadienol and 24-methylene cholesterol in P. pterocarpum (26 and 48, respectively); ∆5,24-stigmastadienol in A. odoratissima (17). ...
Bioactive lipophilic compounds were investigated in 14 leguminous tree species of timber, agroforestry, medicinal or ornamental use but little industrial significance to elucidate their potential in food additive and supplement production. The tree species investigated were: Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia concinna, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia odoratissima, Bauhinia racemosa, Cassia fistula, Dalbergia latifolia, Delonix regia, Entada phaseoloides, Hardwickia binata, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Senegalia catechu, Sesbania sesban and Vachellia nilotica. The hexane-extracted oils of ripe seeds were chromatographically analysed for their fatty acid composition (GC-MS), tocochromanol (RP-HPLC/FLD), squalene and sterol (GC-FID) content. A spectrophotometrical method was used to determine total carotenoid content. The results showed generally low oil yield (1.75–17.53%); the highest was from H. binata. Linoleic acid constituted the largest proportion in all samples (40.78 to 62.28% of total fatty acids), followed by oleic (14.57–34.30%) and palmitic (5.14–23.04%) acid. The total tocochromanol content ranged from 100.3 to 367.6 mg 100 g⁻¹ oil. D. regia was the richest and the only to contain significant amount of tocotrienols while other oils contained almost exclusively tocopherols, dominated by either α-tocopherol or γ-tocopherol. The total carotenoid content was highest in A. auriculiformis (23.77 mg 100 g⁻¹), S. sesban (23.57 mg 100 g⁻¹) and A. odoratissima (20.37 mg 100 g⁻¹), and ranged from 0.7 to 23.7 mg 100 g⁻¹ oil. The total sterol content ranged from 240.84 to 2543 mg 100 g⁻¹; A. concinna seed oil was the richest by a wide margin; however, its oil yield was very low (1.75%). Either β-sitosterol or Δ5-stigmasterol dominated the sterol fraction. Only C. fistula oil contained a significant amount of squalene (303.1 mg 100 g⁻¹) but was limited by the low oil yield as an industrial source of squalene. In conclusion, A. auriculiformis seeds may hold potential for the production of carotenoid-rich oil, and H. binata seed oil has relatively high yield and tocopherol content, marking it as a potential source of these compounds.
... g kg -1 and 0.7 g kg − 1 , respectively. Normen et al. (2007) and Han et al. (2008) The phytosterols content in plant sources is affected by growing conditions and genetic factors of plants. Both temperature and cultivation locations influence phytosterol concentration in soybean, sunflower, and canola oils. ...
... β-Sitosterol is the predominant phytosterol in cereals ranging between 49% and 64%. Vegetables and fruits also contain significant amounts of β-sitosterol (Normen et al., 2007). It constitutes a large percentage of total phytosterols in vegetables and fruits, amounting to 44%-86% and 72%-92%, respectively (Piironen et al., 2003) (Table 9.1). ...
Phytosterols are integral natural components of plant cell membranes and are abundant in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and grains. Phytosterols have multiple beneficial effects on human health, such as hypocholesterolemic, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities. Evidence show that these bioactives play an essential role in the reduction of blood cholesterol, thus providing protection from the cardiovascular morbidity. β-Sitosterol is a significant member of the phytosterol group, which is found in cereals, vegetables, and fruits in concentrations of 0.24–0.61, 0.02–0.41, and 0.02–0.34 g kg− 1, respectively. Vegetable oils are rich sources of β-sitosterol containing 0.24–8.79 g kg− 1 (representing 33%–91% of total phytosterols); specifically, olive oil and olive pomace oil have a high β-sitosterol concentration ranging between 0.91 and 1.52 g kg− 1 (representing 75%–90% of total phytosterols). Due to the functional role of phytosterols, especially of β-sitosterol, the conditions of use of their health claims are set out in the Commission Regulation (EU) No 686/2014. This chapter aims to discuss the chemical structure and properties, the role, and the functionality of β-sitosterol. The main sources of β-sitosterol focusing on vegetable oils, mainly olive oil and olive pomace oil, are also presented. The fate of phytosterols and especially of β-sitosterol during food processing such as oil refining and other processes (i.e., frying) is also discussed. Finally, the enrichment of various food systems with β-sitosterol including commercial fats, butter, and nanoemulsions are reviewed offering an updated glimpse of valuable applications of this functional component.
... Vegetable oils are the major sources of PS in foods. Palm, sunflower, corn, coconut, rapeseed, and soybean oils have the highest content of total sterols; for example, rapeseed oil has a PS content ranging from 646 to 808 mg/100 g in fresh weight (FW); oil-based products like margarines have a content ranging from 130 to 540 mg/100 g FW (Normén, Ellegård, Brants, Dutta, & Andersson, 2007). Other food items such as cereals (corn, rye, wheat, barley, and oats) range from 80-90 mg/100 g FW (Ryan, Galvin, O'Connor, Maguire, & O'Brien, 2007). ...
... 17.1 mg/100 g (coconut fat) (Lea, Hepburn, Wolfreys, & Baldrick, 2004;Piironen et al., 2000). Databases of almost every type of food have been developed over the years, and even countryspecific food items have been analyzed such as the ones reported by (Normén et al., 2007) ...
Infant formulations are enriched with vegetable oils that confer not only calories, but also peculiar chemical attributes. Vegetable oils are particularly rich in phytosterols, a class of triterpene molecules analogous to cholesterol, but with different and largely unknown biological effects. The preparation and sterilization of infant formula provide opportune physicochemical conditions for oxidative reactions to occur. Oxidation of phytosterols during the preparation of infant formula can led to oxidized derivatives, known as phytosterol oxidation products [POPs], which harmful effects can be exacerbated given the wide variety of infant formulas characterized by their exclusivity of milk surrogates, required to fulfill specific needs in the nutritional development of a baby. In this review, the state‐of‐the‐art regarding phytosterols and their presence in infant formulation is revised, stressing the need of further investigation in the field of food processing. Reconsidering infant formula manufacturing in the context of phytosterols oxidation will lead to several opportunities for food engineers and technologists in the food safety.
Practical applications
Phytosterols are plant‐based bioactive lipids with health benefits. Therefore, they have been implemented as a supplement in infant formula through the addition of vegetable oils. Processing, packaging, and storage contribute to the oxidative process of these compounds. A surveillance of the entire food chain is needed to reduce the oxidative load in the final product.
... For unavailable foods and ingredients (n=189) in the USDA SR 27, we used the phytosterol content which were quantified by gas chromatography method (5,8,11,12,(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25) or gas chromatography -mass spectrometer (26) . This particular method was used to quantify phytosterol content in the USDA SR 27 (27) . ...
... We have minimized this effect by compiling the phytosterol content in foods from several sources. The first is the USDA SR 27, for phytosterol content in approximately 115 food items, and from other references (5,8,11,12,(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26) for phytosterol content in approximately 189 food items. In addition to deriving phytosterol content from multiple sources, we calculated de-attenuated correlation coefficients which removed the "noise" of within-person error from 24HDR, and also minimized the influence of total energy intake by using energyadjusted intake. ...
We evaluated the performance of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in estimating phytosterol intake against multiple 24 hr dietary recalls (24HDRs) using data from 1,011 participants of the calibration sub-study of the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2) cohort. Dietary assessments of phytosterol intake included a self-administered FFQ and six 24HDRs and plasma sterols. Plasma sterols were determined using the gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) flame ionization method. Validation of energy-adjusted phytosterol intake from the FFQ with 24HDR was conducted by calculating crude, unadjusted, partial, and de-attenuated correlation coefficients ( r ) and cross-classification by race. On average, total phytosterol intake from the FFQ was 439.6 mg/day in blacks and 417.9 mg/day in whites. From the 24HDRs, these were 295.6 mg/day in blacks, and 351.4 mg/day in whites. Intake estimates of β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, other plant sterols and total phytosterol from the FFQ had moderate to strong correlations with estimates from 24HDR ( r = 0.41 to 0.73). Correlations were slightly higher in whites ( r = 0.42 to 0.73) than in blacks ( r = 0.41 to 0.67). FFQ estimates were poorly correlated with plasma sterols as well as 24HDR versus plasma sterols. We conclude that the AHS-2 FFQ provided reasonable estimates of phytosterol intake and may be used in future studies relating phytosterol intake and disease outcomes.
... Bir hayvansal sterol olan kolesterolde 8 karbonlu bir yan grup bulunurken, fitosteroller 9 veya 10 karbonlu bir yan grup ve bu grubun içerdi¤i doymam›fl ba¤, metil ve etil gruplar›yla kolesterolden farkl› bir özellik göstermektedir (6). Bitkilerde 200'den fazla fitosterol bulunmakla birlikte sitosterol (24-α-etilkolesterol), kampesterol (24-α-metilkolesterol) ve stigmasterol (∆ 22 , ∆ 24 -α-etilkolesterol) g›dalarda hem yayg›nl›¤› hem de miktarca fazla bulunmalar› nedeniyle önemlidirler (4,6,7,8). ...
... Fitosterollerin eldesinde ekstraksiyon, sabunlaflt›rma, esterifikasyon ve kristalizasyon gibi ifllemler Çizelge 1. Baz› g›dalar›n mg/100g olarak fitosterol içerikleri (4,9). (52). ...
Gelişmiş ülkelerde bir süredir var olan fonksiyonel gıdalar, 2005 yılında yapılan yasal düzenleme ile Türkiye'de de üretilip tüketilmeye başlanmıştır. Fonksiyonel gıdalar çok çeşitli biyoaktif etkenlerden birinin veya birkaçının birlikte kullanılması ile üretilmektedir. Fitosteroller fonksiyonel gıda bileşeni olarak değerlendirilen önemli bir biyoaktif bileşik grubudur. Bu bileşikler kolesterole benzer emilimleri ile vücut sıvılarına alınmakta ve biyoaktif özelliklerini göstermektedir. Fitosterollerin temel sağlık faydaları kandaki kolesterol miktarını düşürerek kalp krizi geçirme ve antikanserojen özelliği ile de bazı kanserlerin oluşma riskini azaltmasıdır. Fitosterollerin diyet destekleyicisi olarak doğrudan kullanılmasının yerine yağ asidi ester formunda gıdalara katkılanarak tüketilmesi, söz konusu etkilerini daha da artırmaktadır. Bu çalışmada fitosterollerin kimyasal yapıları, sağlığa faydaları, gıdalardaki içerikleri, üretimleri ve gıdalara katkılanmaları derlenmiştir.
... They inhibit both exogenous cholesterol absorption and endogenous cholesterol formation. 7 Although these positive effects were previously thought to taper off at intakes above 2.5 g per day of phytosterol intake, new evidence shows high doses of phytosterols, of about 9 g per day, can achieve a similar effect to drugs that block cholesterol absorption. 8 Those who consume a plant-based, whole-food diet ingest higher amounts of phytosterols per day than those who consume a typical Western diet. ...
A 57-year-old White female was diagnosed with high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). By manipulating her diet, she was able to reduce her LDL-C from its highest level of 262 mg/dL to 138 mg/dL and her total cholesterol from 317 to 229 mg/dL. This approximately 50% reduction was achieved within a 6-month period. By researching the biochemical processes of foods that lower cholesterol, we were able to identify the ideal combinations of food types, consumption frequencies, and amounts that led to the decreased LDL-C. We found the effects of these foods on cholesterol have already been researched and established for years. The subject kept daily diet logs for an entire year, through which we could approximately quantify the consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol, foods with phytosterols, and overall calorie intake. This case implies that diet prescription alone may reduce LDL-C for some individuals. The consideration of cholesterol-lowering medications should not overshadow the importance of the well-researched effects that certain foods have on lowering LDL-C and the benefit they have for an individual’s overall health.
... The β-sitosterol in samples ranged from 80.97% (M Al-Hoceima) to 70.50% (M Oujda), and the Δ-5-Avenosterol from 21.81% (M Oujda) to 9.51% (M Al-Hoceima), which together accounted for >90% of phytosterols, similar to other reports on almond (Dulf et al., 2010;Normén et al., 2007;Robbins et al., 2011). Studies have shown that β-sitosterol has promising effects on normalizing T-cell function and reducing hyperactive antibody responses. ...
... PS cannot be synthesized by man, so their intake depends on diet (Jong et al., 2003). They are widely distributed in different foods of vegetable origin (Gylling et al., 2014), such as vegetable oils; grains; seeds; fruits; and vegetables (Lin et al., 2016;Normén et al., 2007), and the amount depends on the nature of the food. Despite their potential attraction, their worth has been limited due to their highmelting point (137.6 ...
Phytosterols (PS) are bioactive compounds widely distributed in nature and are similar to cholesterol in structure and function. They contribute to the decrease of cardiovascular diseases, which are associated with high‐cholesterol consumption. Plant sterols are lipophilic and need to be encapsulated to improve their solubility to be applied in foods. For this reason, this work found the optimum mixture for the encapsulation of PS, with soy protein isolate, maltodextrin, and Arabic gum used as encapsulating agents. Characterization of the design was evaluated in terms of the encapsulation yield, efficiency, water activity (aw), moisture, and water solubility. The drying process was undertaken at an inlet temperature of 165°C, 80% aspiration, and a PS/encapsulating agent ratio of 1:3. The optimal formulation corresponded to the soy protein isolate: Arabic gum: maltodextrin ratio of 21:78:1, respectively, which improved all the properties evaluated. The morphology and x‐ray diffraction results of this formulation also determined that the solubility and particle size were improved.
Practical Application
Phytosterols are functional ingredients that contribute to reducing cholesterol levels in blood. However, its incorporation in different fields has been somewhat affected due to its crystalline structure. Therefore, to improve its application, different methods have been studied, but spray drying is one of the least evaluated. This study highlights the importance of phytosterols as bioactive compounds, their protection and solubility, achieved through technologies such as the spray drying and various encapsulating agents; which proportionate an open window to allow the future be applied in different sectors of the food industry, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, especially in products that have a high‐water content and with the purpose of giving importance to health properties.
... For example, total phytosterol contents are high in oil seeds such as nuts and rapeseed. Vegetable oils from soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), wheat germ (Triticum aestivum L.), and corn (Zea mays L.) also contain high amounts of phytosterols [7]. Cereals are the main sources of phytosterols for the human diet, even though their phytosterol contents are not high, the large amount of cereal consumption in the average human diet provides more than 40% of daily phytosterol requirements [2,8]. ...
Phytosterols are important structural components of plant cells that affect membrane fluidity, permeability, and membrane-related metabolic regulation. These compounds, which are abundant in vegetable oils and corn kernel oil, are also beneficial for human health. Cultivation of corn ( Zea mays L.) produces huge amounts of cobs as a by-product, but efforts to utilize cobs are still limited. Here, we investigated phytosterol, crude oil, and fatty acid contents in the kernels and cobs of four major corn cultivars in South Korea and explored the potential use of cobs as a source of phytosterols. Total phytosterol levels were two times higher in cobs (68.0–217.1 mg 100 g ⁻¹ DW) than in kernels (43.8–89.5 mg 100 g ⁻¹ DW) and were highest in the kernels and cobs of Sinhwangok at 60 days after pollination. We showed that not only kernels but also cobs can be a rich source of phytosterols. The results also revealed that the amount of phytosterol is depending on a genetic background as well as developmental stages suggesting further investigation would enhance the utilization of corn cobs as a phytosterol source.
... Phytosterols are important for human health because of their potential to diminish cholesterol absorption (Chirinos et al. 2015). Normén et al. (2007) showed that the content of phytosterols in the SIO (201 mg/100 g oil) was more than threefold higher than that in the SBO (58 mg/100 g oil). Moreover, dietary supplementation with cinnamon having hypocholesterolemic decreased cholesterol synthesis in the serum and tissues of broiler chickens (Ciftci et al. 2010). ...
The present study aimed to investigate the effects of replacing dietary soybean oil (SBO) with sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil (SIO) supplemented or not with medicinal plant powder (MP, 60% cinnamon twig, and 40% star anise fruits) on broiler performance, carcass traits, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) content of breast meat. A total of 288 Ho × Luong Phuong broiler chickens (age and average body weight: 6 weeks old and 877 ± 13.4 g) were equally divided into three groups (6 replicates of 16 birds each), balanced by BW and sex. Each group was randomly allocated to one of three dietary treatments: a 2% SBO diet (CON), a 2% SIO diet (SI), and a diet supplemented with 2% SIO and 1% MP (SIM). The experiment lasted for 70 days. Broiler performance, carcass traits, and technological meat quality were not affected by the diets (P > 0.05). However, colored broiler chickens fed the SIM diet had increased empty gizzard percentage (P < 0.05) compared to those fed the CON diet. Especially, the n-3 PUFA content of breast meat from broiler chickens fed diets containing SIO was higher than those of birds fed CON diet (P < 0.01). A significant decrease in cholesterol content was observed (P < 0.01) in broilers fed SIM diet compared to those fed CON diet. In conclusion, replacing 2% SBO with 2% SIO and 1% MP supplementation in broiler diets increased n-3 PUFA content and decreased cholesterol content in breast meat, without negative effects on bird performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality. Therefore, a combination of SIO and MP can be used as an effective strategy to ameliorate the meat quality of finishing broiler chickens by enhancing n-3 PUFA content and reducing the cholesterol content of breast meat.
... α-Carotene, β-carotene and cryptoxanthin are provitamin A carotenoids, meaning that they can be cleaved by the enzyme β-carotene 15,15′-oxygenase and yield one or two vitamin A molecules (Green & Fascetti, 2016). TA B L E 1 Phytonutrients and selected plant-based dietary sources that are safe for dogs (Normén et al., 2007;Rothwell et al., 2013;Touré & Xueming, 2010;USDA ARS NDL, 2015;Yang et al., 2019) Phytonutrients ...
Dogs possess the ability to obtain essential nutrients, established by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), from both animal- and plant-based ingredients. There has been a recent increase in the popularity of diets that limit or completely exclude certain plant-based ingredients. Examples of these diets include ‘ancestral’ or ‘evolutionary’ diets, raw meat-based diets and grain-free diets. As compared to animal sources, plant-derived ingredients (including vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts and seeds) provide many non-essential phytonutrients with some data suggesting they confer health benefits. This review aims to assess the strength of current evidence on the relationship between the consumption of plant-based foods and phytonutrients (such as plant-derived carotenoids, polyphenols and phytosterols) and biomarkers of health and diseases (such as body weight/condition, gastrointestinal health, immune health, cardiovascular health, visual function and cognitive function) from clinical trials and epidemiological studies. This review highlights the potential nutritional and health benefits of including plant-based ingredients as a part of balanced canine diets. We also highlight current research gaps in existing studies and provide future research directions to inform the impact of incorporating plant-based ingredients in commercial or home-prepared diets.
... Therefore, we developed a phytosterol database (mg/100 g) based on literature values and existing databases and created recipes to match the food items in the FFQ and 7DDRs. Several data sources were used, including the Finnish Food Composition Database [44], the European Prospective Cohort into Cancer (EPIC) Netherlands database [45], the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) [46], and other literature [47][48][49][50][51]. Original analytical values were used when available, as well as imputed values for unavailable foods where similar foods were available, and calculated values for recipes using foods with available and imputed values. ...
The Portfolio Diet, a plant-based portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods, has been shown to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and other cardiovascular risk factors, in randomized controlled trials (RCTs). It is not known if these beneficial effects translate to a lower incidence cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. To support examinations between Portfolio Diet adherence and disease, a Portfolio Diet score (PDS) was developed and its predictive and concurrent validity was assessed within the Toronto Healthy Diet Study, a six-month RCT in overweight adults. Predictive validity was assessed using change in the PDS measured by food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and concomitant change in LDL-C from baseline to six months using multiple linear regression, adjusted for potential confounders (n = 652). Concurrent validity was assessed in a subset of participants (n = 50) who completed the FFQ and a 7-day diet record (7DDR) at baseline. The PDS determined from each diet assessment method was used to derive correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman plots to assess the between-method agreement. The change in PDS was inversely associated with change in LDL-C (β coefficients: −0.01 mmol/L (95% confidence intervals (CIs): −0.02, −0.002; p = 0.02). The correlation between the PDS from the FFQ and 7DDR was 0.69 (95% CIs: 0.48, 0.85). The Bland-Altman plot showed reasonable agreement between the score from the FFQ and 7DDR. These findings indicate predictive validity of the PDS with lower LDL-C, and reasonable concurrent validity of the PDS as assessed by an FFQ against a 7DDR.
... Compared to many other nuts, almond oil was found to have an important amount of phytosterol content (Esche et al., 2013;Maguire et al., 2004;Miraliakbari & Shahidi, 2008a;Robbins et al., 2011). β-Sitosterol is identified as the major phytosterol in almond oil followed by Δ5-avenasterol; however, campesterol, Δ5,24-stigmastadienol, Δ7-avenasterol, stigmasterol, A7stigmastenol, Δ7-campesterol, clerosterol, and cholesterol were detected in minor amounts (Cherif et al., 2009;Dulf et al., 2010;Fernandes et al., 2017;Kodad et al., 2015;Miraliakbari & Shahidi, 2008a;Mo et al., 2013;Normén et al., 2007;Phillips et al., 2005;Robbins et al., 2011). As shown in Table 6, total amounts of sterol content varied between 1796 and 4554 mg/kg in Spanish cultivars (Fernández-Cuesta et al., 2012;. ...
Almond oil, a rich source of macronutrients and micronutrients, is extracted for food flavorings and the cosmetics industry. In recent years, the need for high‐quality and high‐quantity production of almond oil for human consumption has been increased. The present review examines the chemical composition of almond oil, storage conditions, and clinical evidence supporting the health benefits of almond oil. From the reviewed studies, it appears that almond oil contains a significant proportion of poly and monounsaturated fatty acids, with oleic acid as the main compound, and an important amount of tocopherol and phytosterol content. Some variations in almond oil composition can be found depending on the kernel's origin and the extraction system used. Some new technologies such as ultrasonic‐assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, subcritical fluid extraction, and salt‐assisted aqueous extraction have emerged as the most promising extraction techniques that allow eco‐friendly and effective recovery of almond oil. This safe oil was reported by several clinical studies to have potential roles in cardiovascular risk management, glucose homeostasis, oxidative stress reduction, neuroprotection, and many dermatologic and cosmetic applications. However, the anticarcinogenic and fertility benefits of almond oil have yet to be experimentally verified.
... Total phytosterols are generally enriched in oilseeds and nuts especially rapeseed oil (Normén et al. 2007), which was supported by the total FS of walnut and rapeseed oil in current study. The previous reported phytosterol content in rapeseed oil ranged from 4500 to 14000 mg/kg (Moreau et al. 2018), and current detected total FS was 383.86 mg/kg, so conjugated sterols were probably the main form in rapeseed oil coinciding with Marangoni's report (Marangoni and Poli 2010). ...
Sterols play an essential part in physiological activities of almost all creatures. However, there is a lack of a widely applicable routine method to investigate various sterols with both saturated and unsaturated forms in diversiform food materials. In this study, a new UPLC-MS/MS method with wider extensive applicability has been developed to fill this blank, which is considered time and cost saving, and can improve labor efficiency. The Agilent Eclipse Plus C18 column and methanol-water gradient elution system were employed to improve the separation at 40 °C and the flow rate was 0.5 mL/min. The method validation parameters include precision, recovery, linearity, and limit of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ). The recoveries of sterols in all food matrices and the inter-day and intra-day precisions represented by RSDs were all within the recommended range of chemical analysis. The LODs and LOQs in different types of samples were in range of 0.0036–0.68 μg/mL and 0.01–2.0 μg/mL, respectively. All the results demonstrated that this method was sensitive and accurate enough. Additionally, the acid hydrolysis was found closely related to the degradation of unsaturated sterols in the pretreatment.
... Due to their health benefits in reducing blood cholesterol or preventing colon cancer development, phytosterols are employed in some of the functional foods (Jiang et al., 2019). The previous studies also report 23.3 wt% of campesterol, 11.7 wt% of stigmasterol, and 46.7 wt% of sitosterol that are in good agreement with our results (Normen et al., 2007). The sitosterol (59.83 wt%) was the primary sterol in the PO and followed by campesterol (23.71 wt%) and stigmasterol (12.31 wt%). ...
Replacement with the cheaper animal fats or vegetable oils is conventional in milk through direct incorporation or homogenization of skimmed milk with less expensive foreign fats. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the capability of a simple, fast, and reliable method for the detection of added palm oil in butter. The butter samples were mixed with palm oil (0.5-50 wt%) followed by gas chromatography analysis of fatty acids and sterols. The results confirmed the potential of discrimination based on a significant increase in the content of unsaturated fatty acids (C18:1 and C18:2) and a decrease in saturated fatty acids (mainly C10:0, C12:0, and C14:0). The differences are detectable for at least 10.0 wt% of the palm oil. Also, significant variations were observed in the cholesterol and sitosterol as marker sterols in the butter and palm oil, respectively. The study demonstrates the high potential of the procedure to rapidly detect and discriminate between butter-palm oil blends among pure samples.
... Yalnızca bazı tahıl çeşitlerinin dokularında yüksek oranda mevcutturlar. Fitostanollerden yaygın olarak bulunanlar ise sitostanol ve kampestanoldür [20,21,23]. ...
Zeytinyağı, besinsel ve diyetetik özelliklerinden dolayı Akdeniz diyetinde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Zeytinyağı kalitesi ve bileşimi çeşit, coğrafi alan, iklim, çevresel faktörler, olgunlaşma, ekstraksiyon ve yağ depolaması gibi birçok faktöre bağlı olarak değişim göstermektedir. Yüksek yağ verimine sahip ve sterol bileşenleri bakımından zengin natürel sızma zeytinyağı üretimi gıda sanayiinde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Zeytinyağı üretimi aşamasında yoğurma koşulları, kalite parametreleri üzerinde oldukça etkilidir. Bu derlemede zeytin çeşidi, coğrafi alan, olgunluk derecesi ve farklı yoğurma koşullarının zeytinyağının sterol profili üzerine etkisine yer verilmiştir. Yapılan çalışmalar sonucu olgunlaşma süresince toplam sterol miktarı, Δ-5-avenasterol, kampesterol bileşen miktarlarının genelde arttığı, toplam sterol ve β-sitosterol miktarının ise azaldığı tespit edilmiştir. Yoğurma parametrelerinin etkisi incelendiğinde ise yüksek sıcaklık ve süre uygulamalarının zeytinyağının sterol profilini olumsuz yönde etkilediği tespit edilmiştir.
... Although phytostanols are much less abundant in nature than phytosterols, nettle oils examined were good sources of these sterols. However, based on the present results, total phytosterols level in investigated seed oils were significantly lower than some conventional seed oils such as corn oil (909 mg/100 g), sunflower oil (411 mg/kg), sesame oil (968 mg/100 g), cotton seed oil (324 mg/100 g) and soybean oil (250 mg/100 g) [34,35]. ...
In this work, proximate analysis of nettle seeds varieties of Urtica dioica and Urtica pilulifera grown in Iran and physico-chemical properties and bioactive contents of the related seed oils were assessed. The results indicated that the seeds of U. dioica and U. pilulifera were rich sources of oil (34.1% and 29.5%), protein (21.8% and 22%) and fiber (30.2% and 29.3%). Also, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among some of the other measured characteristics of the oils such as iodine value, saponification value, acid value, peroxide value and total phenolic content. The predominant fatty acids were linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids. U. dioica and U. pilulifera oils mainly contained γ-tocopherol followed by δ-tocopherol and α-tocopherol. Total amount of phytosterols reached 93.1 and 99.8 mg/100 g of oil, respectively, with a predominance of Δ5,23-stigmastadienol. The amount of carotenoid and chlorophyll contents in U. dioica seed oil was approximately twice that of U. pilulifera oil. The results of the present study revealed that nettle seed is a potential source of oil which can be used as a nutritional dietary substance and has great usage potential for both edible and/or other industrial applications.
... The levels of campesterol were highest in linseed group (11 wt% of sterols), sesame seeds (8 wt% of sterols), and peanuts (7 wt% of sterols). Some authors [37,38] reported even higher proportions of campesterol in linseed (up to 25 wt%). On the other hand, the content of campesterol was less than 1 wt% of sterols in pumpkin seeds and Brazil nuts. ...
Consumption of nuts and seeds is considered to have many beneficial health effects, as lowering cholesterol, incidence of cancer, or enhancement of immunity system. Among the most important lipid constituents of oils present in nuts and seeds are fatty acyls in lipid classes and phytosterols. The aim of the study was to quantify wide profile of fatty acids and phytosterols in 19 nuts, seeds, and kernel commonly available in the Czech Republic. Samples were extracted by the modified Folch procedure. Fatty acid analyses were conducted by gas chromatography. The sterols were derivatized and subsequently measured by HPLC–MS/MS procedure allowing for the separation of isobaric compounds including sterol Δ5–Δ7 isomers. Nuts and seeds contained predominantly oleic (18:1n-9) and linoleic (18:2n-6) acids, rich sources of α-linoleic acid (18:3n-3) were linseed, chestnut, walnuts and hempseed, the last being the best source of stearidonic acid (18:4n-3). The phytosterol analyses revealed majority of β-sitosterol and campesterol with the exception of pumpkin and melon seeds, rich in Δ7 sterols, which were separable from Δ5 isomers. Correlation of sterols and fatty acids content revealed positive correlation between monounsaturated/saturated fatty acids (16:1n-9, 18:1n-9, 20:1n-9, 20:0) and stigmasterol and negative correlation between fatty acids (16:1n-9, 18:1n-9) and sitostanols. In summary, our study revealed the wide profile of fatty acids and phytosterols between different nuts and seeds. Further studies are needed to confirm the positive effect of each nut and seeds for health.
... In the Chinese diet, vegetable oils made the greatest contribution to the intake of phytosterol with a contribution percentage of 46.3%. Due to the dietary habits and cooking methods of Chinese people, this result may be slightly different from the Sweden and the Netherlands, which pointed out that cereals contributed more to the intake of phytosterol than vegetable oils as the consumption of the former was higher [39,40]. Based on the phytosterol concentrations of all kinds of vegetable oils and total oil intake listed in Table 2, the contribution of every kind of oil to the total phytosterol intake was calculated and is shown in Figure 2. ...
Phytosterols are important micronutrients in human diets. Evidence has shown that phytosterols play an essential role in the reduction of cholesterol in blood and therefore decrease cardiovascular morbidity. In this study, the content and composition of phytosterols in different kinds of vegetable oils were analyzed, and the total phytosterol intake and contribution of foods to intake were estimated based on consumption data. The results showed that the phytosterol contents of rice bran oil, corn oil, and rapeseed oil were higher than those of other vegetable oils and the intake of phytosterol in the Chinese diet was about 392.3 mg/day. The main sources of phytosterols were edible vegetable oils (46.3%), followed by cereals (38.9%), vegetables (9.2%), nuts (2.0%), fruits (1.5%), beans and bean products (1.4%), and tubers (0.8%). Among all vegetable oils, rapeseed oil was the main individual contributor to phytosterol intake (22.9%), especially for the southern residents of China.
... mg/100 g.As compared to their initial values, all the phytosterol were reduced in varying degree. These phytosterol were found to be high in sesame oil from Sweden and Netherland samples, as per their report campesterol-100 mg, β-sitosterol-335 mg and stigmasterol-37 mg per 100 mg of total phytosterol [32]. However, the stigmasterol and β-sitosterol content of sesame oil showed 35-36.7% ...
The composite film was developed from refined carrageenan (RC), semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) and konjac glucomannan (KGM) in various percent to study the functionality as active packaging for sesame oil. The physical, mechanical and functional properties of composite films were evaluated and shelf-life of sesame oil in the composite film also estimated during storage. Results showed that the thickness of the film increased to 0.066 mm from 0.034 with increasing ratio of KGM with carrageenan. The water vapor transmission rate of film made up of RC/KGM showed 91.4-110.8 g m −2 d −1 , its counterpart SRC/KGM was 80-91.2 g m −2 d −1. The tensile strength and elongation at break were increased in 10% of KGM with RC and SRC. The composite films prepared were made into pouches with food grade adhesive and used for storing oil. Low WVTR resulted in the low oxidation rate and less production of peroxide values and iodine value in sesame oil while storage. It was also observed that no significant changes in the content of phytosterols of sesame oil were found during storage of three months (campesterol: 88.9-94.4 mg/100 gm, stigmasterol: 42.1-48.4mg/100 gm, and β-sitosterol 318.0-333.8 mg/100 gm). Therefore, the composite film functioned as an effective oil packaging material by preserving the active compounds in oil and hence this packaging material is an alternative to conventional plastic packaging material.
... Although this has led to the development of alternative means such as enzymatic treatments to avoid this complication [28][29][30]. In most food matrixes, avenasterol and fucosterol are generally found in insignificant amounts compared to total phytosterols and therefore the use of acid hydrolysis is generally suitable [6,26,31]. ...
The fortification of processed foods including dairy products is increasingly commonplace with phytosterols among the many compounds used to improve the nutritional value of food products. It is also increasingly common practice for some dairy cattle feeds to be fortified for their potential to increase phytosterol levels in milk. In this study, a combined, streamlined protocol using acid hydrolysis, saponification and sample clean‐up was developed to enable the rapid and reliable. The method was developed with focus on streamlining the overall technique to make it suitable for commercial laboratories, to reduce labor and consumable costs, while maintaining accuracy. A total of twelve different feed types commonly used in the dairy industry were analyzed with the highest and lowest sterol contents found in cotton seed oil and tannin with average phytosterol contents of 256 and < 30 mg per 100 g, respectively. With a limit of reporting of 30 mg/kg for individual sterols and a correlation coefficient > 0.99, the method was validated for milk to enable feeding comparison studies with respect to the total phytosterol content in raw milk.
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... In the Chinese diet, vegetable oils made the greatest contribution to the intake of phytosterol with a contribution percentage of 46.3%. Due to the dietary habits and cooking methods of Chinese people, this result may be slightly different from the Sweden and the Netherlands, which pointed out that cereals contributed more to the intake of phytosterol than vegetable oils as the consumption of the former was higher [39,40]. Based on the phytosterol concentrations of all kinds of vegetable oils and total oil intake listed in Table 2, the contribution of every kind of oil to the total phytosterol intake was calculated and is shown in Figure 2. ...
Phytosterols are well-known for their cholesterol-lowering effects, and the structures and forms of phytosterols affect their bioactivity. We aimed to illustrate the phytosterol profiles in common foods and estimate their natural intake in five geographical regions and among different age groups in China. In total, 12 phytosterols in free and esterified forms of 119 foods from five regions across China were examined using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Then, the dietary intake of phytosterols was calculated combined with the dietary foods intake data of Chinese people. Total Phytosterol content was highest in vegetable oils (150.4–1230.9 mg/100 g), followed by legumes (129.6−275.6 mg/100 g), nuts (18.9−255.2 mg/100 g), and cereals (11.9–93.8 mg/100 g). Vegetables and fruits contained lower contents of total phytosterols. Phytosterols were mainly esterified in most common food except in nuts. The predominant phytosterols were β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, all of which belonged to plant sterols and 4-desmethylsterols. Total phytosterol intake varied across different regions, ranging between 257.7 and 473.7 mg/standard-person(sp)/day, with the highest intake in Beijing, followed by Hangzhou, Wuhan, Chongqing, and Guangzhou. However, phytosterol proportion was similar across regions, with β-sitosterols accounting for 46.5%–50.3% of the natural intake. Phytosterol intake was mainly constituted by plant sterols and 4-desmethylsterols in esterified form (61.9%–74.6%). At the age of 2–70 years, phytosterol intake ranged from 154.3 mg/day to 348.0 mg/day in the national scale.
... However, in many cases the phytosterols consumed by diet cannot play a significant role for cholesterol-lowering (Racette et al., 2009;Rodriguez-Cabo et al., 2014). In western countries average daily intake of plant sterols ranges from 150 to 400mg depending on the dietary habits, geographic region and consumption of food type (vegetable oils, cereals, fruits and vegetables) (Moreau et al., 2002;Piironen et al., 2002;Piironen et al., 2003;Valsta et al., 2004;Jime ´nez-Escrig et al., 2006b;Lagarda et al., 2006;Normen et al., 2007;Han et al., 2008;Sioen et al., 2011). Where many scientists proved that the ingestion of 1.5-2.0 ...
Phytosterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and Δ5-avenasterol) were analyzed from nuts, seeds, legumes and grain imported to Korea and the applied analytical method was validated. Both acid and alkaline hydrolyses were employed to release phytosterols from samples and quantified by gas chromatography after derivatization. Δ5-Avenasterol was quantified by alkaline saponification without acid analysis as it degrades partially due to the acid hydrolysis. The phytosterol contents of 19 samples (7 nuts, 9 seeds, 2 legumes and 1 grain) varied from 38.8 mg/100 g (white quinoa seed) to 246.2 mg/100 g (sunflower seed). β-Sitosterol was the predominant phytosterol for all samples except for fennel seed where stigmasterol was predominant. Compared to seeds and other samples, nuts showed very low amount of stigmasterol. The highest content of stigmasterol was found in almonds (3.9 mg/100 g sample) among nuts and in fennel seed (57.6 mg/100 g) among seeds. Recoveries of campesterol, stigmasterol β-sitosterol and brassicasterol from spiked peanut oil were 91.4-106.0%, showing good accuracy. Repeatability and reproducibility of phytosterol analysis showed less than 3% and 4% of relative standard deviation, respectively, indicating good precision of the applied analytical method. All analyzed phytosterol values from quality control sample (peanut oil) fell into the range of analytical quality control lines (212.0 – 221.8 mg/100 g), indicating all assays in this study was under the control.
KEYWORDS: phytosterols; nuts; seeds; campesterol; stigmasterol; β-sitosterol; Δ5-avenasterol.
... However, in many cases the phytosterols consumed by diet cannot play a significant role for cholesterol-lowering (Racette et al., 2009;Rodriguez-Cabo et al., 2014). In western countries average daily intake of plant sterols ranges from 150 to 400mg depending on the dietary habits, geographic region and consumption of food type (vegetable oils, cereals, fruits and vegetables) (Moreau et al., 2002;Piironen et al., 2002;Piironen et al., 2003;Valsta et al., 2004;Jime ´nez-Escrig et al., 2006b;Lagarda et al., 2006;Normen et al., 2007;Han et al., 2008;Sioen et al., 2011). Where many scientists proved that the ingestion of 1.5-2.0 ...
A method involving alkali and/or acid hydrolysis of phytosterols followed by trimethylsilyl ether derivatization coupled with GC-FID analysis was validated and applied in the analysis of major phytosterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and Δ⁵-avenasterol) in nuts (n = 7), seeds (n = 9), legumes (n = 2), and grain (n = 1). The acid-labile Δ⁵-avenasterol was extracted with alkaline hydrolysis only before derivatization. Quantification of all phytosterols was done using the computed relative response factor of 5α-cholestane (internal standard). Analyses of internal and external phytosterol standards showed good linearity for all phytosterols (R² of 0.999); LOD and LOQ of phytosterols were determined to be 0.01–0.12 and 0.04–0.40 mg/100 g, respectively. Repeatability and reproducibility precision analyses showed acceptable coefficient of variation of less than 3 and 4%, respectively, and satisfactory Horwitz ratio values of <1.0. Excellent accuracy was proved by the high recovery values of 91.4–106.0% for campesterol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol. Δ⁵-Avenasterol, the most oxidation-susceptible sterol, showed a recovery of about 60%. The total phytosterol (sum of major phytosterols quantified) contents in the 19 samples varied from 38.8 mg/100 g (white quinoa seed) to 246.2 mg/100 g (sunflower seed). β-Sitosterol was the predominant phytosterol (54–86.0% of total) among all samples except fennel seed in which stigmasterol was predominant. Analytical quality control chart maintained during the study period showed that assays were performed under control. Method validation indicated that the analytical method can be applied for accurate determination of campesterol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol in selected food samples.
Sesame has a rich history of cultivation and holds a prominent position as one of the most important oil crops globally. This versatile plant is renowned for its valuable nutritional, therapeutic, and industrial characteristics. The chemical composition of sesame seeds reveals that they are a significant source of protein and oils, with high concentrations of carbohydrates and essential dietary fibers. Moreover, sesame seeds contain abundant amounts of sesame lignans, tocopherol, phytosterol, and other vital substances.
Sesame seed oil, in particular, has a positive impact on the quality of snack frying oils and the production of high-quality, nutritious snack items. Additionally, sesame oil is widely used for therapeutic purposes, particularly in self-massage, and is regarded as a multipurpose and beneficial oil in various systems of medicine. It is also employed in Shirodhara, a technique that helps to calm the mind and body.
Furthermore, scientific studies have demonstrated the various health effects of sesame seeds, including anticancer, antioxidation, and hypocholesterolemia properties. Recent research has even indicated the potential antimalarial activity of sesame oil. Notably, sesame has the potential to address malnutrition and food security issues in both underdeveloped and developed countries due to its nutritious properties.
Given these remarkable properties, there is a growing interest in the use of sesame and its products in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceutical applications. Sesame’s versatility and numerous health benefits make it an increasingly popular choice in various sectors, contributing to its widespread usage worldwide.
In this study, storage related changes in physico-chemical and sensory properties of non-fat fermented milk drinks that contain soy protein isolate (SPI), pea protein isolate (BPI), wheat gluten (BG) and rice protein (PP) were investigated.
Vegetable protein additives at a level of 0,5% were added to the reconstituted skim milk (10,7% DM) and then this mixture was heat treated for 10 minutes at 90°C. Milks, used in production of yoghurt were inoculated with 3% yoghurt starter culture and incubated at 42±1°C until pH reached 4,6. The yoghurts were stored at 4±1°C for 12 hours and the fermented milk drinks were prepared by diluting the yoghurts (2:1 yoghurt/water). On the 1., 7., 14. and 21. days of storage physico-chemical analysis such as pH, titratable acidity, syneresis, viscosity, dry matter, ash, color (L, a, b values), protein and amino acid contents and sensory properties such as texture, flavor, color, flavor intensity, flavor and overall acceptability were determined.
Addition of vegetable protein additives to non-fat fermented milk drinks have affected pH, titratable acidity%, syneresis, viscosity, dry matter, ash, color (L, a, b values), protein and amino acid contents (p<0,01). During storage, viscosity values of non-fat fermented milk drinks showed an increase. Vegetable protein additives have increased amino acid levels of non-fat fermented milk drinks. The highest rate of essential amino acids was found in SPI-added drinks with major amino acids being lysine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine and threonine. Fermented milk drinks with BPI have a preferred taste than the others. In general vegetable protein additives were found to be effective on sensorial attributes (p<0,01).
In conclusion, the use of vegetable protein additivites in non-fat fermented milk drink formulations was shown to improve the physico-chemical and sensory properties, as well as increase the nutritional value, and therefore, could be an alternative for the development of functional dairy products.
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is a flowering plant belonging to the sesamum genus, sometimes referred to as benne. Since prehistoric times, people have grown sesame seeds in tropical climates all throughout the planet. One of the earliest crops to be processed for oil refining was sesame seed. There are a lot of phytochemicals in sesame seeds, both black and white, including eight primary metabolites and sixteen secondary metabolites. Sesame seeds are widely utilised in traditional medicine and cooking due to their nourishing, healing, and protecting qualities. The sesame plant is also used to create a variety of nanoparticles, including iron and silver nanoparticles. For optimal use, an examination of the ethnobotanical and medicinal applications of this very nutritious oilseed—which is also commercially significant—is appropriate. This study's main goal is to learn more about the regular benefits of sesame seeds for pharmacological, medicinal, and ethnobotanical applications.
Sesame oil has a long history of usage as a food and medicine. It is the most used oil as a medicine or as a base oil for preparations of many compound drugs in the Unani system of medicine. It has a wide range of biological activities as mentioned in Unani classical text; this review highlights its pharmacological activities and their possible mode of action. Searched many Unani classical literature online and offline and simultaneously did parallel search on databases like PubMed, and Science Direct, and extraction of data related to sesame oil, sesame seeds with its pharmacological activities, mode of action, then interpretation and summarization of all related data. Sesame oil possesses many biological activities like anti-inflammatory, antihyperlipidemic, antiatherosclerotic, hepatoprotective, antiasthmatic, analgesic, emollient, antipruritic, and wound healing effects, which were scientifically demonstrated as mentioned in Unani literature. Sesame oil has a hopeful effect on modulating diseases with no significant toxic effect; so, there is a need to identify its safety and efficacy on human subjects to develop a new potential drug.
BACKGROUND
Phytosterol can improve its lipid solubility, lipophilic/hydrophilic balance and bioaccessibility by esterification with fatty acids, which increases its practical application range in the food industry. In the present study, small angle X‐ray scattering combined with the pH‐stat in vitro digestion model was applied to continuously monitor the molecular structure evolution of mixed micelles during digestion and investigate the effect of three edible oils (olive oil with 72.41 ± 0.57% oleic, sunflower seed oil with 63.45 ± 0.78% linoleic, refined linseed oil with 51.74 ± 0.34% linolenic) on bioaccessibility of stigmasterol oleate in vitro.
RESULTS
The release degree and rate of fatty acids in the three edible oil systems (kOO+ST‐OA = 0.0501, kSO+ST−OA = 0.0357, kLO+ST‐OA = 0.0323) was compared. The three different edible oils had similar impact on the formation of dietary mixed micelles during the simulatedin vitro digestion of stigmasterol oleate, although there were significant differences in molecular morphology and composition of mixed micelles. The results showed that the vesicles formed by linoleic oil (SO system) or linolenic oil (LO system) were easy to dissociate. The largest average number and diameter of vesicles (5.55 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ and 2230.75 Å), the most stable vesicle structure and the fastest fatty acid release rate were observed in the OO system.
CONCLUSION
Compared to linoleic (SO system) or linolenic (LO system), the oleic (OO system) could facilitate the transformation of micelles to vesicles and maintain the stability of its membrane, significantly promotin the dissolution of stigmasterol and improving bioaccessibility. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
As important supplementary to major edible oils, comparative chemical advantages of minor edible oils decide their development and usage. In this study, chemical composition of 13 kinds of specific edible vegetable oils were investigated. The comparative advantages of chemical compositions of these edible oils were obtained as follows: (1) camellia, tiger nut and almond oil were rich in oleic acid, the contents of which accounted for 79.43%, 69.16% and 66.26%, respectively; (2) safflower oil contained the highest content of linoleic acid (76.69%), followed by grape seed (66.85%) and walnut oil (57.30%); (3) perilla seed, siritch, peony seed and herbaceous peony seed oil were rich in α-linolenic acid (59.61%, 43.74%, 40.83% and 30.84%, respectively); (4) the total phytosterol contents of these oils ranged from 91.46 mg/100 g (camellia oil) to 506.46 mg/100 g (siritch oil); and (5) The best source of tocopherols was sacha inchi oil (122.74 mg/100 g), followed by perilla seed oil (55.89 mg/100 g), peony seed oil (53.73 mg/100 g) and herbaceous peony seed oil (47.17 mg/100 g). The comparative advantages of these specific edible oils indicated that they possess the high potential nutritional values and health care functions.
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a worldwide cultivated oil crop that belongs to the family Pedaliaceae. Sesame seeds possess high nutritional value, enriching fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and vitamins. Various phytochemical constituents are found in sesame seeds and/or oil, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytosterols, tocopherols, phospholipids, and unique class of lignans such as sesamin and sesamolin, showing specific health potential to the human body (antioxidant, antimutagenic, estrogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and hypolipidemic). Bioavailability is composed of two components: bioactivity and bioaccessibility. However, because phytochemicals are treated by the body as xenobiotics, their bioavailability is poor, and their presence in the body is temporary. Although specific methods for determining phytochemical bioavailability in sesame are being established using both in vitro and in vivo approaches, the results are still inconclusive. Several factors will impact bioavailability in the human body, including molecular structure, transport mechanisms, and food-drug interactions. To improve the bioavailability of phytochemicals in sesame and thereby enhance the bioactivities, specific methods such as the application of sesamol solid lipid nanoparticles, the application of colloidal systems, and changing the solubility of phytosterols will be discussed.
Background
The plant‐based Dietary Portfolio combines established cholesterol‐lowering foods (plant protein, nuts, viscous fiber, and phytosterols), plus monounsaturated fat, and has been shown to improve low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol and other cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. No studies have evaluated the relation of the Dietary Portfolio with incident CVD events.
Methods and Results
We followed 123 330 postmenopausal women initially free of CVD in the Women's Health Initiative from 1993 through 2017. We used Cox proportional‐hazard models to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CI of the association of adherence to a Portfolio Diet score with CVD outcomes. Primary outcomes were total CVD, coronary heart disease, and stroke. Secondary outcomes were heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Over a mean follow‐up of 15.3 years, 13 365 total CVD, 5640 coronary heart disease, 4440 strokes, 1907 heart failure, and 929 atrial fibrillation events occurred. After multiple adjustments, adherence to the Portfolio Diet score was associated with lower risk of total CVD (HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.83–0.94), coronary heart disease (HR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.78–0.95), and heart failure (HR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.71–0.99), comparing the highest to lowest quartile of adherence. There was no association with stroke (HR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.87–1.08) or atrial fibrillation (HR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.87–1.38). These results remained statistically significant after several sensitivity analyses.
Conclusions
In this prospective cohort of postmenopausal women in the United States, higher adherence to the Portfolio Diet was associated with a reduction in incident cardiovascular and coronary events, as well as heart failure. These findings warrant further investigation in other populations.
This paper reports data from a characterization study conducted on the unsaponifiable lipid fraction of dry-grind corn bioethanol side streams. Phytosterols, squalene, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and carotenoids were quantified by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode-Array Detector (HPLC-DAD) and Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in different lots of post-fermentation corn oil and thin stillage collected from a bioethanol plant over a time-span of one year. Fat-soluble bioactives were present at high levels in corn oil, with a prevalence of plant sterols over tocols and squalene. Beta-sitosterol and sitostanol accounted altogether for more than 60% of total sterols. The carotenoid profile was that typical of corn, with lutein and zeaxanthin as the prevalent molecules. The unsaponifiable lipid fraction profile of thin stillage was qualitatively similar to that of post-fermentation corn oil but, in quantitative terms, the amounts of valuable biomolecules were much lower because of the very high dilution of this side stream. Results indicate that post-fermentation corn oil is a promising and sustainable source of health-promoting bioactive molecules. The concomitant presence of a variegate complex of bioactive molecules with high antioxidant potentialities and their potential multifaceted market applications as functional ingredients for food, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical formulations, make the perspective of their recovery a promising strategy to create new bio-based value chains and maximize the sustainability of corn dry-grind bioethanol biorefineries.
Phytosterols (plant sterols and stanols) and waxes are a part of the minor components of vegetable fats and oils. Stanols are the saturated form of plant sterols. Phytosterols (PS) are isoprenoid derivatives, which are essential compounds of biological membranes. They are structurally similar to cholesterol and control fluidity of eukaryote membranes and have role in the synthesis of hormonal sterols. PS are a major part of the unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils. They can be found either in free or esterified forms. PS are classified into three groups according to the presence or absence of methyl group at their C4 position, namely desmethylsterols (without methyl group), monomethylsterols (with one methyl group), and dimethylsterols (with two methyl groups). Generally, desmethylsterols comprise a high proportion of PS. PS have antioxidative properties and also can be used in vegetable oil authenticity. Consumption of PS through diet has beneficial effects on human health, such as lowering of LDL cholesterol and prevention of various types of cancers. However, PS like other lipids can be oxidized, and their oxidation products are important from the nutritional point of view. Waxes naturally occur in vegetable oils. They are present in saponifiable fraction and can be removed with dewaxing/winterization process, which is necessary in salad oils. Waxes have different edible and nonedible applications. This article reviews plant sterols, stanols and waxes structure, content in vegetable oils, changes in the effects of various processes, applications, analytical aspects, and future prospects.
The goal of this investigation was to quantify phytosterols (ST) (campesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-sitostanol and campestanol) and tocols (TO, tocopherol and tocotrienol) in the edible oils (corn oil, sunflower oil, blended oil and palm oil) in the Egyptian market. The best source of ST was corn oil (4,814 µg/g) samples while palm oil samples had the lowest ST level (660 µg/g). Values of total ST were 2,872 and 3,443 µg/g for sunflower and blended oil samples, respectively. β-sitosterol was the main ST (ca. 70%), followed by campesterol (ca. 16%) and stigmasterol (ca. 9.4%), while β-sitostanol and campestanol were detected in some oils in small amounts or traces. Levels of total TO in corn, sunflower, blended and palm oil samples were 891.4, 716.1, 707.5 and 311.8 µg/g, respectively. In sunflower and blended oil samples, α-tocopherol was the main TO which accounted for more than 80% of total TO, while α-tocopherol was found in lower levels in corn and palm oils accounting for ca. 40% of TO.
The composite film was developed from refined carrageenan (RC), semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) and konjac glucomannan (KGM) in various percent to study the functionality as active packaging for sesame oil. The physical, mechanical and functional properties of composite films were evaluated and shelf-life of sesame oil in the composite film also estimated during storage. Results showed that the thickness of the film increased to 0.066 mm from 0.034 with increasing ratio of KGM with carrageenan. The water vapor transmission rate of film made up of RC/KGM showed 91.4–110.8 g m⁻² d⁻¹, its counterpart SRC/KGM was 80–91.2 g m⁻² d⁻¹. The tensile strength and elongation at break were increased in 10% of KGM with RC and SRC. The composite films prepared were made into pouches with food grade adhesive and used for storing oil. Low WVTR resulted in the low oxidation rate and less production of peroxide values and iodine value in sesame oil while storage. It was also observed that no significant changes in the content of phytosterols of sesame oil were found during storage of three months (campesterol: 88.9–94.4 mg/100 gm, stigmasterol: 42.1–48.4mg/100 gm, and β-sitosterol 318.0–333.8 mg/100 gm). Therefore, the composite film functioned as an effective oil packaging material by preserving the active compounds in oil and hence this packaging material is an alternative to conventional plastic packaging material.
Rice bran oil (RBO) has become a popular oil globally. However, the RBO extraction process leaves various residue products, which contain bioactive substances of varying potency which could be significant sources of functional ingredients for both food production and pharmaceutical manufacture. The objective of our study was to compare the bioactive substances in various by-products derived from the two rice bran oil processing methods; solvent extraction and cold pressing. The residues from solvent extraction processing contained up to 97.37 mg/100 g of γ-aminobutyric acid in defatted rice bran, and the rice acid oil contained high levels of vitamin E (tocopherols, tocotrienols), up to 120.59 mg/100 g, as well as γ-oryzanol (3829.65 mg/100 g), phytosterol (599.40 mg/100 g), and policosanol compounds (332.79 mg/100 g). All of these values are higher than in the residues derived from cold pressing. Importantly, high amounts of total nutraceuticals (8.3 kg/100 kg) were found in residues from both processing methods, indicating the commercial potential of these residues as a source of functional ingredients for food production, as dietary supplements, and in pharmaceutical manufacture.
Phytosterols (plant sterols) occur in the cells of all plants. They are important structural components that stabilize the biological membranes of plants. Sterols can occur in the "free" unbound form or they can be covalently bound via an ester or glycosidic bond. Since our previous 2002 review on phytosterols and phytosterol conjugates, phytosterol glucosides have been found to be important structural components in the lipid rafts of the plasma membrane of plant cells, where they are thought to be essential to the function of plasma membrane enzymes and perhaps other proteins. Phytosterols also serve as precursors in the synthesis of important bioactive compounds such as steroidal saponins, steroidal glycoalkaloids, phytoecdysteroids, and brassinosteroids. Methods for the analysis of phytosterols range from traditional gas chromatography of free phytosterols to modern sophisticated forms of mass spectrometry which have been used for the new field of sterol lipidomics, sometimes called "sterolomics." Phytosterol-enriched functional foods first appeared about twenty years ago and many clinical studies have confirmed the low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol-lowering properties of various types of phytosterols. In recent years additional clinical studies and more than ten important meta-analyses have provided insights to better understand the cholesterol-lowering and other biological effects of plant sterols.
Depending on scientific developments and advancement in consumer awareness differences in types of nutrition and choice of foods resulted in increment on tendance to functional foods which have favorable effects on human health. The occurrence of positive effects on human health and inclusion of functional characteristics of the bioactive components in soybean compound has made possible adding of these soybean components in to the foods. In this compilation the importance of soybean active components in food are mentioned and along with this their positive effects on human health are introduced.
Fat-based products like vegetable oils and margarines are commonly used for cooking, which may enhance oxidation of plant sterols (PS) present therein, leading to the formation of PS oxidation products (POP). The present study aims to assess the kinetics of POP formation in six different fat-based products. Vegetable oils and margarines without and with added PS (7.5-7.6% w/w) in esterified form were heated in a Petri-dish at temperatures of 150, 180 and 210°C for 8, 12 and 16min. PS and POP were analysed using GC-FID and GC-MS-SIM, respectively. Increasing PS content, temperature and heating time led to higher POP formation in all tested fat-based products. PS (either naturally occurring or added) in margarines were less susceptible to oxidation as compared to PS in vegetable oils. The susceptibility of sitosterol to oxidation was about 20% lower than that of campesterol under all the applied experimental conditions. During heating, the relative abundance of 7-keto-PS (expressed as % of total POP) decreased in all the fat-based products regardless of their PS contents, which was accompanied by an increase in the relative abundance of 7-OH-PS and 5,6-epoxy-PS, while PS-triols were fairly unchanged. In conclusion, heating time, temperature, initial PS content and the matrix of the fat-based products (vegetable oil vs. margarine) showed distinct effects on POP formation and composition of individual POP formed.
Sesame seed is a reservoir of nutritional components with numerous beneficial effects for health promotion in
humans. In order to complement efforts to boost sesame production and thereby enhancing economic returns to
sesame growersthrough itssupply to meet the growing demand in domestic as well asin international market, there
is an urgent need to address an important issue i.e.,safe sesame production. Here, we have adopted two approachesaspects and dimensions - to analyze perspectives of safe sesame, with the objective of achieving comprehensive
understanding of various issues and considerations related to safe sesame production and its human consumption.
Apartfromtwo dimensions- human health and trade -, there are mainly two aspects ofsesame being considered safe.
The first aspect is concerned with how safe is sesame seed or oil for human consumption in terms of its nutritional
components including the absence of anti-nutritional factors. The second is regarding the absence of chemicals,
infectious pathogens and other contaminants that may pose threat to human health. In this paper, we have analyzed
the available literature, related to safe sesame production, in the light of eight considerations: (1) Human nutrition,
(2) Meteorology, (3) Genotype, (4) Technology, (5) Crop management, (6) Plant health management, (7) Harvest
and post-harvest handling and (8) Challenges.
Pistacia lentiscus L. seed oil is used in some Mediterranean forest area for culinary and medicinal purposes. In this study, we aim to examine, for the first time, the effect of growing area on sterol content of Pistacia lentiscus seed oil. Fruits were harvested from thirteen different sites located in northern and central Tunisia. Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) was used to quantify sterols and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to identify them. The major sterol identified was β-sitosterol with a value ranging from 854.12 to 1224.09 mg/kg of oil, thus making up more than 54% of the total sterols. The other two main sterols were cycloartenol (11%) and 24-methylene-cycloartenol (5%). Statistical results revealed that growing location significantly (P < 0.001) affected phytosterol levels in these oils. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Berry seed and grapeseed oils are major by-products of the berry and grape processing industry. Black currant, blueberry, boysenberry, cherries, cloudberry, cranberry, goldenberry, marionberry, and sea buckthorn, as well as some other berry seed oils and grapeseed oil, are produced and are commercially available. Berry seed and grapeseed oils are generally used for food and cosmetic purposes because they contain fatty acids and other bioactive components, including vitamins and antioxidants that add to their technological properties and possible health benefits. Berry seed oils, such as black currant, cranberry, grape, and raspberry, are commonly extracted from the berry press cake, a juice or wine production by-product. For grapeseed and other berry oil, the available sources include by-products of juice, jam, and jelly manufacturing. Grapeseed oil is primarily used as a gourmet oil; the berry seed oils are primarily used as dietary supplements.
Background: Phytosterol feeding in human clinical trials has had generally small and inconsistent effects on serum cholesterol concentrations, raising doubts about the importance of phytosterols in natural diets and supplements.
Objective: The hypothesis tested was that the low intestinal bioavailability of purified phytosterols can be increased by formulation with lecithin.
Design: The ability of sitostanol to reduce cholesterol absorption was measured directly by including hexadeuterated cholesterol tracer in a standard test breakfast and measuring plasma tracer concentration 4 and 5 d later by gas chromatography–negative ion mass spectrometry. The tracer amount after a test meal containing sitostanol was compared with that after an identical meal containing placebo. Each subject served as his or her own control and the order of testing was random. Sitostanol was formulated either as a powder or as a sonicated micellar solution with lecithin. A total of 38 single-meal tests were performed in 6 healthy subjects.
Results: Sitostanol powder (1 g) reduced cholesterol absorption by only 11.3 ± 7.4% (P = 0.2), confirming in vitro data showing poor solubility of sitostanol powder in artificial bile. In contrast, sitostanol in lecithin micelles reduced cholesterol absorption by 36.7 ± 4.2% (P = 0.003) at a dose of 700 mg and by 34.4 ± 5.8% (P = 0.01) at a dose of 300 mg.
Conclusions: Sitostanol reduced cholesterol absorption at doses lower than reported previously, but only if presented in lecithin micelles. Properly formulated sitostanol as well as naturally occurring complexes of phytosterol and phospholipid might be therapeutically useful for cholesterol lowering.
The free and esterified sterol concentrations in 31 edible oils and fats were determined, including individual values for sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, brassicasterol, Δ5-avenasterol, sitostanol, campestanol, and cholesterol. Free and esterified sterols were separated by solid-phase extraction (SPE), saponified, and quantified as trimethylsilyl ether derivatives using capillary gas–liquid chromatography. Considerable variability in the proportion of free and esterified sterols was observed among different oils and fats, with free sterols ranging from 32 to 94% of total sterols. Refining or hydrogenation tended to decrease total sterols and increase esterified sterols. Differences in total phytosterol content and the proportion of free and esterified sterols also were evident for different samples of some oils. Among four soybean oils, total phytosterols ranged from 205 to 287 mg/100 g, and free sterols constituted 68–81% of total sterols; two different shortenings differed 62% in total sterol content (185–301 mg/100 g). Such variability in phytosterol composition likely reflects differences in processing, growing season, or variety of a particular plant source.
A nutritional survey of 372 semiacculturated Tarahumara Indians in the Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains of Mexico was carried out to determine the composition of their diet and its nutritional adequacy. Dietary histories from 174 adults and 198 children were obtained by interviews and field observations during 1973 and 1974. The histories for the children were calculated in part from the menus of six boarding church schools. Nutrient calculations of daily intake were based upon food composition tables and some actual analyses of Tarahumara foods. The protein intake was ample, at 87 g, and generously met the FAO/WHO recommendations for daily intake of essential amino acids. Fat contributed only 12% of total calories, its composition being 2% saturated and 5% polyunsaturated with a P/S ratio of 2. The mean dietary cholesterol intake was very low, less than 100 mg/day, and the plant sterol intake was high, over 400 mg/day. Carbohydrate comprised 75 to 80% of total calories, mostly from starch. Only 6% of total calories were derived from simple sugars. The crude fiber intake was high, 18 to 21 g/day. Salt consumption was moderately low, 5 to 8 g/day. The daily intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, thiamin niacin, riboflavin, and vitamin B6 exceeded or approximated the FAO/WHO recommendations. Thus, the simple diet of the Tarahumara Indians, composed primarily of beans and corn, provided a high intake of complex carbohydrate and was low in fat and cholesterol. Their diet was found to be generally of high nutritional quality and would, by all criteria, be considered antiatherogenic.
The dietary intake of cholesterol, phytosterol and PUFA in Japanese was investigated to obtain information on dietary parameters related to coronary artery disease. Three daily menus for both 1957 and 1982 were prepared based on the daily per capita consumption of foods and nutrient intakes from national surveys. From 1957 to 1982, the average daily intake of cholesterol rose 2.1-fold from 183 to 376 mg while that of phytosterol remained at about 373 mg. Daily intakes of total fatty acid (19.2 g), PUFA (7.3 g), MUFA (5.8 g) and SFA (6.1 g) in 1957 increased in 1982 to 48.7 g, 11.9 g, 19.5 g and 17.3 g, respectively. The ratio of PUFA/SFA decreased to 56% from 1.23 in 1957 to 0.69 in 1982 and the PUFA/MUFA ratio also decreased to 48%. The PUFA/cholesterol ratio was lower in 1982 (31.8) than in 1957 (42.6), and the decrease in the phytosterol/cholesterol ratio to 46% was greater than that in the PUFA/cholesterol ratio (which only fell to 75% of the 1957 value). Thus, comparison of the 1982 and 1957 intakes indicated the increase in risk factors, cholesterol and SFA intake, and the decrease in the ratio of PUFA/SFA in the Japanese population during the past few decades.
Cholesterol and fat are implicated as dietary factors enhancing the risk for colon carcinogenesis. Plant sterols such as beta-sitosterol when added to diets of experimental animals treated with colon carcinogens reduce tumor yields and counteract the proliferative changes associated with carcinogenesis. The question of whether the diet of human populations at low risk for colon cancer is mirrored in their sterol composition is addressed in this study. Four study groups consisting of 18 Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) pure vegetarians, 50 SDA lacto-ovo vegetarians, 50 SDA nonvegetarians, and 50 general population nonvegetarians were selected from the greater Los Angeles basin, and 3-day composite diets were analyzed for their sterol composition. The most significant index of dietary sterol status is the ratio, beta-sitosterol + stigmasterol/cholesterol (plant sterol/cholesterol ratio). The values for the four groups ranged from 0.49 to 16.0 (general population nonvegetarians = 0.49; SDA-nonvegetarians = 0.98; SDA lacto-ovo vegetarians = 3.26; SDA pure vegetarians = 16.0). The data also show that the absolute amounts of cholesterol consumed as a factor by itself might not be as significant as its relationship to total plant sterols in the diet.
Dietary plant sterols, especially sitostanol, reduce serum cholesterol by inhibiting cholesterol absorption. Soluble sitostanol may be more effective than a less soluble preparation. We tested the tolerability and cholesterol-lowering effect of margarine containing sitostanol ester in a population with mild hypercholesterolemia.
We conducted a one-year, randomized, double-blind study in 153 randomly selected subjects with mild hypercholesterolemia. Fifty-one consumed margarine without sitostanol ester (the control group), and 102 consumed margarine containing sitostanol ester (1.8 or 2.6 g of sitostanol per day).
The margarine containing sitostanol ester was well tolerated. The mean one-year reduction in serum cholesterol was 10.2 percent in the sitostanol group, as compared with an increase of 0.1 percent in the control group. The difference in the change in serum cholesterol concentration between the two groups was -24 mg per deciliter (95 percent confidence interval, -17 to -32; P < 0.001). The respective reductions in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were 14.1 percent in the sitostanol group and 1.1 percent in the control group. The difference in the change in LDL cholesterol concentration between the two groups was -21 mg per deciliter (95 percent confidence interval, -14 to -29; P < 0.001). Neither serum triglyceride nor high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were affected by sitostanol. Serum campesterol, a dietary plant sterol whose levels reflect cholesterol absorption, was decreased by 36 percent in the sitostanol group, and the reduction was directly correlated with the reduction in total cholesterol (r = 0.57, P < 0.001).
Substituting sitostanol-ester margarine for part of the daily fat intake in subjects with mild hypercholesterolemia was effective in lowering serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol.
Most animal and human studies show that phytosterols reduce serum/or plasma total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Phytosterols are structurally very similar to cholesterol except that they always contain some substitutions at the C24 position on the sterol side chain. Plasma phytosterol levels in mammalian tissue are normally very low due primarily to poor absorption from the intestine and faster excretion from liver compared to cholesterol. Phytosterols are able to be metabolized in the liver into C21 bile acids via liver other than normal C24 bile acids in mammals. It is generally assumed that cholesterol reduction results directly from inhibition of cholesterol absorption through displacement of cholesterol from micelles. Structure-specific effects of individual phytosterol constituents have recently been shown where saturated phytosterols are more efficient compared to unsaturated compounds in reducing cholesterol levels. In addition, phytosterols produce a wide spectrum of therapeutic effects in animals including anti-tumour properties. Phytosterols have been shown experimentally to inhibit colon cancer development. With regard to toxicity, no obvious side effects of phytosterol have been observed in studies to date, except in individual with phytosterolemia, an inherited lipid disorder. Further characterization of the influence of various phytosterol subcomponents on lipoprotein profiles in humans is required to maximize the usefulness of this non-pharmacological approach to reduction of atherosclerosis in the population.
Phytosterols (plant sterols), abundant in fat-soluble fractions of plants, are consumed at levels of 200-400 mg/day in Western diets. Chemically resembling cholesterol, phytosterols inhibit the absorption of cholesterol. Phytosterol consumption in human subjects under a wide range of study conditions has been shown to reduce plasma total and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels; however, the response varies widely. Greater cholesterol-lowering efficacy occurs with consumption of the saturated phytosterol sitostanol versus sitosterol or campesterol. Most studies report no effect of phytosterol administration in high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol or triglyceride levels, although certain evidence exists for an HDL cholesterol raising effect of sitostanol. Phytosterol absorption is limited, although serum phytosterol levels have proven to be important indicators of both cholesterol absorption and synthesis. Serum phytosterols correlate with HDL cholesterol level. In addition, higher phytosterol/cholesterol ratios appear in HDL versus LDL particles, suggesting the existence of an intrinsic phytosterol action, in addition to the extrinsic effect on cholesterol absorption. In conclusion, addition to diet of the phytosterol sitostanol represents an effective means of improving circulating lipid profiles to reduce risk of coronary heart disease.
To compare effects on plasma total-, LDL-, and HDL-cholesterol concentrations of margarines enriched with different vegetable oil sterols or sitostanol-ester.
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled balanced incomplete Latin square design with five treatments and four periods of 3.5 weeks. Margarines enriched with sterols from soybean, sheanut or ricebran oil or with sitostanol-ester were compared to a non-enriched control margarine. Sterol intake was between 1.5-3.3 g/d. Two thirds of the soybean oil sterols were esterified to fatty acids.
Unilever Research Laboratory, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands.
One hundred healthy non-obese normocholesterolaemic and mildly hypercholesterolaemic volunteers aged 45+/-12.8 y, with plasma total cholesterol levels below 8 mmol/L at entry.
Plasma lipid, carotenoid and sterol concentrations, blood clinical chemistry and haematology, fatty acid composition of plasma cholesterylesters and food intake.
Ninety-five volunteers completed the study. None of the margarines induced adverse changes in blood clinical chemistry, serum total bile acids or haematology. Plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly reduced by 8-13% (0.37-0.44 mmol/L) compared to control for margarines enriched in soybean oil sterol-esters or sitostanol-ester. No effect on HDL-cholesterol concentrations occurred. The LDL- to HDL-cholesterol ratio was reduced by 0.37 and 0.33 units for these margarines, respectively. Effects on blood lipids did not differ between normocholesterolaemic and mildly hypercholesterolaemic subjects. Plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels were significantly higher for the soybean oil sterol margarine and significantly lower for the sitostanol-ester margarine compared to control. Dietary intake was very similar across treatments. The fatty acid composition of plasma cholesterylesters confirmed the good compliance to the treatment. All sterol enriched margarines reduced lipid-standardized plasma alpha- plus beta-carotene levels. Plasma lycopene levels were also reduced but this effect was not significant for all products.
A margarine with sterol-esters from soybean oil, mainly esters from sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol, is as effective as a margarine with sitostanol-ester in lowering blood total- and LDL-cholesterol levels without affecting HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Incorporation in edible fat containing products of such substances may substantially reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in the population.
Although supplementing the diet with large quantities of phytosterols reduces cholesterol absorption and LDL-cholesterol concentrations, very little is known about the smaller amounts of phytosterols present naturally in food. Vegetable oils are the richest dietary source of phytosterols; corn oil contains 0.77% phytosterols by weight.
We tested the hypothesis that removing phytosterols from corn oil would increase cholesterol absorption when measured in single-meal tests containing corn oil as a source of fat.
Free and esterified phytosterols were removed from corn oil on a kilogram scale by a new technique of competitive saturation adsorption to silica. Healthy subjects with a mean (+/-SEM) serum cholesterol concentration of 5.10 +/- 0.18 mmol/L received an otherwise sterol-free test breakfast on 2 occasions 2 wk apart that contained 35 mg hexadeuterated cholesterol and 30-35 g of a corn oil preparation. The plasma enrichment of tracer was measured by negative ion mass spectrometry.
Cholesterol absorption was 38.0 +/- 10.2% higher after consumption of the sterol-free corn oil than after consumption of commercial corn oil with an identical fatty acid content (P = 0.005; n = 10). When corn oil phytosterols were added back to sterol-free corn oil at a concentration of 150 mg/test meal, cholesterol absorption was reduced by 12.1 +/- 3.7% (P = 0.03; n = 5) and by 27.9 +/- 9.1% (P = 0.01; n = 10) after inclusion of 300 mg phytosterols.
Phytosterols comprising < 1% of commercial corn oil substantially reduced cholesterol absorption and may account for part of the cholesterol-lowering activity of corn oil previously attributed solely to unsaturated fatty acids.
We examined the relation between intake of natural dietary plant sterols and serum lipid concentrations in a free-living population.
Cross-sectional population-based study of 22,256 men and women aged 39-79 y resident in Norfolk, UK, participating in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC-Norfolk). MAIN EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME MEASURES: Plant sterol intake from foods and concentrations of blood lipids.
Mean concentrations of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, adjusted for age, body mass index and total energy intake, decreased with increasing plant sterol intake in men and women. Mean total serum cholesterol concentration for men in the highest fifth of plant sterol intake (mean intake 463 mg daily) was 0.25 mmol/l lower and for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol 0.14 mmol/l lower than those in the lowest fifth of plant sterol consumption (mean intake 178 mg daily); the corresponding figures in women were 0.15 and 0.13 mmol/l. After adjusting for saturated fat and fibre intakes, the results for total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were similar, although the strength of the association was slightly reduced.
In a free-living population, a high intake of plant sterols is inversely associated with lower concentrations of total and low-density lipoprotein serum cholesterol. The plant sterol content of foods may partly explain diet-related effects on serum cholesterol concentration.
These figures on phytosterols should he welcomed by dietitians and nutritionists concerned with planning fat-controlled diets and menus.
The Seventh International Symposium on the Structure and Function of Plant Lipids took place at the University of California, Davis, California July 27th to August 1st, 1986. This was the first time the Symposium was held in the United States. The list of previous host cities reads, Norwich, Karlsruhe, Goteborg, Paris, Groningen, Neuchatel. The addition of Davis to this distinguished list was made by the organizers with the doubts of people who give invitations to parties - will anybody come? In fact 155 participants registered and there were 21 spouses in attendance. The scientific program was composed of nine sessions: biochemistry of isoprenoids and sterols, function of isoprenoids and sterols, structure and function of lipids, biosynthesis of complex lipids, fatty acid oxygenases and desaturases, medium and long chain fatty acids, interaction of university, government and industrial research, algal lipids, and genetics and biotechnology. In addition to these sessions of plenary lectures, there were four poster sessions in which about 140 posters were presented. All of this was packed into four days, and there was some comment about the scarcity of time to ask questions of the speakers, discuss the posters and even to eat lunch. The compression of the program was a result of the continued desire of the organizing committees to avoid concurrent sessions. The congregation of participants into a single session increases interaction and generates a feeling of unity at these symposia.
An improved method for determination of plant sterols in foods is described. It comprises successively acid and alkaline hydrolysis, extraction, and quantification by gas-liquid chromatography. The recovery of added sitosterol was 88-93% and the combined coefficient of variation within and between runs 5% or less. After introduction of acid hydrolysis sterol contents found in mixed natural diet samples increased by 2-4% for cholesterol, 13-23% for campesterol, 9-39% for stigmasterol and 22-42% for sitosterol. The amount of plant sterol recovered from individual foodstuffs was also increased. The increases are probably due to liberation of free plant sterols from (acylated) steryl glycosides by cleavage of the acid-labile acetal bond. In duplicate diet samples we identified the major sterols mentioned above, and the minor sterols brassicasterol, Δ7-sitosterol and (iso)fucosterol. The concentration of these minor plant sterols in some foodstuffs is also presented. We conclude that plant sterol consumption as studied in e.g. balance studies is underestimated by the common methods that do not use acid pretreatment. In addition, the conversion by intestinal micro-organisms of Δ7-sitosterol to sitostanol and of (iso)fucosterol to sitosterol could cause errors in sitosterol balance determination.
In this study, plant sterol contents in the most important oils and margarines and cereal products, as well as in vegetables, fruits and berries, available in Finland were determined. The samples were purchased from retail stores or market places or directly obtained from the food industry. Sterols in oils and margarines were analysed by capillary gas chromatography after sample preparation including alkaline hydrolysis to liberate sterols from their esters. Sterols in more complex samples were determined by using a method that comprised of acid hydrolysis prior to alkaline hydrolysis in order to include steryl glycosides in the total sterol yield. Among the oils analysed, rapeseed and maize oils were especially rich in sterols. In Finland, rapeseed oil is the most important oil in margarine production resulting in high sterol contents in margarines. Sterol contents in cereal products correlate with their ash contents. Thus, whole grain flours and especially bran fractions were better sources of plant sterols than refined flours. Many vegetables, fruits and berries have substantially high sterol contents on a dry weight basis. However, they are only moderately important sources of sterols on a fresh weight basis.
Cholesterol intakes in Britain have been re-estimated by analysing Total Diet samples taken in 1991 and from 1993 National Food Survey records. The Total Diet samples contained only 284 mg/day compared with 319 mg/day in 1987 and 337 mg/day in 1981, while the National Food Survey showed intakes had fallen to 238 mg/day from 259 mg/day in 1990 and 405 mg/day in 1970-75. More details of the intakes by adults in 1986/87 are given, and compared with the results from the other methods. Daily intakes of eight phytosterols were also estimated, the main ones being β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and 57-stigmastenol whose intakes were 104, 49, 10 and 4 mg/day, respectively, in 1991. These intakes had increased since 1981, reflecting the rising consumption of vegetable oils.
The content of saturated sterols (stanols) was investigated in a small number of samples of hydrogenated fats and oils, and in the ‘free’ and ‘bound’ lipids of various samples of cereals. The sterols, after saponification of the total lipids, were analysed as trimethylsilyl derivatives by GC and identified by GC–MS. Among the hydrogenated fats and oils, coconut oil contained the largest amounts of sitostanol followed by soybean oil (c 80 and 20 g kg−1 of total unsaponifiables, respectively). No sitostanol could be detected in hydrogenated palm oil under the present analytical conditions. Both ‘free’ and ‘bound’ lipids in various samples of wheat, except for wheat germ, contained c 70–120 g kg−1 campestanol and 100–150 g kg−1 sitostanol in total unsaponifiables. In lipids of oats and barley, no campestanol or sitostanol could be detected. Rye total lipids contained 60–90 g kg−1 of campestanol and 100–150 g kg−1 of sitostanol of total unsaponifiables in ‘free’ and ‘bound’ lipids, respectively.
Plant sterols are an essential component of the membranes of all eukaryotic organisms. They are either synthesised de novo or taken up from the environment. Their function appears to be to control membrane fluidity and permeability, although some plant sterols have a specific function in signal transduction. The phytosterols are products of the isoprenoid pathway. The dedicated pathway to sterol synthesis in photosynthetic plants occurs at the squalene stage through the activity of squalene synthetase. Although the activity of 3-hydroxymethyl-3-glutaryl coenzyme A (HGMR) is rate-limiting in the synthesis of cholesterol, this does not appear to be the case with the plant sterols. Up-regulation of HGMR appears to increase the biosynthesis of cycloartenol but not the Δ5-sterols. A decline in sterol synthesis is associated with a suppression of squalene synthetase activity, which is probably a critical point in controlling carbon flow and end-product formation. The major post-squalene biosynthetic pathway is regulated by critical rate-limiting steps such as the methylation of cycloartenol into cycloeucalenol. Little is known about the factors controlling the biosynthesis of the end-point sterol esters or stanols. The commonly consumed plant sterols are sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol which are predominantly supplied by vegetable oils. The oils are a rich source of the steryl esters. Less important sources of sterols are cereals, nuts and vegetables. The nutritional interest derives from the fact that the sterols have a similar structure to cholesterol, and have the capacity to lower plasma cholesterol and LDL cholesterol. Since the morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease have been dramatically reduced using cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins), the interest in plant sterols lies in their potential to act as a natural preventive dietary product. Stanols (saturated at C-5) occur in low amounts in the diet and are equally effective in lowering plasma cholesterol and do not cause an increase in plasma levels, unlike the sterols which can be detected in plasma.© 2000 Society of Chemical Industry
The aim of this report was to quantify five specific dietary phytosterols and phytostanols (campesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-sitostanol, and campestanol) in cereal foods and to study the effect of boiling on sterol content. A capillary column gas liquid chromatography procedure was used to analyse 76 cereal food items of Swedish and Dutch origin: 19 various flours, grains and germs, 31 processed cereals, including bran, flakes, cereal grains and pasta, nine breads, and 17 biscuits, cakes, crackers, cookies and sweet breads.The median total phytosterol concentration was 49 (range 4.1–344) mg/100 g edible portion (e.p.). Flours, grains and germs had a median concentration of 52 (17–344) mg/100 g e.p., which was similar to breads, 54 (29–89) mg/100 g e.p., and different types of miscellaneous cakes and cookies, 52 (27–112) mg/100 g e.p. Processed cereal products had slightly lower concentrations with a median value of 39 (4.1–200) mg/100 g e.p. In general, β-sitosterol was the dominant phytosterol (62% of the total concentration), followed by campesterol (21%), while there were only small amounts of stigmasterol (4%), β-sitostanol (4%) and campestanol (2%). Boiling of cereal products only influenced the phytosterol concentration through change of water content.
A reliable method for routine use in the determination of sterols in foods is described. In the sample preparation procedure, acid hydrolysis prior to alkaline saponification was used to liberate glycosidic sterols. Sterols were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography as the trimethylsilyl ether derivatives and quantified using an internal standard (dihydrocholesterol). In method development, the main focus was on optimization of hydrolysis conditions and on extraction of sterols after hydrolysis. Performance of the proposed method was compared to the same method without the acid hydrolysis step. Method validation included recovery tests of added free sterol, esterified sterol, and glycosidic sterol. Major plant sterols, including stanols, and cholesterol could be quantitated at levels 0.5–800 mg/100 g when the method was applied to food samples.
Specific fatty acids and sterols in food composites from seven countries were analyzed. In the 1960s, groups of 8 to 49 men from 16 cohorts, ages 40–59 years and living in the United States, Finland, the Netherlands, Italy, Greece, the former Yugoslavia, or Japan recorded their food intake. In 1987, we collected food composites representing the average food intake per cohort sample in the 1960s. The foods were transported to the Netherlands, pooled, and centrally analyzed for energy, total fat, 42 fatty acids, cholesterol, and four plant sterols. The fat content ranged from 12% of total daily energy in the Tanushimaru, Japan, cohort to 50% in the U.S. cohort sample, and the polyunsaturated to saturated fat ratio ranged from 0.17 in the east Finland cohort to 1.2 in Tanushimaru. The amount oftransfatty acids with 16 or 18 carbon atoms varied between 0.2 g/day in Corfu, Greece, and 8.6 g/day in Zutphen, Netherlands, and that of α-linolenic acid between 0.8 g/day in Rome and 2.5 g/day in east Finland. The sum of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexanoic acid ranged from 0.1 (U.S. railroad) to 2.0 g/day (Ushibuka, Japan), and phytosterols from 170 (U.S. railroad) to 358 mg/day (Corfu, Greece). Thus the intake of various fatty acids and sterols with potential relevance for coronary heart disease occurrence varied 10-fold or more between cohorts. Our data can be used to generate new hypotheses about the causes of differences in incidence of diseases between countries.
Diets consisting of food ingredients of both plant and animal origin contain a complex mixture of sterols in the lipid fraction. Analysis of these complex mixtures of sterols is generally accomplished by capillary column GC and GC–MS. A very low polarity liquid phase (methylsilicone) and medium polarity columns of various dimensions are used for the separation and quantitation of sterols. However, these columns may not be able to separate some of the sterols in the mixture. The objective of this study was to accomplish the complete separation of a complex mixture of sterols by GC. In order to achieve this objective, a fused-silica capillary column (14% cyanopropyl-phenyl-methylpolysiloxane) of low/medium polarity was used. Excellent separation of campesterol and campestanol, and sitosterol, sitostanol and Δ5-avenasterol was achieved. In addition to GC resolution, a few critical points for the analysis of sterols are presented.
Available data on phytosterols from the world's literature have been compiled and summarized. There still exists a paucity of data on the quantities of plant sterols in many foods. More extensive data are available on the relative sterol composition. Our compilation shows that plant oils are excellent sources of phytosterols. Nuts and seeds contain moderate levels, and fruits and vegetables generally contain the lowest concentrations of plant sterols. Analyses of the minor sterols, namely, the delta5- and delta7-phytosterols, have become available only recently.
and Summary Seven methods were used to compare the efficiency of total lipid extraction from 13 samples of eight different food products.
The methyl esters of fatty acids and the butyrate esters of sterols were prepared and analyzed by gas liquid chromatography.
On the basis of total lipid recovered and amounts of fatty acids and sterols present, a chloroform: methanol procedure was
selected as the most effective method.
In 1986, a prospective cohort study on diet and cancer was started in The Netherlands. The cohort (n = 120, 852) of 55-69 year old men (48.2%) and women (51.8%) originates from 204 computerized municipal population registries. At baseline, participants completed a self-administered questionnaire on diet and potential confounding variables. In addition, about 67% of the participants provided toenail clippings. Cancer follow-up consists of record linkage to a pathology registry and to cancer registries. The initial interest is in stomach, colorectal, breast and lung tumors. A case-cohort approach is applied, in which detailed follow-up information of a random subcohort (n = 5000) provides an estimate of the person-time experience of the cohort. Exposure data of the subcohort will be combined with those of incident cases, yielding exposure-specific incidence rate ratios. The intraindividual variation in determinants is estimated by annually repeated measurements (n = 250) within the subcohort. The rationale, efficiency aspects and study characteristics are discussed.
To describe the fourth phase of the Prospective Population Study of Women in Gothenburg, Sweden, with special reference to participation and survival.
Prospective population study.
City of Gothenburg with about 430,000 inhabitants.
1462 participants and 128 refusers aged 38-60 years at the time of the initial study in 1968-69, 282 women who were sampled but not invited to the study in 1968-69, and 266 women participating since 1980-81 and 32 women for the first time in 1992-93.
Participation rate, survival, anthropometric and metabolic characteristics.
The participation rate throughout the study period was high. The participants were mainly characteristic of women of the same ages in the general population even after 24 years. The mortality after 24 years was higher in non-participants than in participants, while there was no difference in survival between women who were invited and women who were not invited to the study.
The initial participants were mainly characteristic of the general population, also after a long follow-up period. The long-term survival was lower in initial refusers than in initial participants.
In the last several years, attention has been focused on comparing the Western diet, which is rich in fat, protein, and refined carbohydrates, with the Asian diet, which is rich in phytoestrogens, as a possible explanation for the contrasting rates of clinically relevant prostate cancer. Phytoestrogens, plant-derived nutrients, include several isoflavones, flavonoids, lignans, phytosterols, and coumestans, some of which have been postulated as having anticarcinogenic properties. Using a new database, we examined the role of phytoestrogen intake and prostate cancer risk in 83 Caucasian cases and 107 controls. Controls reported consuming higher amounts of foods containing genistein, daidzein, and coumestrol and lower amounts of foods containing campesterol and stigmasterol. Multivariate analysis, after adjustment for age, family history of prostate cancer, alcohol consumption, and total calorie intake, showed an inverse association between coumestrol (p = 0.03) and daidzein (p = 0.07) and prostate cancer risk. Genistein, the most studied phytoestrogen, showed a slight protective effect (p = 0.26). However, a positive association was found between campesterol (p = 0.08) and stigmasterol (p = 0.03) and risk of prostate cancer. These results are suggestive of a possible relationship between phytoestrogen intake and prostate cancer risk. Larger comprehensive studies are needed to further refine the role of phytoestrogen intake in prostate cancer risk.
For the past two decades, epidemiologists have observed lower risks of lung, breast, prostate, colon, and other cancers in populations that frequently consume fruits and vegetables. Numerous phytoestrogens have been shown to be anticarcinogenic under experimental conditions and may account for at least part of the cancer-prevention effects of fruit and vegetable consumption. These plant constituents include isoflavonoids, coumestans, lignans, phytosterols, and flavonoids. DietSys, the nutrient analysis program associated with the National Cancer Institute Health Habits and History Questionnaire (HHHQ), and other nationally available nutrient analysis databases do not fully assess these constituents. Therefore, we modified DietSys to include these components in foods on the basis of published values. In addition, as part of an epidemiological study of prostate cancer, we modified the food-frequency component of the HHHQ to include the main foods contributing to phytoestrogen intake. Although there are limitations to the consistency and quality of many of the values because they were gathered from a variety of sources, our approach should provide a useful first tool for assessing the epidemiological association between phytoestrogen consumption and cancer risk. Furthermore, this work has already facilitated the identification of the major dietary contributors with phytoestrogen activity and prioritized future laboratory analyses of specific foods toward the development of a more complete and accurate database.
Plant sterols are known to have serum cholesterol lowering effects. A high dietary intake might therefore have a positive impact on health. All food items of vegetable origin contain some amount of plant sterols. The aim of this study was to analyse the plant sterol content of vegetables and fruits commonly consumed in Sweden, and to compare fresh and cooked samples of the same items.
Altogether 20 different vegetables and 14 fruits were analysed. All vegetables and fruits were purchased in two shops in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden. Lyophilization was performed within one month of the items being purchased. The samples were frozen at −20 (C and analysed within six months, with a GLC method after acid hydrolysis, alkaline hydrolysis and silylation with tri-methylsilylether. The acid hydrolysis was done in order to detect the fraction of glycosylated plant sterols, which are split during boiling with HCl.
The median plant sterol content of vegetables was 14 (3.8–50) mg/100 g edible portion. The highest concentrations were found in broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and olives. The median plant sterol content of fruits was 16 (3–44) mg/100 g edible portion. The highest concentrations were found in oranges and passion fruits.
The plant sterol concentrations were thus low in vegetables and fruits commonly consumed in Sweden. A serum cholesterol lowering effect attributed to the plant sterols in vegetables and fruits would therefore be of limited significance.
Phytosterol feeding in human clinical trials has had generally small and inconsistent effects on serum cholesterol concentrations, raising doubts about the importance of phytosterols in natural diets and supplements.
The hypothesis tested was that the low intestinal bioavailability of purified phytosterols can be increased by formulation with lecithin.
The ability of sitostanol to reduce cholesterol absorption was measured directly by including hexadeuterated cholesterol tracer in a standard test breakfast and measuring plasma tracer concentration 4 and 5 d later by gas chromatography-negative ion mass spectrometry. The tracer amount after a test meal containing sitostanol was compared with that after an identical meal containing placebo. Each subject served as his or her own control and the order of testing was random. Sitostanol was formulated either as a powder or as a sonicated micellar solution with lecithin. A total of 38 single-meal tests were performed in 6 healthy subjects.
Sitostanol powder (1 g) reduced cholesterol absorption by only 11.3 +/- 7.4% (P = 0.2), confirming in vitro data showing poor solubility of sitostanol powder in artificial bile. In contrast, sitostanol in lecithin micelles reduced cholesterol absorption by 36.7 +/- 4.2% (P = 0.003) at a dose of 700 mg and by 34.4 +/- 5.8% (P = 0.01) at a dose of 300 mg.
Sitostanol reduced cholesterol absorption at doses lower than reported previously, but only if presented in lecithin micelles. Properly formulated sitostanol as well as naturally occurring complexes of phytosterol and phospholipid might be therapeutically useful for cholesterol lowering.
Although plant sterols (phytosterols) and cholesterol have similar chemical structures, they differ markedly in their synthesis, intestinal absorption, and metabolic fate. Phytosterols inhibit intestinal cholesterol absorption, thereby lowering plasma total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. In 16 recently published human studies that used phytosterols to reduce plasma cholesterol levels in a total of 590 subjects, phytosterol therapy was accompanied by an average 10% reduction in total cholesterol and 13% reduction in LDL cholesterol levels. Phytosterols may also affect other aspects of cholesterol metabolism that contribute to their antiatherogenic properties, and may interfere with steroid hormone synthesis. The clinical and biochemical features of hereditary sitosterolemia, as well as its treatment, are reviewed, and the effects of cholestyramine treatment in 12 sitosterolemic subjects are summarized. Finally, new ideas for future research into the role of phytosterols in health and disease are discussed.
To study cholesterol absorption and excretion in ileostomy subjects with different intakes of saturated fat and dietary fibre.
Short-term experimental study, with four controlled diets in repeated measurements.
Out-patients at metabolic-ward kitchen.
Nine healthy volunteers with conventional ileostomy after colectomy because of ulcerative colitis.
Four diet periods, each of 3 days duration: high saturated fat and low dietary fibre (STAND); reduced saturated fat (RESAT); high saturated fat and high fibre (FATFIB); and reduced saturated fat and high fibre (RESATFIB).
Absorption of cholesterol, and ileal excretion of cholesterol, bile acids, fat and energy. Differences between diets evaluated with Friedman's two-way analysis of variance by rank sum with Bonferroni adjustment, and post hoc differences assessed by rank sum comparison.
RESAT and RESATFIB reduced fractional cholesterol absorption by 7% and 10%; RESATFIB and FATFIB increased net cholesterol excretion by 46% and 54% respectively. Further, RESATFIB increased net sterol excretion by 18%, all compared to STAND (P<0.05 for all). All three intervention diets contained more phytosterols than STAND (P<0.05), and the phytosterol content was inversely correlated to fractional cholesterol absorption (r=-0.77, P<0.01).
Current nutrition recommendations to reduce saturated fat and increase dietary fibre affect sterol excretion additively. The effect on cholesterol absorption might be partly explained by the content of dietary plant sterols.
Supported by grants from the Gothenburg Medical Society, grant numbers 94/086 and 99/082, and by the University of Gothenburg.
Work from our laboratory, as well as others, suggests a protective role of phytosterols (PS), especially beta-sitosterol, from colon, prostate, and breast cancer. Asians and vegetarians consume higher amounts of PS than Western societies. The latter societies have a higher incidence of these cancers than Asians and vegetarians. The aim of this study was to evaluate peanuts and its products as sources of PS in the American diet. Roasted peanuts contain 61-114 mg PS/100 g depending on the peanut variety, 78-83% of which is in the form of beta-sitosterol. Unrefined peanut oil contains 207 mg PS/100 g, which is similar to that of the US Department of Agriculture Nutrient Database. This value is higher than that of unrefined olive oil. Refining these oils results in reduction in PS concentration in the oil. This loss is greater in the case of olive oil than peanut oil. Further refining, such as deodorization, results in significant loss in PS, but hydrogenation after refining has a minimal effect on PS loss. Peanut butter, which represents 50% of the peanuts consumed in the United States, contains 144-157 mg PS/100 g. Peanut flour, which results from partial removal of oil from peanuts, contains 55-60 mg PS/100 g. The data suggest that peanuts and its products, such as peanut oil, peanut butter, and peanut flour, are good sources of PS.
Phytosterols (PS) or plant sterols are structurally similar to cholesterol. The most common PS are beta-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol. Epidemiologic and experimental studies suggest that dietary PS may offer protection from the most common cancers in Western societies, such as colon, breast and prostate cancer. This review summarizes the findings of these studies and the possible mechanisms by which PS offer this protection. These include the effect of PS on membrane structure and function of tumor and host tissue, signal transduction pathways that regulate tumor growth and apoptosis, immune function of the host and cholesterol metabolism by the host. In addition, suggestions for future studies to fill the gaps in our knowledge have been given.
Plant sterols in vegetable foods might prevent colorectal cancer.
The objective was to study plant sterol intakes in relation to colorectal cancer risk in an epidemiologic study.
The study was performed within the framework of the Netherlands Cohort Study on Diet and Cancer in 120852 subjects who completed a baseline questionnaire in 1986. After 6.3 y of follow-up, 620 colon and 344 rectal cancer cases were detected. A case-cohort approach was used to calculate confounder-adjusted rate ratios (RRs) and their 95% CIs for quintiles of plant sterol intake.
The total mean (+/-SD) intake of campesterol, stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, campestanol, and beta-sitostanol was 285 +/- 97 mg/d. Major contributors to plant sterol intake were bread (38%), vegetable fats (26%), and fruit and vegetables (21%). For men, there was no clear association between intake of any of the plant sterols and colon cancer risk when age, smoking, alcohol use, family history of colorectal cancer, education level, and cholecystectomy were controlled for. Adjustment for energy did not alter the result. For rectal cancer, adjustment for energy resulted in positive associations between risk and campesterol and stigmasterol intakes. For women, there was no clear association between intake of any of the plant sterols and colorectal cancer risk.
A high dietary intake of plant sterols was not associated with a lower risk of colon and rectal cancers in the Netherlands Cohort Study on Diet and Cancer.
Phytosterols are cholesterol-like molecules found in all plant foods, with the highest concentrations occurring in vegetable oils. They are absorbed only in trace amounts but inhibit the absorption of intestinal cholesterol including recirculating endogenous biliary cholesterol, a key step in cholesterol elimination. Natural dietary intake varies from about 167-437 mg/day. Attempts to measure biological effects in feeding studies have been impeded by limited solubility in both water and fat. Esterification of phytosterols with long-chain fatty acids increases fat solubility by 10-fold and allows delivery of several grams daily in fatty foods such as margarine. A dose of 2 g/day as the ester reduces low density lipoprotein cholesterol by 10%, and little difference is observed between Delta(5)-sterols and 5alpha-reduced sterols (stanols). Phytosterols can also be dispersed in water after emulsification with lecithin and reduce cholesterol absorption when added to nonfat foods. In contrast to these supplementation studies, much less is known about the effect of low phytosterol levels in the natural diet. However, reduction of cholesterol absorption can be measured at a dose of only 150 mg during otherwise sterol-free test meals, suggesting that natural food phytosterols may be clinically important. Current literature suggests that phytosterols are safe when added to the diet, and measured absorption and plasma levels are very small. Increasing the aggregate amount of phytosterols consumed in a variety of foods may be an important way of reducing population cholesterol levels and preventing coronary heart disease.
High serum LDL cholesterol concentration is a major risk factor for cardiovascular complications. This risk can be lowered by diet. In this respect foods containing plant sterol or stanol esters can be useful for mildly- and hypercholesteraemic subjects. Plant sterols and stanols, which are structurally related to cholesterol, decrease the incorporation of dietary and biliary cholesterol into micelles. This lowers cholesterol absorption. Furthermore, these components increase ABC-transporter expression, which may also contribute to the decreased cholesterol absorption. Consequently, cholesterol synthesis and LDL receptor activity increase, which ultimately leads to decreased serum LDL cholesterol concentrations. Animal studies have further shown that these dietary components may also lower atherosclerotic lesion development. Plant sterols and stanols also lower plasma lipid-standardized concentrations of the hydrocarbon carotenoids, but not those of the oxygenated cartenoids and tocopherols. Also, vitamin A and D concentrations are not affected. Although absorption of plant sterols and stanols (0.02-3.5%) is low compared to cholesterol (35-70%), small amounts are found in the circulation and may influence other physiological functions. However, there is no consistent evidence that plant sterols or stanols can change the risk of colon or prostate cancer, or immune status. In conclusion, plant sterols and stanols effectively reduce serum LDL cholesterol and atherosclerotic risk. In addition potential effects of plant sterols and stanols on other metabolic processes remain to be elucidated.
A European perspective on GLC analysis of phytosterols in foods., p. (abstract)
- L Normén
- F Centrich
- A.-M Lampi
- V Piironen
- E Trautwein
- P Dutta
Norme´, F., Lampi, A.-M., Piironen, V., Trautwein, E., Dutta, P., 2001b. A European perspective on GLC analysis of phytosterols in foods., p. (abstract). In: Annual meeting of American Oil Chemist Society, Minnesota, USA.
Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols: a review A large-scale prospective cohort study on diet and cancer in The Netherlands
- E Trautwein
- G Duchateau
- Y Lin
- S Nikov
- H Molhuizen
- F Ntanios
Trautwein, E., Duchateau, G., Lin, Y., Mel'nikov, S., Molhuizen, H., Ntanios, F., 2003. Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols: a review. European Journal of Fat Science. Van Den Brandt, P.A., Goldbohm, R.A., Van 'T Veer, P., Volovics, A., Hermus, R.J., Sturmans, F., 1990. A large-scale prospective cohort study on diet and cancer in The Netherlands. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 43, 285–295.
Separation of sterols by capillary column gas-liquid chromatography. In: Bioactive Inositol Phosphates and Phytosterols in Foods
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- Norme´
Dutta, P., Norme´. Separation of sterols by capillary column gas-liquid chromatography. In: Bioactive Inositol Phosphates and Phytosterols in Foods. vol. EUR 19216 EN. F., S. (Ed.), Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxemburg, Go¨, Sweden, pp. 135–138.
The role of phytosterols in cholesterol-lowering in humans Phytosterols in human nutrition Sitostanol administered in lecithin micelles potently reduces cholesterol absorp-tion in humans
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- R E Ostlund Jr
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The role of phytosterols in cholesterol-lowering in humans
- Normén
Separation of sterols by capillary column gas-liquid chromatography
- P Dutta
- L Normén
Dietary phytosterols as cholesterol-lowering agents in humans
- Jones
Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols: a review
- Trautwein
A large-scale prospective cohort study on diet and cancer in The Netherlands
- Van Den Brandt
Multiple roles for phytosterols
- Nes