No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
The Multiple Dimensions of Video Game Effects
Abstract
— Video games are at the center of a debate over what is helpful or harmful to children and adolescents, and there is research to substantiate both sides. The existing research suggests that there are at least 5 dimensions on which video games can affect players: the amount of play, the content of play, the game context, the structure of the game, and the mechanics of game play. This article describes each of these 5 dimensions with support from the scientific literature, arguing that this approach can allow people to get beyond the typical “good–bad” dichotomous thinking to have a more nuanced understanding of video game effects and to provide testable hypotheses for future research.
... More than one-third of the world's population, or close to three billion people, were gamers in 2021 (Newzoo, 2021), and that number was predicted to rise to 3.2 billion in 2022 (Newzoo, 2022). With the rise in the popularity of video games, an increasing number of researchers are focusing on the However, there are many factors other than game content that influence video game players (Lobel et al., 2017;Verheijen et al., 2020), including video game context, quantity, structure, difficulty, and other factors (Elson et al., 2013;Gentile, 2011;Kneer et al., 2016). One of the reasons for the controversial relationship between game content and aggression may be the simple division of video games into violent and nonviolent games, while ignoring the influence of other factors. ...
... One of the typical factors present in game contexts-the competitive factor-evokes a higher level of immersive experience in individuals (Weibel et al., 2008) and is the most important determinant of whether video games are enjoyable (Vorderer et al., 2003). Competitive video games have surged in popularity in recent years (Gough, 2021), but relatively little research has been conducted on game context (Gentile, 2011), and whether and how the competitive game context affects players' aggression is unclear. Previous research has called for more research to focus on game context factors (Schmierbach, 2010). ...
... Consistent with previous findings, competitive contexts of video games can prime aggressive cognition (e.g., Schmierbach, 2010;Zhang et al., 2010) and promote aggressive behavior (e.g., Adachi & Willoughby, 2011a, b;Anderson & Morrow, 1995;Hawk & Ridge, 2021). Previous studies in video games have mainly concentrated on game content, with little attention to the influence of game context (Gentile, 2011). This study complements video game context research by demonstrating that game context is one of the most significant elements influencing players, supporting the role of social interactions in video games (e.g., Ewoldsen et al., 2012;Velez et al., 2014). ...
Previous studies have focused on whether there is a relationship between violent content in video games and aggression, but less attention has been given to game context, despite the popularity of multiplayer games. Therefore, the current study investigated the short-term effects of competitive game context on aggression as well as the mediating role of frustration and the moderating role of gender. Seventy-six participants played either competitive or solo game play modes for 15 min and then completed a measure of frustration. Next, participants completed a lexical decision task to measure their aggressive cognitions, a competitive reaction time task and a hot sauce paradigm to measure their aggressive behaviors. The results showed that participants in the competitive game context responded significantly faster to aggressive words than nonaggressive words, set longer noise punishment, and selected more chili powder than in the solo game context. Frustration mediated the relationship between game context and aggressive behavior (hot sauce scores), while gender was insignificant as a moderator. These results suggest that the competitive game context can influence aggression. Furthermore, the frustration-aggression hypothesis was supported, which proposes that competition can lead to frustration and in turn to aggressive behavior.
... (Adžić et al., 2021;Anand, 2007;Gnambs et al., 2020;Hawi et al., 2018;Lei et al., 2022;Nasution et al., 2015;Prena & Waver, 2020;Wakil et al., 2017). According to five dimension effect approach video games can effect players behaviour on at least five different dimensions -amount of play, content, context, structure and mechanics (Gentile, 2011). The amount of time play has been associated with lower academic performance (Weaver et al., 2013), game content has been shown to lead to a specific content learning (Gentile & Gentile, 2021), context of video game may moderate effects of other game characteristics on specific outcomes (Anderson et al., 2010;Anderson et al., 2019), game structure may affect videospatial processing (Castro-Alonso & Fiorella, 2019) and game mechanics can lead to improvements in specific motor skills (Merino-Campos & del Castillo Fernndez, 2016). ...
... A study conducted among 2097 Lebanese high school students found that students who play video games and sleep five hours per day have a lower GPA than students who play video games but sleep seven hours per day on average (Hawi et al., 2018). According to the attention displacement mechanism, computer gaming may cause attention problems, lowering self-control and increasing impulsiveness (Gentile, 2011;Gentile et al., 2012). Several research studies have found that students who spend more time playing video games have attention deficit difficulties (Chan & Rabinowitz, 2006;Nikkelen et al., 2014). ...
... These findings are consistent with previous research results that demonstrated a relationship between video game usage and lower GPA. Only the outcomes of that study were significantly more severe among elementary and secondary school students (Drummond & Sauer, 2014, 2020Gentile, 2011) as than among university students (Adžić et al., 2021;Barr, 2020;Prena & Waver, 2020). It suggests that any detrimental effect that video games may have on academic achievement among elementary and secondary school students is related to the development of physical and cognitive abilities. ...
The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between the time that higher education students spend playing video games during exam periods and their average grades in one Eastern European country. Moreover, the authors wanted to explore the differences among students with regard to their age, gender, year of study, and employment status in relation to video game-playing habits. Four research questions were generated and a quantitative survey among students (N = 233) was conducted at two universities in Serbia in December 2021. The results showed that, on average, students who play more games may have slightly lower grades than students who do not play games. In contrast, the time devoted to studying during the exam period is to some extent related to students’ average achievement. In research sample, the best students spend the least time playing video games and the most time studying compared to other students.
... These are carefully designed to be played "seriously" to highlight complex problems [11]. Serious Games were developed in the military field in 1948 [9] and then implemented in various disciplines to support learning, knowledge transfer, and management of research and practice problems [12,13]. Indeed, the scientific community recognizes such games as motivating and supportive of distributed learning [8,10,12,13]. ...
... Serious Games were developed in the military field in 1948 [9] and then implemented in various disciplines to support learning, knowledge transfer, and management of research and practice problems [12,13]. Indeed, the scientific community recognizes such games as motivating and supportive of distributed learning [8,10,12,13]. Serious Games prove to be useful from a learning perspective since [14]: i) tell stories of real-world contexts; ii) offer new ways of communication; iii) stimulate interaction between players/actors; iv) set specific goals and help the achievement of these through the definition of reasoned strategies; v) stimulate problem-solving and allow for effective support of decision-making processes. ...
Sustainability and the concept of sustainable development are currently adopted as a founding paradigm of global, national and regional development strategies. As such, they necessarily permeate new visions of urban development as well, leading to reflections of economic, environmental and social sustainability in urban planning and design practices. In this context, the paper aims to reflect on the capability and usefulness of Serious Games in conveying knowledge with respect to the development of sustainable cities to students, as future planners and architects in urban areas. Such games are part of the several participatory approaches and models of urban innovation and planning and have an explicitly educational purpose with respect to tackling complex problems. Given their increasing application in the field of sustainability, but their limited use in the context of sustainable cities, this paper explores two serious games (Urbax and urbEN), developed in urban and territorial settings within two different European projects, to reflect on their potential capability to convey specific ways of action and knowledge with respect to the issues considered in Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG11) of Agenda 2030. The analysis allows observing that although the two games were not initially designed to align with specific SDG11 targets or convey information on sustainable cities, both demonstrate the potential capability in spreading specific knowledge for urban sustainability.KeywordsSerious Gameurban sustainabilitySustainable Development Goal 11
... Although it is indisputable that excessive internet entertainment brings about many adverse effects on children's development, the impact of internet entertainment on cognitive ability is not without a single benefit. Empirical studies have shown that internet entertainment, such as video games, can improve children's visual sense of space and problem-solving skills and has a positive impact on their math performance and teamwork capabilities [3,20]. In addition, there are some entertainment applications, such as puzzle games, online videos and online music, which also help children to adjust their life-study balance, relieve their stress and relax their moods [21]. ...
... Moderate internet entertainment, which plays a minor substitution effect role in relation to everyday learning and extra-curricular activities, can help to relax mood and relieve learning pressure. However, excessive internet entertainment occupies significant time for children which may have otherwise been spent on conducting readings, physical activities and social interaction, which may further lead to children's dependence and addiction to the internet [20]. In reality, some children have good internet habits. ...
Internet technology has been assimilated into children’s educational system on an in-depth level. In particular, the number of children who use the internet for entertainment has been rapidly increasing. However, there has been a debate as to whether internet entertainment can have a detrimental impact on children’s cognitive ability. This paper investigates the effect of internet entertainment on the cognitive ability of children in the Chinese context. The results show no evidence of associations between internet entertainment and children’s cognitive ability. However, the additional analysis provides preliminary evidence suggesting that internet entertainment can be beneficial to children who use it for entertainment only on weekends but detrimental for those who spend leisure time online daily. In addition, the findings are robust in a variety of sensitivity tests. We also examine whether the effects of internet entertainment on children’s cognitive ability in different family environments are heterogeneous. The findings suggest that parents’ internet habits, parents’ internet supervision, parental relationship, family education and living area play a moderating role in the relationship between internet entertainment and children’s cognitive ability. This study offers useful insights into the current global debate on the nexus between internet entertainment and children’s cognitive ability and also provides suggestions for parents, children, regulators and policymakers.
... Among critics, video games are considered to be harmful in various ways. First, some researchers suggest that the negative effects of video games-especially among children and youthscome about as it displaces time spent on other more productive and healthy activities such as physical activity and academic activities, among others (Gentile, 2011). Related to this is pathological gaming-also called Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD)-which refers to excessive and problematic gaming behavior (Lemmens et al., 2015). ...
... There are several theoretical and practical implications from our study, which are bound by some inherent limitations of our design and approach. Theoretically, there are few in-depth and thick descriptions (Geertz, 1973) of how videogames were used during the pandemic as a source of wellness. Our study offers an intricate and detailed look into the use of videogames for psychological wellbeing through the lens of BPNT. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the way many people live their lives. The increasing amount of time spent indoors and isolated during periods of lockdown has been accompanied by an increase in the time people spend playing video games. One such game which soared in popularity during the early stages of the pandemic was Animal Crossing: New Horizons. Through semi-structured interviews with players, and using a theory-informed qualitative analysis, we document and examine players’ motivations and experiences playing Animal Crossing: New Horizons during the pandemic. Findings suggest that playing the game helped satisfy various psychological needs—autonomy, relatedness, and competence—as described by Self-Determination Theory. Conversely, players stopped playing the game when they found that their psychological needs were thwarted or better met through other activities. Our findings offer support that video games can offer psychological relief in stressful contexts by providing opportunities for people to satisfy key psychological needs. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... For these reasons, videogames are even used in gamified education and training, such as for new employees in the workplace and in the medical field for promoting awareness about smoking, diabetes, and cancer [9]. Gentile went on to identify videogames as having the potential to improve problem-solving skills and also promote highly complex action strategies, enhance argumentation skills, and foster the acquisition of informal scientific reasoning patterns [10]. Gentile and colleagues conducted a study focusing on parental control over the use of videogames and television by third-and fifth-grade children, analysing the correlation between the parents' work and their educational level with their method of mediation with their children about time and play mode [11]. ...
This study aims to investigate the gap in perceptions of parents and children on the use of videogames in childhood. Methods: A survey was conducted with 75 pairs formed by a son or daughter and one parent. The data collected contradict the prejudice that playing video games reduces study time and leads to lower grades at school (R < 0.13). Our results support the idea that playing together fosters bonding and facilitates conversation. The impact of videogames on mood showed the most substantial differences in perception, with parents mainly reporting negative mood changes, while children reported similar frequencies of negative, neutral, and positive ones. In relation to the educational and informative potential of videogames, children had slightly more positive opinions than their parents (p < 0.001). Finally, more than half of the participants potentially agreed with the possibility of using videogames as academic tools. In conclusion, there is a gap between parents’ and children’s perceptions about videogaming, especially concerning their effects on children’s mood. Playing together and developing deeper knowledge about videogames could enhance positive effects on children’s development as well as their relationships with peers, parents, and at school.
... The difficulty levels of these games are carefully balanced to maintain player interest and satisfaction without overwhelming them [9]. It is also important to note that many games now are designed to combine features from multiple genres, challenging traditional classifications [10][11][12]. ...
The cognitive and affective impacts of video games are subjects of ongoing debate, with recent research recognizing their potential benefits. This study employs the Gaming Skill Questionnaire (GSQ) to evaluate participants’ gaming skills across six genres and overall proficiency. A total of 88 individuals aged 20–40 participated, completing assessments of empathy and six cognitive abilities: verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory, psychomotor speed (hand–eye coordination), and attention. Participants’ cognitive abilities were examined using the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block Test, and Deary–Liewald Reaction Time Task, while empathy was assessed using the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. Findings indicate that higher levels of videogaming proficiency are linked to improvements in visuospatial short-term and working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention. Specific genres enhanced particular skills: RPGs were positively associated with both verbal working memory and visuospatial short-term memory, but were negatively associated with empathy; action games improved psychomotor speed and attention; and puzzle games showed a positive relationship with visuospatial working memory. These results add to ongoing research on the cognitive and affective effects of video games, suggesting their potential to enhance specific cognitive functions. They also highlight the complex relationship between video games and empathy. Future research should explore the long-term impacts and genre-specific effects.
... Instead, factors within each game may cause differences in creative production and creative cognition. Different aspects of video games may affect players differently (Gentile, 2011;Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, & Tosca, 2020;Wallinheimo et al., 2022). For example, genre (e.g., fantasy, racing, role-playing) and mechanics of games (i.e., actions a player can take in a game such as driving or using tools to craft tools or objects) could cause differences in motivation, allowances for divergent thinking, creative actions, creative goals, etc. ...
Understanding the impacts of digital media such as video games is critical for scholarship during the digital transformation. While the literature on the effects of video games continues to grow, there is little work on positive effects, including creativity, either as an outcome from or process within games. Video games are a media type that often requires creative problem‐solving and multiple idea generation. Importantly, adequately theorizing, measuring, and assessing creativity as both an action within video games and a possible outcome of engaging with video games necessitates a detailed understanding of what video games are. Here we propose and outline a taxonomy of the various components within video games that could impact different aspects of creativity interventions and creative processes. We then break down those components, including genre, graphics, mechanics, instructions, incentive systems, and multiplayer functionality. We apply this taxonomy briefly in several games, and Minecraft and Baldur's Gate 3 are used in more depth to show how researchers can apply our proposed framework. Knowing which video game components affect which creativity outcomes can clarify our understanding of creativity and the creative process in a digital world, and identify how gameplay itself can be a creative artifact.
... Consequently, researchers have increasingly turned their attention to examining the influence of exposure to electronic devices on individual psychology and behavior. Gentile (2011) posited that video games can have an impact on players through at least five dimensions: amount, content, context, structure, and mechanics. Previous studies on this topic mainly concentrated on the negative effects of violent video games on players, such as increased aggressive behavior (Adachi & Willoughby, 2011;Greitemeyer & McLatchie, 2011). ...
... This happens also because playing a game implies the user's "acceptance or declaration of a certain value system and the model of behavior set by it" (Belov, 2021). As intercultural interaction research shows, online games also have the potential to "reinforce or weaken stereotypes" (Shliakhovchuk and Muñoz García, 2020), and influence the individual's behavior (Gentile, 2011). "Overall, whether video games have a negative or positive influence on others depends heavily on their content" (Greitemeyer, 2022). ...
Indirect countermeasures against hostile propaganda appear to be more effective than overt struggle and are becoming more common. U.S. digital diplomacy increasingly employs online games that teach players about information manipulation, aiming to “inoculate” them against attempts to change their convictions. In this paper, through experiments and surveys, the authors find that, along with “useful” inoculation, these games also advance the “soft disempowerment” of Russia and its media, more generally suppressing the soft power of non-Western-aligned states.
... The difficulty levels of these games are carefully balanced to maintain player interest and satisfaction without overwhelming them [9]. It is also important to note that many games now are designed to combine features from multiple genres, challenging traditional classifications [10][11][12]. ...
The cognitive and affective impacts of video games are subjects of ongoing debate, with recent research recognizing their potential benefits. This study employs the Gaming Skill Questionnaire (GSQ) to evaluate participants’ gaming skills across six genres and overall proficiency. A total of 88 individuals aged 20–40 participated, completing assessments of empathy and six cognitive abilities: verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory, psychomotor speed (hand–eye coordination), and attention. Participants’ cognitive abilities were examined using the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block Test, and Deary–Liewald Reaction Time Task, while empathy was assessed using the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. Findings indicate that higher levels of videogaming proficiency are linked to improvements in visuospatial short-term and working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention. Specific genres enhanced particular skills: RPGs were positively associated with both verbal working memory and visuospatial short-term memory, but were negatively associated with empathy; action games improved psychomotor speed and attention; and puzzle games showed a positive relationship with visuospatial working memory. These results add to ongoing research on the cognitive and affective effects of video games, suggesting their potential to enhance specific cognitive functions. They also highlight the complex relationship between video games and empathy. Future research should explore the long-term impacts and genre-specific effects.
... (Fraser et al., 2014). It is also important to note that many games now are designed to combine features from multiple genres, challenging traditional classifications (Apperley, 2006;Dale & Green, 2017;Gentile, 2011). ...
The cognitive and affective impacts of video games are subjects of ongoing debate, with recent research recognizing their potential benefits. This study employs the Gaming Skill Questionnaire (GSQ) to evaluate participants' gaming skills across six genres and overall proficiency. Eighty-eight individuals aged 20-40 participated, completed assessments of empathy and six cognitive abilities: verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory, psychomotor speed (hand-eye coordination), and attention. Cognitive abilities were examined using the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block Test, and Deary-Liewald Reaction Time Task, while empathy was assessed using the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. Findings indicate that high video game skill levels correlate with improvements in visuospatial short-term and working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention. Different genres enhanced specific skills: RPGs positively influenced verbal working and visuospatial short-term memory but negatively affected empathy; action games improved psychomotor speed and attention; and puzzle games benefited visuospatial working memory. These promising results contribute positively to ongoing research on the cognitive and affective effects of video games, highlighting the potential for video games to enhance certain cognitive functions while also underscoring the complexity of their impact on empathy. Future research should further investigate genre-specific effects and long-term outcomes.
... [9]. It is also important to note that many games now are designed to combine features from multiple genres, challenging traditional classifications [10][11][12]. ...
The cognitive and affective impacts of video games are subjects of ongoing debate, with recent research recognizing their potential benefits. This study employs the Gaming Skill Questionnaire (GSQ) to evaluate participants' gaming skills across six genres and overall proficiency. Eighty-eight individuals aged 20-40 participated, completed assessments of empathy and six cognitive abilities: verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory, psychomotor speed (hand-eye coordination), and attention. Cognitive abilities were examined using the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block Test, and Deary-Liewald Reaction Time Task, while empathy was assessed using the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. Findings indicate that high video game skill levels correlate with improvements in visuospatial short-term and working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention. Different genres enhanced specific skills: RPGs positively influenced verbal working and visuospatial short-term memory but negatively affected empathy; action games improved psychomotor speed and attention; and puzzle games benefited visuospatial working memory. These promising results contribute positively to ongoing research on the cognitive and affective effects of video games, highlighting the potential for video games to enhance certain cognitive functions while also underscoring the complexity of their impact on empathy. Future research should further investigate genre-specific effects and long-term outcomes.
... For both the main and the replication sample, the three data collection sessions included a mixture of surveys and tasks. Self-report was collected for IGD (Gentile, 2009;Gentile, 2011), for the numbers of hours per day spent playing video games (Self_VGHour (Ophir et al., 2009)) and for the frequency of video game play per week (Self_VGFreq (Gentile, 2009; J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof 2011)). We also recorded self-reported total number of hours per week spent on screen media in general (Self_AllMediaHour (Ophir et al., 2009)), a self-reported measure of Media Multitasking (Self_MediaMultiTask (Ophir et al., 2009)), and a self-reported numbers of hours per week spent watching TV (Self_TVHour (Ophir et al., 2009)). ...
... Taken together, findings in the literature suggest both positive and negative effects of video games. These contradictions in findings might be explained by the five dimensions of the video game effects approach (Gentile, 2011). According to this approach, video games can affect players on at least five different dimensionsamount of play, content, context, structure, and mechanics. ...
Evidence has shown that video game play is significantly associated with children’s psychological well-being. However, the findings are mixed. To what extent that different levels of video game use are associated with different dimensions of psychosocial well-being is unclear among Chinese children. This study examined the association between video game time and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems as well as their prosocial behavior, and investigated the mediating role of self-esteem in these relationships. We conducted school-based surveys in M district of Shanghai among 1237 pairs of child-parent, using convenience sampling strategy. We employed the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to measure the psychosocial well-being and self-esteem of children, respectively. Mediation model with bootstrapping was used to estimate the magnitude and the respective bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals of the indirect effects of video game use on three outcomes through self-esteem. 47.9%, 8.1% and 6.1% children spent less than one hour, 1–2 h, and more than two hours per day on video game use respectively. Compared to children without playing video game, those spending more time on video game showed more externalizing problems, poorer prosocial behavior, and lower self-esteem. The mediating role of self-esteem was discovered between the relationship of moderate- and high-levels of video game use and children’s psychosocial well-being. This study underlined the importance of improving self-esteem of young video game players who suffered from psychosocial problems. More evidence-based studies are needed to provide empirical evidence for the introduction of more effective and targeted policies.
... Ayrıca 0-2 yaş grubunun medya kullanımında yaşadığı problemlerin de 3-5 ve 6-8 yaşa göre daha az olduğu görülmektedir. Bu durum dijital oyunların etkisine uzun süre maruz kalmamaları ya da dijital oyunların etkilerinin ilerleyen yaşlarda belirginleşmesi ile ilişkilendirilebilir (Bozkuş, 2021;Gentile, 2009;Gentile, 2011;Greitmeyer, 2022). Bunun yanı sıra çalışma sonucunda çocukların dijital oyun oynama süreleri arttıkça dijital oyunlardan etkilenme oranlarının arttığı belirlenmiştir. ...
Karma araştırma yöntemlerinden yakınsayan paralel desenin kullanıldığı bu çalışmada verilerin toplanmasında Erken Yaşlarda Dijital Oyunların Etkileri Ölçeği, Problemli Medya Kullanım Ölçeği ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme soruları kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın nicel kısmında 387 ebeveyne ölçek uygulanmış; nitel kısmında ise 40 ebeveynle görüşme yapılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda erkek çocukların problemli medya kullanma durumlarının kız çocuklardan daha yüksek olduğu, çocukların dijital oyun oynama süreleri arttıkça dijital oyunlardan daha fazla etkilendiği, çocukların dijital oyun oynama süreleri arttıkça problemli medya kullanımlarının arttığı, 0-1 yaş arasında dijital oyun oynamaya başlayan çocukların dijital oyunlardan daha fazla etkilendiği belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca ebeveynlerle yapılan görüşmeler sonucunda çocukların gerek ebeveyn yönlendirmesi gerekse çevresindeki bireyleri taklit ederek dijital oyun oynamaya başladıkları ve dijital oyunlardan farklı şekillerde etkilendikleri belirlenmiştir.
... In fact, some studies have shown that female adolescents were more likely to use social networking sites, as they represented means of nurturing relationships with members of their peer group [119,120], and to be involved in problematic social network sites use [30,121] when compared to boys and younger children. On the contrary, male children preferred to play video games and were more exposed to problematic gaming use than females [122][123][124]. ...
Introduction:
Digital screen media use has significantly grown in all age groups and at an increasingly young age, including toddlers, schoolers, and primary school children. Although there is evidence that excessive early childhood media exposure can lead to several negative developmental outcomes, no systematic review on Problematic Media Use (PMU) of children under 10 years old have been provided. The aim of the present systematic review was to identify (i) the main instruments used to measure children's PMU across different studies; (ii) the risk and protective factors which might increase or reduce children's PMU; and (iii) the negative outcomes associated with children's PMU.
Methods:
This study was conducted following the systematic review guidelines proposed in the PRISMA statement. A total of 35 studies published between 2012-2022 and with a mean sample age between 0 and 10 years old were ultimately included in this literature review.
Results:
Use of media for more than 2 h a day, male gender, and higher age increased the risk of developing PMU among children. PMU led to several negative consequences for children's development and well-being (e.g., more problematic behaviors, sleep problems, higher depressive symptoms, lower emotional intelligence, and lower academic achievements). Children who experienced negative psychological symptoms, a dysfunctional parent-child relationship, and difficulties in school context were more prone to develop PMU. However, an authoritative parenting style and restrictive parental mediation reduced the risk of developing PMU among children. Finally, self-report measures specifically designed to get the younger children's perspective are still few and not so widely used.
Conclusions:
Overall, this research field is still in its infancy and needs further investigation. Likely, a dysfunctional family system can lead children to experience emotional distress and negative psychological symptoms, which they try to manage by escaping into the virtual world, thus increasing the risk of developing PMU. As the children's PMU is closely affected by the family environment, future prevention interventions should target both children and their parents to improve their self-regulatory and mentalizing capabilities, as well as parental mediation strategies and general parenting practices.
... This pandemic period has resulted in decreased physical activity and more activities that do not require much energy. It can be seen that the current tendency of children to play actively outside the home is sitting passively in front of a computer screen or television [9] According to Aubert et al. (2017), the definition of sedentary behavior is "all activities with an energy expenditure of 1.5 metabolic equivalents (MET) in a sitting position or problem". This includes sitting at leisure, commuting to work, and at work and home [10]. ...
... As stated above, digital games, which have an addiction and negative effects, can facilitate teachers' tasks and create an enjoyable learning environment for students when used for educational purposes (Kapidere, 2021). Arising due to their current use; It is seen that digital games that cause negative effects such as addiction, aggressive behaviors and health problems are not educational-purposed (Anderson et al., 2010;Gentile, 2011;Kuss, 2013). The studies state that the negative effects of digital games such as addiction and aggressive behaviors are exaggerated in educational-oriented use, and the positive effects they will provide in their use as educational tools are ignored (Bösche & Kattner, 2013). ...
Background: Individuals need to be conscious and aware not to experience the negative effects of digital games and identify the difference between dijital games and digital educational games. The use of digital educational games has four sub-dimensions. These are the "affective approach", the "perceived usefulness," "perceived control," and "behavioral approach" (Sarıgöz, Bolat, & Alkan, 2018). In this study, these sub-dimensions analyzed in the frame of digital game addiction awareness. Purposes: This study examines the predictors of pre-service teachers' awareness of digital game addiction and their use of digital educational games. Methodology/Approach: The data of this study, in which the correlational predictive research method was used, were collected through the Digital Game Addiction Awareness Scale and the Digital Educational Game Use Scale. Findings: As a result of the study in which 246 pre-service teachers participated; there is a negative relationship between pre-service teachers' awareness of digital game addiction and their emotional approach towards their use of digital educational games, their perceived usefulness of digital educational games, their perceived control in digital educational games using and their behavioral approaches to digital educational game use, which expresses the preference of digital educational games over other games, and the relationship between digital educational game playing situations are determined. In addition, it was determined that all of these relationships were predictive. Discussion: Digital educational games are played to learn. While it is expected that teacher candidates' awareness of digital game addictions will increase, it is recommended to raise awareness of the benefits of digital educational games so that they do not have negative feelings about digital educational games.
... Our study further showed that positive game context factor (e.g., cooperation) in violent video games can decrease aggressive behavior, which indicated that not all positive factors in violent video games can reduce players' aggressive behaviors. However, Gentile (2011) identified five dimensions of video game influence: time spent playing, game content, game context, game structure, and game play mechanics. Thus, further research could explore other positive factors in violent video games further. ...
Video games have become an integral part of people’s daily life. Though detrimental outcomes of negative game factors have been demonstrated across previous studies, the effects of prevalently-exist positive game factors, for example, prosociality and cooperation, remain unclear. This study examined the effects of positive game factors in violent video games on aggressive behavior by exploring prosociality and cooperation. Based on the General Learning Model, Experiment 1 examined the effect of prosociality on aggressive behavior and the mediating role of perceived violence in the game. Experiment 2 examined the relation between cooperation in violent video games and aggressive behavior, the mediating role of hostile interpretation bias, and the moderating role of the game result. The results of Experiment 1 showed that prosociality did not influence aggressive behavior. The results of Experiment 2 showed that cooperation decreased aggressive behavior. Additionally, Experiment 2 also found that the hostile interpretation bias mediated the relation between cooperation and aggressive behavior, and win/lose results moderate the relationship between cooperation and aggressive behavior. Considering the questions raised by post hoc sensitivity analysis, future studies could investigate the effects of positive game factors in violent video games on aggressive behavior with a larger sample size.
... With greater refinement, it is also theorized that the amount of time players spend in a serious game environment will be a predictive factor, whereby players who have longer game sessions will achieve stronger outcomes [27] . That is, there is an expected positive association between game time and improvements in the alcohol use outcomes. ...
In the immersive environment of an online serious video game designed to depict social norms about excessive alcohol consumption, this study examines the effects of real-world and virtual-world social norms on alcohol use outcomes, centering on the persuasive elements of the One Shot game and its social psychological effects. This study implements a one-group, pretest-posttest, quasi-experimental design. Using a national sample of young adults aged 21-25 (N=550) who reported recent binge drinking, OLS regression analyses documented that virtual-world norms were more predictive of alcohol-related outcomes than real-world norms. Specifically, virtual-world descriptive norms paired with severe consequences of hazardous drinking predicted improvements from pre-game to post-game in drinking refusal self-efficacy and attitudes toward drinking. Likewise, virtual-world social disapproval had a similar effect on drinking refusal self-efficacy, but not on attitudes toward drinking. Neither measure of virtual-world social norms had a significant effect on changes in intention to drink less from pre-game to post-game. Real-world descriptive norms and social disapproval had no significant effects on any of the alcohol use outcomes. Each of the three alcohol use outcomes improved significantly from pre-game to post-game. Implications for norms-based research and online serious video games are discussed.
... The popular game of World of Warcraft, there are some studies about it (e.g., Chen, 2009;Martin et al., 2011;Gentile, 2011;Steinkuehler & Oh, 2012). Chen (2009) used the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) World of Warcraft (WoW; ...
This exploratory study seeks to investigate how a mathematical education game, DragonBox12+, effects students’ learning about algebra. Data for this research was collected from middle school 7th grade students in the Northeast region of the United States of America.The interviews and classroom observations were recorded on videotape. The research results showed that the video game DragonBox 12+ affects students’ attitude of mathematics and learning of mathematics by the help of using game mechanics to teaching algebraic rules.
Keywords: Algebra, video game, DragonBox 12+, middle school, 7th grade
... First, video game use was assessed only by time spent playing, without considering other aspects that other studies have shown to be related to wellbeing (e.g., type of games, individual vs. social play, play motivations) (Verheijen et al., 2020). Nonetheless, the amount of game play is one of five aspects to be considered to assess the effects of videogames on players, along with game content, context, structure, and mechanisms (Gentile, 2011). We acknowledge that future studies should consider aspects other than gaming duration and combine self-report with assessment of actual gaming behavior (Johannes et al., 2021). ...
The relationship between adolescents’ use of video games and their well-being is controversial and largely unexplored during the COVID −19 pandemic. This study examined the association between adolescent video game use and well-being during a nationwide lockdown (March-May 2020) and investigated whether this association was mediated by emotional self-efficacy and moderated by positive coping. The study involved 168 Italian adolescents aged 14–19 years (M = 16.6 years, SD = 1.6). Data were collected through an anonymous online questionnaire. Moderated mediation analysis showed that playing video games was indirectly associated with lower health complaints and higher affective well-being by mediating emotional self-efficacy. In addition, positive coping was found to moderate the relationship between video game use and emotional self-efficacy. Results indicate that both emotional self-efficacy and positive coping enabled adolescents to benefit from playing video games in terms of individual well-being during home confinement.
... Studies carried out on 6-18 year-old students in India showed that students addicted to video games and the Internet had problems such as procrastination for assignments, losing sleep hours, and feeling tired [10]., since playing video games is a leisure time or hobby, second to watching television, too much of it can cause complications such as obesity and overweight, computer dependency, aggression, anxiety, poor academic performance, and depression in children as well as adolescents in settings such as schools, homes, and communities [11]. Other studies have also shown that there is a significant correlation between spending too much time watching TV as well as playing long hours of video games and a downfall in children's and adolescents' grades in schools, along with an increase in the risk of obesity and other health-threatening hazards [4,[12][13][14]. Along this line of argument, as physical activity has been replaced by playing video games, it is necessary to heed that such an entertaining pattern is a warning sign for children and adolescents' health in both short and long terms [11,15] because the identity of children is molded during adolescence. ...
Background: Nowadays, children and teenagers are heavily influenced by video games. Excessive video games may affect children's physical and mental health as well as academic performance. Objectives: The present study aimed at determining the correlation between playing video games and general health as well as academic performance of Fasa mid-schools boy students at Iranian secondary school level. Materials & Methods: This cross-sectional study was carried out on 150 boy students at secondary school level in Fasa, Fars Province, Iran. The subjects were selected through multistage cluster random sampling method. The data were collected using a three-part questionnaire including demographic information, information about how to use video games. and General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). The collected data were analyzed by using SPSS22, descriptive statistics, correlation coefficient, t-test, and Chi-square test. P<0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Results: Findings revealed that there was a significant direct correlation between the amount of video game use and overall general health (r=0.25, P=0.03); a significant inverse relationship was also found between the amount of video game use and academic performance of the students in first (r=-0.41, P=0.002), second (r=-0.30, P=0.02) and third grade (r=-0.42, P=0.02) of mid school students. There was no significant difference in the general health between the two types of game played. There was also a significant relationship between students' academic performance categories and the type of video game (P<0.001). Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that video games can play a crucial role in the general health and academic performance of students. Thus, it is vital that parents pay more attention to the duration of playing and type of games their children play.
... First, this study supported that justified game violence increased aggression using a two-factor experiment design. It proved once again that the impact of violent video games on aggressive behavior could be changed by multiple factors (Adachi & Willoughby, 2011;Gentile, 2011) such as moral awareness. Our results are in line with the existing research demonstrating that justified video game violence can be morally consequential, e.g., by decreasing guilty (Hartmann, Toz, & Brandon, 2010;Hartmann & Vorderer, 2010;Lin, 2011), and leads to aggression (Heng et al., 2018). ...
The effect of violent video games on aggressive behavior is an important topic in the field of game research. Recently, growing evidence suggests that justified game violence decreases feelings of guilt caused by in-game immoral behavior. However, little is known about the impact on aggressive behavior, and whether other factors moderate this effect. In a two-factor experiment, we tested the impact of justification of video game violence on aggressive behavior, and whether this effect would be enhanced by game immersion. Pilot experiment 1 (N = 60) and pilot experiment 2 (N = 40) demonstrated that the justification of violence and game immersion was successfully controlled by avatar and graphics quality. In the Main experiment, 123 participants played one of four conditions of a video game (2 [justification: justified vs. unjustified violence] × 2 [immersion: high vs. low immersion]) and it was found that participants who played in the justified violence condition reported greater aggressive behavior than those in the unjustified violence condition. In addition, participants who played in high immersion reported greater aggressive behavior than those in low immersion. However, game immersion did not moderate the effects of justified violence. This unexpected effect is likely due to participants' distancing themselves from and identifying less with their violent avatars.
... In recent years, researchers have gradually realized that myriad factors affect video gamers (Lobel et al., 2017;Przybylski & Mishkin, 2016;Verheijen et al., 2020). Beyond the violent content, the amount of play, game context, competitiveness, game difficulty, and other factors may also be responsible for elevated levels of aggression (Adachi & Willoughby, 2011b;Gentile, 2011;Kneer et al., 2016). Particularly, much research has demonstrated that the competitive factors affecting players' gaming experience and enjoyment can influence aggressive behavior in real life (Dowsett & Jackson, 2019). ...
Previous studies have shown that competitive video gaming is associated with aggression; however, little is known about the relationship between personal competitive factors and aggression. Thus, we used structural equation modeling to examine the association between competitive game motivation and trait aggression, as well as the potential mediating roles of avatar identification and game aggression, among 1584 (59.66% male; Mage = 14.58 years, SD = 1.49, range = 12–19) Chinese adolescent players of Glory of the King. The results showed that the direct effect of competitive game motivation on trait aggression was statistically significant, as were the indirect effects of competitive motivation—via both avatar identification and game aggression—on the three indicators of aggressive behavioral tendencies in everyday life. These results support the General Aggression Model, suggesting that competitive motivation is a personal factor predicting trait aggression. It contributes to our understanding of the roles of competition in video gamers' real‐life aggressive behavior from an individual perspective.
... Hence, spending more time on a particular online activity results in less time on another. 115 In line with this hypothesis, more leisure time in gaming may reduce the time spent for other life activities, including socializing, and thus, the opportunities of fostering social support. 116,117 Notably, another study made during the stay-at-home period following the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic VIDEO GAMES AND MENTAL HEALTH DURING COVID- 19 15 in German-speaking countries (i.e., Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) showed the crucial role of the motivations to play online multiplayer video games on the perceived sense of loneliness: individuals who play for social interaction experienced less loneliness, while people who play for diversion felt more lonely. ...
During the initial phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, playing video games has been much more than just a pastime. Studies suggested that video games for many individuals have helped to cope with such difficult life experience. However, other research indicates that gaming may have had harmful effects. Within this context, this systematic review aimed to describe the literature on the effects of video games during the early stages of the COVID-19 crisis on stress, anxiety, depression, loneliness, and gaming disorder (GD), examining the study characteristics and outcomes. A systematic search of the literature was made following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines. It was preregistered in the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (INPLASY)—INPLASY202180053. The search databases were PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Medline. The search string was: [(“video game*”) OR (“computer game*”) OR (“gaming”)] AND [(“COVID-19”)]. Twenty-four studies met the inclusion criteria. Four research explored the effects of playing video games during the COVID-19 pandemic on stress, anxiety, and depression. Four studies investigated loneliness, while eighteen research investigated gaming disorder. Video games, especially augmented reality and online multiplayer ones, mitigated stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness among adolescents and young adults during stay-at-home restrictions. However, in the case of at-risk individuals (i.e., particularly male youths), playing video games had detrimental effects.
... Bu durum dijital oyun oynamanın özellikle de çocuklar üzerinde ne gibi etkileri olduğunun sorgulanmasına yol açmıştır. Yapılan araştırmalar, dijital oyunlarının oyuncuların bilişsel (Barlett, Vowels, Shanteau, Crow ve Miller, 2009;Gentile, 2011;Green ve Seitz, 2015;Murias, Kwok, Castillejo, Liu ve Iaria, 2016), ve eğitsel becerilerine (Franceschini vd., 2013;Hwang, Chiu ve Chen, 2015;Yang, Chang, Hwang ve Zou, 2020) katkı sağladığı gibi çeşitli sosyal becerilerin gelişimine de (Gürbüz, Evlioğlu, Erol, Gülseçen, & Gülseçen, 2017;Lorusso vd., 2018) yardımcı olduğunu göstermiştir. Buna karşın dijital oyunların belirgin bir kısmının içeriklerine göre çeşitli sağlık problemlerine (Ferreira vd., 2020;Griffiths, 2008); davranış problemlerine (Gentile, Li, Khoo, Prot ve Anderson, 2014;Griffiths, 2010a;Pujol vd., 2016) ya da eğitsel problemlere (Brunborg, Mentzoni ve Frøyland, 2014;Yılmaz, Yel ve Griffiths, 2018) yol açtığı da görülmektedir. ...
Türk ve İngiliz çocukların değer algılarını çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelemeyi ve çocuklar tarafından tercih edilen geleneksel ve dijital oyun türlerinin onların değer algılarını ne düzeyde yordadığını belirlemeyi amaçlayan bu araştırmada karma araştırma desenlerinden baskın durum deseninden faydalanılmıştır. Araştırmada nicel yaklaşım ağırlıklı olarak kullanılırken nitel yaklaşım destekleyici görevi görmüştür. Araştırmanın veri toplama süreci iki akademik yıl sürmüştür. İlk yıl Nottingham'da yer alan ilkokullarda öğrenim gören 243 öğrenci ile ikinci yıl ise Ankara'da bulunan ilkokullarda öğrenim gören 267 öğrenci ile çalışılmıştır. Araştırma 9-11 yaş grubu toplam 510 ilkokul öğrencisi ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma verileri İngilizce olarak geliştirilen ve daha sonra Türkçeye uyarlaması yapılan "Kişisel Bilgiler Formu" ile "Çocuklar İçin Ahlaki İkilem Hikâyeleri Envanteri" aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda her iki örneklem grubunda yer alan kız çocukların değer algı puanlarının erkek çocukların puanlarından anlamlı olarak daha yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. Hem Türk hem de İngiliz çocukları en fazla eğlence amaçlı üretilen dijital oyunları, en az ise eğitsel veya beceri öğretimi (ciddi) amaçlı üretilen dijital oyunları tercih ettiklerini belirtmişlerdir. Spor türündeki (futbol, kriket vb.) geleneksel oyunlar İngiliz çocukları tarafından, aksiyon türündeki (yakan top, ebelemece oyunu vb.) oyunlar ise Türk çocukları tarafından daha fazla tercih edilmiştir. Aksiyon-macera ve rol yapma türündeki dijital oyunların çocukların değer algılarını negatif yönde, simülasyon ve puzzle türündeki dijital oyunların ise pozitif yönde yordadığı belirlenmiştir. Bunun yanında hareket temelli geleneksel oyunların (spor, aksiyon) çocukların değer algılarını pozitif yönde, rekabet içerikli yarış oyunlarının ise negatif yönde yordadığı belirlenmiştir.
... It has been estimated that by the end of 2017 there were 2.21 billion active gamers around the world (2), and more than 28 million Iranians reported playing for at least one hour per week in a recent national survey (3). After decades of research, a consensus is emerging that players relate to video games in nuanced complex contexts, shaped by the characteristics of players, games, and the gaming environment (4,5). Relatedly, while it appears that most players are not adversely impacted by their gaming behavior (6,7), a minority of players report potentially pathological patterns of gaming (8). ...
Objective:
Gaming motivations are crucial aspects of healthy and problematic video gaming behavior. The aim of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the widely used Motives for Online Gaming Questionnaire (MOGQ).
Methods:
Test-retest reliability was evaluated in a sample of 66 university students. Data from 791 participants in an online survey of Iranian online gamers were examined to assess convergent validity and construct validity using confirmatory factor analysis. Internal consistency of MOGQ factors was assessed in both samples.
Results:
The item content validity index (I-CVI) and the scale content validity index (S-CVI) were between 0.8 and 1.0 for clarity and relevancy. The test-retest reliability of the 27-item questionnaire was 0.85 and internal consistency was 0.94. After incorporating additional error paths, model fit improved to an acceptable level. The MOGQ factors had acceptable correlations with relevant motivational scales such as Gaming Motivation Scale and Player Experience of Need Satisfaction. Recreation motives had the highest average score in the sample and social ones had the lowest, and males scored higher than females across all motivation domains except escape.
Conclusion:
The MOGQ is a suitable instrument for the assessment of online gaming motivations in the Iranian population.
... This situation has led to the questioning of the effects of playing videogames, especially on children. Studies have shown that videogames contribute to players' cognitive (Barlett, Vowels, Shanteau, Crow, & Miller, 2009;Gentile, 2011;Green & Seitz, 2015;Murias, Kwok, Castillejo, Liu, & Iaria, 2016) and educational skills (Franceschini et al., 2013;Hwang, Chiu, & Chen, 2015;Yang, Chang, Hwang, & Zou, 2020), as well as helping the development of various social skills (Gürbüz et al., 2017;Lorusso et al., 2018). In contrast, it is seen that for a small minority videogame can cause various health problems (Ferreira et al., 2020;Griffiths, 2008), behavioural problems (Gentile, Li, Khoo, Prot, & Anderson, 2014;Griffiths, 2010a;Pujol et al., 2016) or educational problems (Brunborg, Mentzoni, & Frøyland, 2014;Yılmaz, Yel, & Griffiths, 2018) depending on their content. ...
... First, based on previous research (Facer et al 2004;Gee 2005bGee , 2006Gee , 2007aGriffiths 2002;Prensky 2006) and from a general perspective, it is possible to say that the game itself acts as a domain of knowledge, therefore teaching the player-specific content about the game such as its mechanics and lore, without this the gamer cannot access the game world (Gee 2005a). This specific game literacy, also for the case of MOBAs, requires (and fosters by means of practice) general cognitive skills such as attention Irons et al., 2011), memory (Boot, et al., 2008) and fine motor skills (Borecki, Tolstych & Pokorski, 2013;Gentile, 2011). The player is required to focus on the strategy while accounting for the specificities of its character, the team's specific formation (knowing other players and heroes stats), and the enemy team (knowing the strategies of the opponent team as well as the specificities of their stats for the enemy team). ...
The present research aims to inquire how Multiplayer Online Battle Arenas (MOBAs) foster Scientific Reasoning. The work of research takes place in two phases. I n the first phase, we conducted a concept review of the concepts of Scientific Reasoning (SR) and Scientific Thinking (ST) to operationalise the variables for the main study correctly. The concept review was conducted in the first phase as the concept of SR was found to be confused with the concept of ST. Therefore, there was a necessity for differentiating and characterise both constructs before starting the main research. In the concept review, three questions were tackled: (1) Are Reasoning and Thinking the same processes? (2) Are SR and ST the same construct? (3) How can SR and ST be characterised to improve their research in the future? To clarify this ambiguity, we conducted a conceptual review using an integrative approach (qualitative, quantitative, and network analyses) with 166 texts acquired from five databases and 18 different disciplines to critically analyse the concepts of SR and ST. We found that Thinking and Reasoning can be characterised as different processes. Likewise, ST and SR can be characterised as distinct concepts/constructs. The review identified recent studies by which SR and ST could be further clarified from an ontological and a teleological perspective.
After the concept of SR was revised and an operationalisation was proposed, we conducted the second phase of the study. In the second phase, we inquired about how MOBA players use SR when playing, and its relationship with Strategy Making (SM) in the game. This phase explores four questions: (1) How MOBA players use SR and SM when playing, (2) whether differences in the level of expertise of players describe patterns of SR and SM on their play, (3) whether there is a difference in both SR and SM according to the game played, and (4) the relationship between SR and SM in MOBA game players. This research uses a mixed-method design, with semi-structured interviews and eye tracking technologies to determine the role of SR and SM during the gameplay. The interviews were used to understand how players use in-game information, make hypotheses about the game, and use these hypotheses to create strategies allowing them to master the game. The eye-tracking data was used to uncover players’ information seeking and information processing patterns during gameplay. The main findings were: (1) Players used SR with the main purpose of creating and deploying strategies for advancing tactical positions in the game, and (2) games belonging to the same category, genre, and playing style do not necessarily allow for close transfer of skills as the cognitive demand of games change according to variations in their mechanics. Mixed methods are required for studying video games when accounting for the complex characteristics of gameplay in a holistic way.
Finally, we verified that the way for characterising and operationalising SR found in the first phase of the study is appropriate for operationalising SR in the domain of Game Studies. This way of defining SR also accounts for fine and rough grain operationalisation in different qualitative and quantitative methods used in research
... For example, a game design that favors individual achievements at the expense of collaboration leads to players shifting away from social activities, ultimately threatening the in-game community and collective imagination (Braithwaite, 2018). In fact, teamwork is one of the contextual variables in games that can guide players' cooperative behavior (Gentile, 2011;Gentile et al., 2009;Gentile & Stone, 2005). Thus, encouraging group play among players may be a solution to promote reciprocal behavior and a positive in-game community. ...
In-game affordances that can encourage a positive community may be a means to avoid toxicity in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs). Therefore, it is essential to investigate the affordances of a game design that can encourage prosocial behavior and positive outcomes among players. Drawing on play theories, affordance theory, and bounded generalized reciprocity theory, this study examined group play and its impact on in-game reciprocal behavior and subsequent social benefits (i.e., in-game social status, social capital) in a mobile MMOG, Sky: Children of the Light. A combination of cross-sectional survey data and six months of matched and anonymized preceding behavioral data (N = 1056) were used for path analysis. The results suggest that players who engaged in more group play than solo play during the previous six months exhibited more reciprocity, had higher social status, and reported more social capital. In addition, players who were more reciprocal had higher bridging social capital and a higher social status. Moreover, reciprocity was a significant partial mediator of the relationship between group play and social status. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
... Akan tetapi, terdapat pula kecenderungan peningkatan aktivitas sedenter selain melakukan kewajiban rutin. Penelitian oleh Gentile menyebutkan bahwa terdapat pengalihan waktu yang biasa dilakukan anak-anak untuk bermain aktif di luar rumah menjadi duduk pasif di depan layar komputer maupun televisi (21). ...
Masa remaja merupakan masa peralihan dari anak-anak menjadi dewasa dimana pada masa ini terjadi perubahan fisik, psikologis, dan sosial, yang berpotensi menimbulkan masalah atau gangguan jangka panjang jika tidak ditangani secara tepat. Diantara masalah yang dapat dihadapi remaja adalah kurangnya aktivitas fisik, yang mengacu pada peningkatan aktivitas sedenter, yang telah diketahui berhubungan erat dengan peningkatan prevalensi penyakit tidak menular (PTM) sejak usia muda. Selain itu, permasalahan kesehatan remaja yang lain dari dimensi kesehatan jiwa adalah peningkatan prevalensi depresi, terutama pada remaja putri. Depresi ini dapat disebabkan karena ketidakmampuan remaja memanajemen stress dan memilih mekanisme koping stress yang salah. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui gambaran aktivitas sedenter, stress, dan depresi pada siswi Sekolah Menengah Umum di Kota Malang. Jenis penelitian adalah deskriptif menggunakan rancangan potong lintang dengan pendekatan kuantitatif. Populasi penelitian adalah siswi kelas X SMUN 4 Malang dengan teknik total sampling sehingga didapatkan 116 responden. Instrumen yang digunakan adalah kuesioner yang telah tervalidasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar responden memiliki aktivitas sedenter tinggi (85,34 persen), tingkat stress sedang (76,72 persen), dan tingkat depresi minimal (81,89 persen). Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah sebagian besar siswi kelas X SMUN 4 Malang memiliki aktivitas sedenter yang tinggi, tingkat stress sedang, dan tingkat depresi minimal. Untuk meningkatkan derajat kesehatan masyarakat utamanya remaja di SMUN 4 Malang, disarankan kepada pihak terkait untuk menyusun kebijakan tentang kewajiban aktivitas fisik di lingkungan institusi pendidikan serta meningkatkan peran bimbingan dan konseling remaja baik di institusi pendidikan maupun di institusi kesehatan.
... kwestii ekonomicznych -np. produkcji i sprzedaży gier (Newzoo, 2018;PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2018), marketingu (Williams, 2002;Liboriussen, Martin, 2016), roli gier we współczesnej gospodarce (Crandall, Sidak, 2006;Bobrowski i in., 2017), psychologii i socjologii (Gentile, 2011;Ivory, 2013), designu (Squire, 2011) czy muzyki (Collins, 2009). Studia nad grami wideo mają multidyscyplinarny charakter i sytuują się na pograniczu nauk społecznych (m.in. ...
Celem pracy jest identyfikacja prawidłowości charakteryzujących proces kształtowania się rynku gier wideo w Polsce. Wzięto przy tym pod uwagę podział producentów gier wideo ze względu na rok powstania, kategorie oraz platformy produkowanych gier. Badaniami objęto firmy posiadające główną siedzibę w Polsce według stanu na koniec 2017 roku.
... This is because SB can be positively associated with EO if it relates to educational purposes but negatively associated with EO if it comprises of leisuretime screen time8,58 . Indeed, the displacement hypothesis suggests that increased leisure-time SB may displace time spent engaging in academic activities and thus negatively influence EO59,60 . In our study, while we collected SB data across several domains, we did not collect data regarding the purpose/type of SB, which is a limitation that should be addressed in future studies by using tools such as the PAST-U 61 that capture contextual information about SB in different domains specific to the university setting.While a significant association was identified in this study between self-reported SB and semester GPA in the second year of studies, no significant associations were found for accelerometer-derived SB or in the first year of studies. ...
Background:
This study aimed to examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB), and educational outcomes (EO) in first-year university students in Australia.
Method:
Participants (N = 80) engaged in 3 data collection points (semesters 1, 2, and 3) that included self-reported and device-based PA and SB, and objective EO measures. Cross-sectional associations were examined using linear and binary logistic regressions, and longitudinal associations were examined using generalized estimating equations.
Result:
Overall, results indicated some positive but weak cross-sectional associations between some device-based and self-reported measures of PA and EO outcomes when controlling for confounders. Self-reported SB was negatively associated with semester GPA at time point 3 after adjusting for confounders (β = -0.224; 95% confidence interval, -0.446 to -0.001; P < .05). No other significant cross-sectional or longitudinal associations were identified.
Conclusion:
Our findings suggest that SB may be a more important target healthy behavior than PA when aiming to influence EO, and that related interventions may be more appropriate in second rather than first-year university students. Further research is needed to better understand this relationship that uses larger sample sizes, follows students beyond first year, and includes measures that distinguish between leisure and educational screen time.
... Dette til tross for at barn engasjerer seg i dataspill og er dermed delvis involvert i å skape innholdet som de eksponeres for (se f.eks. Fischer et al., 2011), samt at barn kan spille dataspill sammen med andre barn, noe som også er med på å påvirke innholdet (Gentile, 2011). Fire av studiene undersøker hvordan barns ekspone- ...
Norske barn bruker i gjennomsnitt litt under fire timer per dag på internett og digitale medier
(Staksrud & Ólafsson, 2019). Deres hverdagsliv er i økende grad preget av å bruke disse mediene, enten det er hjemme, på skolen eller i kombinasjon med andre fritidsaktiviteter. Barn bruker digitale medier alene, eller sammen med venner og familie. Det å ha tilgang til internett gir barn og unge mange muligheter til å være sosiale, å finne ny informasjon og kunnskap, å utvikle digital kompetanse og andre ferdigheter, og å være kreative. Det fører også med seg en viss risiko for å oppleve ting som kan være skadelig, som for eksempel å eksponeres for skadelig eller alvorlig skadelig innhold (cf. Bildeprogramloven, 2015).
Samtidig må tiltak som rettes mot beskyttelse for slike skader veies opp mot barns rettigheter til å delta i samfunnet ved å bruke disse medier. Disse rettighetene til tilgang, deltakelse og beskyttelse er sørget for av blant annet FNs barnekonvensjon
(1989), EØS-avtalens direktiv om audiovisuelle medietjenester (AVMSD, 2018), Grunnloven § 100 (Grunnloven, 1814), bildeprogramloven (Bildeprogramloven, 2015), samt den europeiske menneskerettskonvensjon artikkel 10 (ECHR, 1950).
Denne rapporten kartlegger og sammenstiller nyere forskning på skadelige medieeffekter knyttet til barn og unges mediebruk. Forskningen inkluderer internasjonale og norske studier på dette området publisert mellom 2007 og 2020. Den er basert på tre hovedproblemstillinger som er utviklet på bakgrunn av Medieskadelighetsutvalgets mandat og beskrivelsen av oppdraget vi har fått. Problemstillingene er:
– Hvordan operasjonaliseres og brukes skadelighetsbegrepet i ulike forskningstradisjoner og forskningsprosjekter mellom 2007 og 2020?
– Hva er overordnende forskningsfunn knyttet til barn, mediebruk og skadelig effekter mellom 2007 og 2020?
– Hvilke forskningshull kan identifiseres fra forskning om barn, mediebruk og skadelige
effekter utført mellom 2007 og 2020?
... Dette til tross for at barn engasjerer seg i dataspill og er dermed delvis involvert i å skape innholdet som de eksponeres for (se f.eks. Fischer et al., 2011), samt at barn kan spille dataspill sammen med andre barn, noe som også er med på å påvirke innholdet (Gentile, 2011). Fire av studiene undersøker hvordan barns ekspone- ...
Existing theories of how game use relates to mental health have important limitations: few account for both quantity and quality of use, differentiate components of mental health (hedonic wellbeing, eudaimonic wellbeing and illbeing), provide an explanation for both positive and negative outcomes or readily explain the well-evidenced absence of playtime effects on mental health. Many also lack the specificity to be readily falsifiable. In response, we present the Basic Needs in Games (BANG) model. Grounded in self-determination theory, BANG proposes that mental health outcomes of game use are in large part mediated by the motivational quality of play and the extent to which play quantity and quality lead to need satisfaction or frustration. We show how BANG addresses the limitations of current theories and aligns with emerging evidence on the etiologies of disordered play. Thus, BANG advances HCI theory on the impact of games and other interactive technologies on mental health.
In recent years, open-world environments in video games have become increasingly popular and immersive. Millions of players are able to explore virtual landscapes that resemble the real world, yet significant differences exist. This study investigates the geographical accuracy of 15 open-world video games. The virtual landscapes in these games were analyzed for horizontal distance compression, increased slopes, idealized climate, simplified vegetation and water features, underpopulation, and spatial segregation of ethnic minorities. The findings show significant differences between the games in terms of their geographical accuracy, with some exhibiting a more realistic representation of the natural and cultural environment compared to others. This study sheds light on the relationship between virtual landscapes in video games and our perception of the real world, offering new insights into this rapidly growing field.
People with disabilities experience persistent, multifaceted disadvantage across the life course. The origins of life course disadvantage among people with disabilities may stem, in part, from exclusion during developmentally sensitive periods in childhood. Time use among adolescents represents a potentially important mechanism implicated in the emergence of disability-related disadvantage, but previous research has largely neglected the time use of school age adolescents with disabilities. Utilizing nationally representative time diary data, this study investigated disability-related differences in adolescents’ time use, and how these gaps vary by sex and age. Results indicated that disability-related differences in time use are widespread and substantial in magnitude. Adolescents with disabilities spend more time in screen-based leisure, alone, and with mothers, and less time in educational activities than non-disabled adolescents. Boys with disabilities additionally spend less time in structured leisure and with peers than non-disabled boys. Differences in time alone, with peers, and in screen-based leisure increase in magnitude at older ages. We conclude that differential time use in adolescence may contribute to multiple persistent disadvantages experienced by people with disabilities over the life course.
The COVID-19 pandemic has had serious effects on children in early childhood as well as on all age groups. Detecting and examining these effects with various studies is vitally important. Hence, current research aims to examine the relationship between digital play addiction tendencies and psychological well-being levels of 5- to 6-year-old children during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study uses the relational survey model, a descriptive research method. The data were collected over seven months in 2021 from January to July. Digital Play Addiction Tendency Scale and the Psychological Well-Being Scale for 5 or 6-Year-Old Children (PWBiC) were used as the data collection tools. As a result, overplay of digital games and the psychological well-being of 5–6 years-old children have a relationship that may affect the child’s health and development. This research contributes to existing knowledge of child well-being by providing notable findings about the interrelation between overplay of digital games and the psychological well-being of children during the lockdown period of COVID-19.
Aim:
The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship of video game playing with oral/dental health and harmful oral habits in school-age children.
Methods:
The daily video gamer (n = 77) and occasional video gamer (n = 77) children between 6 and 12 years old were included in the study. A questionnaire inquiring socio-demographic characteristics, video gaming and abnormal oral habits of the children was filled by parents. The children were examined intraorally and decayed-missing-filled tooth, the International Caries Detection and the Assessment-II System scores, dental plaque and gingival indices were recorded.
Results:
Of the children; 42.9% daily video gamers played video games for between 1 and 2 h and 57.1% played for ≥2 h while all of the occasional video gamers spent for between 1 and 2 h on video game per day. The daily video gamer and occasional video gamer children were not different in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, frequency of having daily tooth brushing habit, using children's toothpaste and having regular dental checkup (P > 0.05). No statistically significant difference was present between the groups in terms of frequencies of abnormal oral habits and having at least one abnormal oral habit (P > 0.05). Severe gingivitis and advanced caries lesions were more common in daily video gamer group (14.2% vs. 3.9%, P = 0.025 and 90.9% vs. 70.9%, P = 0.026, respectively). Daily video gaming time was weakly correlated with plaque index (r = 0.26, n = 77, P = 0.024). Daily video gaming for ≥2 h increased the risk for severe gingivitis (odds (95% confidence interval) = 4.53 (1.07-19.23), P = 0.041) while daily video gaming for between 1 and 2 h decreased the risk for having abnormal oral habit (odds (95% confidence interval) = 0.39 (0.16-0.93), P = 0.034).
Conclusion:
In school age, daily video gaming may worsen oral and dental health compared with occasional video gaming. Particularly, an excessive video gaming time seems to be associated with poor oral health in school children.
Information and communication technology (ICT) is often heralded to boost student learning. In this paper, we investigate the supposed benefits of ICT on student educational performance by considering the varied forms of ICT resources – access, skills, efficacy and different usage practices. We also examine the relationship between parental background, ICT and educational performance, employing notions from social reproduction and mobility theory, thereby investigating its role in processes of intergenerational transmission of educational inequality. Using PISA 2018 data, we examine 123,006 students’ performance in Math and Reading. Results from fixed effects models indicate that ICT resources have a generic benefit to student learning, and mostly function as means to social reproduction. Our results indicate that having more ICT access and ICT skills seem to be most beneficial for students from advantageous family backgrounds, whereas using ICT for gaming seems most detrimental for high-SES students.
Utilizing digital games for learning vocabulary can be auspicious. Thus, the current study investigates the potential effectiveness of implementing Minecraft to teach vocabulary. The participants who underwent this study were eighteen students of intermediate Saudi schools in Riyadh. They are 12-13 years old. They were grouped into two groups: the experimental and control groups. The pupils were randomly chosen. Both groups were taught the same vocabulary. While the control group was taught via the traditional methods, the experimental group was taught by using Minecraft. The experiment lasted two weeks before the post-test was carried out. The researcher made an observation sheet to examine students' acceptance of employing Minecraft and their behaviors towards it. The results of the pre-post tests were analyzed through SPSS. The present study's findings revealed a significant distinction in favor of the experimental group, which was taught using Minecraft. In addition, the students exhibited a positive attitude towards Minecraft. Besides, it is desired that teachers support other learning methods, including games that raise creativity and construct a comfortable condition.
Schools are an opportune context for digital citizenship education and promoting healthy digital media use. We examine 20 programs providing such resources. They differ in topics and depth, target grade levels of students, pedagogical approaches (lecture, discussion), formats (scenario-based lessons, videos, interactive games), and takeaways. Our review reveals that lessons promoting healthy digital habits involve these learning goals: (1) Critical awareness: revealing how digital design features shape technology experiences; (2) Self-reflection: building self-awareness about personal digital media use (e.g., asking students to track app use). Self-reflection builds “digital metacognition” involving thinking intentionally about technology choices. (3) Behavioral change: helping students “balance” their lives through on-device strategies (e.g., turning off push notifications) and off-device strategies (e.g., scheduling screen-free time). Although more research on the effectiveness of school-based programs is needed, there is potential in a three-pronged approach whereby educators and others working with youth build critical awareness, self-reflection, and behavioral change.
With the advent of the "computer" and other technological advancements, online gaming (or other forms of gaming) has a prominent position in the life of most of the population, especially young adults and children. There has been mired of research discussing the benefits and problems associated with the extensive time spent on gaming in which many individuals participate. However, those researches do not have a consistent pattern and framework to be able to completely understand the outcomes associated with this technology. The purpose of this study was to examine the existing research literature and determine if there were any consistent patterns to develop a conceptual framework that may help to be better determine the impacts of gaming to players. A conceptual framework would facilitate quality research including typologies recognition. Furthermore, a conceptual framework was developed to better determine the impact of gaming to players. This framework would help define research efforts using the typologies developed, as well as an analysis and prescribe the effectiveness of gaming.
International Journal of Computer Science and Engineering (IJCSE)
Paper Id:- IJCSEJUN202205
ISSN (P): 2278–9960; ISSN (E): 2278–9979
Vol. 11, Issue 1, Jan–Jun 2022; 61–68
© IASET
Research conducted over several decades has shown that violent media increase aggression. It is now time to move beyond the question of whether violent media increase aggression to answer- ing the question why violent media increase aggression. The pres- ent research tested whether violent video games produce a hostile expectation bias—the tendency to expect others to react to poten- tial conflicts with aggression. Participants (N = 224) played either a violent or nonviolent video game. Next, they read ambig- uous story stems about potential interpersonal conflicts. They were asked what the main character will do, say, think, and feel as the story continues. People who played a violent video game described the main character as behaving more aggressively, thinking more aggressive thoughts, and feeling more angry than did people who played a nonviolent video game. These results are consistent with the General Aggression Model.
Direct manipulation has been lauded as a good form of interface design, and some interfaces that have this property have been well received by users. In this article we seek a cognitive account of both the advantages and disadvantages of direct manipulation interfaces. We identify two underlying phenomena that give rise to the feeling of directness. One deals with the information processing distance between the user's intentions and the facilities provided by the machine. Reduction of this distance makes the interface feel direct by reducing the effort required of the user to accomplish goals. The second phenomenon concerns the relation between the input and output vocabularies of the interface language. In particular, direct manipulation requires that the system provide representations of objects that behave as if they are the objects themselves. This provides the feeling of directness of manipulation.
Two experiments investigated the effects of video game expertise on divided visual attention in college students. Divided attention was measured by using response time to targets of varying probabilities at two locations on a computer screen. In one condition the target appeared 10% of the time in one location (low probability position), 80% of the time in the other location (high probability position), and 10% of the time in both locations. In the other condition the target appeared 45% of the time in each position (equiprobable or neutral positions) and 10% of the time in both positions. The subjects for Experiment 1 represented two extremes of video game skill (labeled experts, novices), whereas the subjects for Experiment 2 were an unselected group with a continuous distribution of video game performance (labeled more skillful, less skillful). Experiment 1 established that video game experts were similar to novices in manifesting an attentional benefit (manifested in faster response time) at the high probability position (relative to a neutral or equiprobable position). However, unlike novices, experts did not show an attentional cost (manifested as slower response time) at the low probability position (again relative to a neutral position). Experts also had significantly faster response times than novices at both the 10% and 80% positions, but not at the 45% position. Experiment 2 established that video game experience was a causal factor in improving strategies of divided attention. Five hours of play on a video game called Robotron produced a significant decrease in response time at the 10% location, the locus of the expert-novice difference in Experiment 1.
What would a state of the art instructional video game look like? As far as I am concerned, we already know the answer to this question. A good many of the best commercial video games are already state of the art learning games—though their designers would go broke if too many people knew this, thanks to the poor reputation our schools have given learning in recent years (Coles 2003). A good instructional game, like many good commercial games, should be built around what I call "authentic professionalism. " In such games, skills, knowledge, and values are distributed between the virtual characters and the real-world player in a way that allows the player to experience first-hand how members of that profession think, behave, and solve problems. There is no shortage of people today who want to create "serious games " for learning (for more information, see The Serious Games Initiative or The Education Arcade). However, I believe we need to examine how good commercial games deliver learning as part and parcel of gameplay. People who want to make serious games often say they can not match the sophistication of today's commercial games because they do not have as much money for development as commercial game designers. But the failure, in my view, is often one of imagination as well as continued allegiance to bad theories of learning. After all, young gamers make mods for next to no money, some of which, like Counter Strike, have gone on to world-wide commercial
The frequency of exposure to media violence and eight additional risk factors were path-analyzed in a 2-year longitudinal study. The exposure to media violence (total score) affected students’ later violence (β = .28) and later violent delinquency (β = .30) more strongly than other risk factors. Direct effects were also caused by risk factors assessed at Time 1, which in turn were reinforced by the remaining risk factors on the second or third stratum of analysis. Of particular importance are the findings that (1) playing violent electronic games is the strongest risk factor of violent criminality and (2) both media-stimulated and real experiences of aggressive emotions associated with the motive of revenge are core risk factors of violence in school and violent criminality. The results of our study show that the more frequently children view horror and violence films during childhood and the more frequently they play violent electronic games at the beginning of adolescence the higher will these students’ violence and delinquency be at the age of 14.
For those with a vested interest in online technologies for learning, the knowledge and skills that constitute successful participation in massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) places these games squarely among the most promising new digital technologies to date. In this article, the author broadly outlines the qualitative results of a two and a half year cognitive ethnography of the MMO "Lineage" and describes the current trajectory of research being pursued, based on those findings: (a) the empirical investigation of focused research questions in order to document and analyze those core practices that constitute gameplay in virtual worlds, and (b) the development of educational activities for after-school clubs that capitalize on those capacities found throughout the research. This essay concludes with a reflection on the multiple relationships between games and education, highlighting the potential for such technologies to transform not only the means of education but also perhaps some of the goals. (Contains 5 figures.)
This chapter examines youth access to violent video games as well as the existing theory and literature on potential negative effects of violent video games. In addition the author presents a meta-analysis of the effects of video games on the domains of aggressive behavior, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, aggressive cognition, and prosocial behavior. The author concludes with lessons learned from the existing literature that should be taken into account in future studies. These lessons include the need for more attention to variability among violent video games when comparing effects of violent and nonviolent games, the need for larger sample sizes in order to reliably detect violent video game effects, the importance of nonviolent or control comparison conditions, the need for more comprehensive reporting of results so as to allow for the calculation of effect sizes, and measures used to quantify video game exposure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Abstract This paper will present a review of design-based research conducted over the past 10 years that has modeled and promoted students' reasoning, conceptual change and argumentative dialogue processes and practices through designing a number of digital dialogue games. This line of work was inspired by some challenges and insights that emerged during projects dealing with conceptual change in science. Since then, the dialogical and pedagogical requirements for improved reasoning, knowledge development and conceptual understanding in a range of contexts have been addressed through projects that have designed and evaluated intelligent and highly interactive dialogue game tools, such as CoLLeGE (Computer-based Laboratory for Language Games in Education), AcademicTalk and InterLoc (Collaborative Interaction through scaffolding Locutions). This article will review this line of work through justifying and describing the rationale for its trajectory before presenting ongoing work that synthesizes and operationalizes its findings and insights. The ongoing work emphasizes an inclusive and personalized approach to learning dialogue that stimulates reasoning, collaborative thinking and the development of argumentative dialogue practices. This is arguably relevant to most learning contexts, and especially to contemporary science education. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the role of dialogue in learning in the digital age.
There is a debate in the literature concerning whether a distinction between affordances and cultural conventions ought to
be drawn. It is possible that in the absence of affordances users develop conventions to resolve interaction ambiguity. We
explored whether a difference between affordances and conventions existed through a button pressing task. Our results show
that affordances exist when the spatial button configuration is congruent with directional cues. When affordances were not
available, most participants demonstrated consistent button-to-action mapping that sometimes represented a convention. Additionally,
there was no difference in response time in the affordance and convention conditions.
This study investigated how 3-D and 2-D computer game practice and delivery as well as individual differences affect performance
on two tests of mental rotation (Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and Card Rotation Test). Sixty-one US undergraduates from
the Midwest completed 4h of either massed or distributed practice. While computer game practice improved mental rotation
scores in general, women’s gains were significantly greater than men’s, and the most significant gains were accomplished when
practice was massed. High mathematical ability, gender, and type of practice significantly predicted improvement scores. The
findings suggest that even very minimal computer game practice may improve performance on mental rotation tasks.
In today’s increasingly “flat” world of globalization (Friedman 2005), the need for a scientifically literate citizenry has grown more urgent. Yet, by some measures, we have done a poor job
at fostering scientific habits of mind in schools. Recent research on informal games-based learning indicates that such technologies and the communities they evoke
may be one viable alternative—not as a substitute for teachers and classrooms, but as an alternative to textbooks and science
labs. This paper presents empirical evidence about the potential of games for fostering scientific habits of mind. In particular,
we examine the scientific habits of mind and dispositions that characterize online discussion forums of the massively multiplayer
online game World of Warcraft. Eighty-six percent of the forum discussions were posts engaged in “social knowledge construction” rather than social banter.
Over half of the posts evidenced systems based reasoning, one in ten evidenced model-based reasoning, and 65% displayed an
evaluative epistemology in which knowledge is treated as an open-ended process of evaluation and argument.
This study investigated the roles of sex, age, and parent–child communication in moderating the association between digital game violence and direct aggression in a two-year longitudinal study. Finnish 12- and 15-year-old adolescents (N = 316) participated in the follow-up survey. As hypothesized, digital game violence was linked to direct aggression both longitudinally and synchronously, and the link was moderated by parent–child communication in interaction with sex and age. Results suggest that the moderating role of parent–child communication changes with increasing age. Poor parent–child communication may be one of the factors in an adolescent's development that may strengthen the negative effects of digital game violence, but even good parent–child communication does not necessarily protect the adolescent in the long run. Digital game violence seems to be one of the risk factors of increased aggressive behavior.
This study was designed to elucidate the problem-solving skills used by frequent and infrequent video game players to negotiate impasses encountered while playing a novel video game. All participants were instructed to think aloud while playing a video game for 20 consecutive minutes. Comments made were then used to make inferences about the problem-solving skills that participants used to resolve impasses encountered during the game. Findings showed that frequent players made significantly greater reference to insight and game strategies than infrequent players. After reaching an impasse, all players also were most likely to comment on their game progress and potential game strategies to use. Over the course of game play, all participants showed increasing emphasis on their problem-solving skills as evidenced through their greater mention of insight, game strategies, and goal comments.
Numerous studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression, though the mechanisms of this effect have remained elusive. One theory posits that repeated exposure to media violence desensitizes viewers to real world violence, increasing aggression by blunting aversive reactions to violence and removing normal inhibitions against aggression. Theoretically, violence desensitization should be reflected in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP), which has been associated with activation of the aversive motivational system. In the current study, violent images elicited reduced P300 amplitudes among violent, as compared to nonviolent video game players. Additionally, this reduced brain response predicted increased aggressive behavior in a later task. Moreover, these effects held after controlling for individual differences in trait aggressiveness. These data are the first to link media violence exposure and aggressive behavior to brain processes hypothetically associated with desensitization.
This article presents conceptual and empirical analyses of several of the ‘‘best practices’’ of learning and instruction, and demonstrates how violent video games use them effectively to motivate learners to persevere in acquiring and mastering a number of skills, to navigate through complex problems and changing environments, and to experiment with different identities until success is achieved. These educational principles allow for the gen-eration of several testable hypotheses, two of which are tested with samples of 430 elementary school children (mean age 10 years), 607 young adolescents (mean age 14 years), and 1,441 older adolescents (mean age 19 years). Participants were surveyed about their video game habits and their aggressive cognitions and behaviors. The first hypothesis is based on the principle that curricula that teach the same underlying concepts across contexts should have the highest transfer. Therefore, students who play multiple violent video games should be more likely to learn aggressive cognitions and behaviors than those who play fewer. The second hypothesis is based on the principle that long-term learning is improved the more practice is distributed across time. Therefore, students who play violent video games more frequently across time should be more likely to learn aggressive cognitions and behaviors than those who play the same types of games for equivalent amounts of time but less frequently. Both hypotheses were supported. We conclude by describing what educators can learn from the successful instructional and curriculum design features of video games.
Violent video games are increasingly popular, raising concerns by parents, researchers, policy makers, and informed citizens about potential harmful effects. Chapter 1 describes the history of violent games and their explosive growth. Chapter 2 discusses research methodologies, how one establishes causality in science, and prior research on violent television, film, and video games. Chapter 3 presents the General Aggression Model, focusing on how media violence increases aggression and violence in both short and long-term contexts. Important scientific questions are answered by three new studies. Chapter 4 reports findings from a laboratory experiment: even children's games with cartoonish violence increased aggression in children and college students. Chapter 5 reports findings from a survey study of high school students: frequent violent game play leads to an angry and hostile personality and to frequent aggression and violence. Chapter 6 reports findings from the first longitudinal study video game effects: elementary school children who frequently played violent games early in the school year became more verbally and physically aggressive, and less helpful. Chapters 7 and 8 compare a host of risk factors for development of aggression, and find video game effects to be quite important. Chapter 9 describes the role of scientific findings in public policy, industry responses to scientific findings, and public policy options. Chapter 10 recommends that public policy debates acknowledge the harmful effects of violent video games on youth, and urges a more productive debate about whether and how modern societies should act.
The anthropological study of games has demonstrated that a culture's games socialize children in accord with the needs and adaptational requirements of a particular society. The research presented here tested whether video games could contribute to the development of spatial representational skills required for humans to “interface” effectively with computer technology, an increasingly important part of the ecology of modern society. We studied university undergraduates in the U.S. to assess the relationship between expertise in a three-dimensional action arcade video game, The Empire Strikes Back, and the skills of dynamic three-dimensional spatial representation, as assessed in a mental paper-folding test. Study 1 established a correlation between video game expertise and skill in spatial representation. The goal of Study 2 was to establish a causal relationship between video game skill and spatial skill through an experimental paradigm. The predicted experimental effect did not occur—that is, short-term video game practice had no effect on mental paperfolding. However, structural equation modeling did provide strong evidence that video game expertise, developed over the long-term, had a beneficial effect on the spatial skill of mental paper folding. In this form, the hypothesis was confirmed.
Good computer and video games like System Shock 2, Deus Ex, Pikmin, Rise of Nations, Neverwinter Nights, and Xenosaga: Episode 1 are learning machines. They get themselves learned and learned well, so that they get played long and hard by a great many people. This is how they and their designers survive and perpetuate themselves. If a game cannot be learned and even mastered at a certain level, it won't get played by enough people, and the company that makes it will go broke. Good learning in games is a capitalist-driven Darwinian process of selection of the fittest. Of course, game designers could have solved their learning problems by making games shorter and easier, by dumbing them down, so to speak. But most gamers don't want short and easy games. Thus, designers face and largely solve an intriguing educational dilemma, one also faced by schools and workplaces: how to get people, often young people, to learn and master something that is long and challenging--and enjoy it, to boot.
We aimed to measure the prevalence and length of the problem of pathological video gaming or Internet use, to identify risk and protective factors, to determine whether pathological gaming is a primary or secondary problem, and to identify outcomes for individuals who become or stop being pathological gamers.
A 2-year, longitudinal, panel study was performed with a general elementary and secondary school population in Singapore, including 3034 children in grades 3 (N = 743), 4 (N = 711), 7 (N = 916), and 8 (N = 664). Several hypothesized risk and protective factors for developing or overcoming pathological gaming were measured, including weekly amount of game play, impulsivity, social competence, depression, social phobia, anxiety, and school performance.
The prevalence of pathological gaming was similar to that in other countries (∼9%). Greater amounts of gaming, lower social competence, and greater impulsivity seemed to act as risk factors for becoming pathological gamers, whereas depression, anxiety, social phobias, and lower school performance seemed to act as outcomes of pathological gaming.
This study adds important information to the discussion about whether video game "addiction" is similar to other addictive behaviors, demonstrating that it can last for years and is not solely a symptom of comorbid disorders.
Although dozens of studies have documented a relationship between violent video games and aggressive behaviors, very little attention has been paid to potential effects of prosocial games. Theoretically, games in which game characters help and support each other in nonviolent ways should increase both short-term and long-term prosocial behaviors. We report three studies conducted in three countries with three age groups to test this hypothesis. In the correlational study, Singaporean middle-school students who played more prosocial games behaved more prosocially. In the two longitudinal samples of Japanese children and adolescents, prosocial game play predicted later increases in prosocial behavior. In the experimental study, U.S. undergraduates randomly assigned to play prosocial games behaved more prosocially toward another student. These similar results across different methodologies, ages, and cultures provide robust evidence of a prosocial game content effect, and they provide support for the General Learning Model.
Youth worldwide play violent video games many hours per week. Previous research suggests that such exposure can increase physical aggression.
We tested whether high exposure to violent video games increases physical aggression over time in both high- (United States) and low- (Japan) violence cultures. We hypothesized that the amount of exposure to violent video games early in a school year would predict changes in physical aggressiveness assessed later in the school year, even after statistically controlling for gender and previous physical aggressiveness.
In 3 independent samples, participants' video game habits and physically aggressive behavior tendencies were assessed at 2 points in time, separated by 3 to 6 months.
One sample consisted of 181 Japanese junior high students ranging in age from 12 to 15 years. A second Japanese sample consisted of 1050 students ranging in age from 13 to 18 years. The third sample consisted of 364 United States 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-graders ranging in age from 9 to 12 years. RESULTS. Habitual violent video game play early in the school year predicted later aggression, even after controlling for gender and previous aggressiveness in each sample. Those who played a lot of violent video games became relatively more physically aggressive. Multisample structure equation modeling revealed that this longitudinal effect was of a similar magnitude in the United States and Japan for similar-aged youth and was smaller (but still significant) in the sample that included older youth.
These longitudinal results confirm earlier experimental and cross-sectional studies that had suggested that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physically aggressive behavior and that this violent video game effect on youth generalizes across very different cultures. As a whole, the research strongly suggests reducing the exposure of youth to this risk factor.
Suboptimal adherence to self-administered medications is a common problem. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a video-game intervention for improving adherence and other behavioral outcomes for adolescents and young adults with malignancies including acute leukemia, lymphoma, and soft-tissue sarcoma.
A randomized trial with baseline and 1- and 3-month assessments was conducted from 2004 to 2005 at 34 medical centers in the United States, Canada, and Australia. A total of 375 male and female patients who were 13 to 29 years old, had an initial or relapse diagnosis of a malignancy, and currently undergoing treatment and expected to continue treatment for at least 4 months from baseline assessment were randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. The intervention was a video game that addressed issues of cancer treatment and care for teenagers and young adults. Outcome measures included adherence, self-efficacy, knowledge, control, stress, and quality of life. For patients who were prescribed prophylactic antibiotics, adherence to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was tracked by electronic pill-monitoring devices (n = 200). Adherence to 6-mercaptopurine was assessed through serum metabolite assays (n = 54).
Adherence to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and 6-mercaptopurine was greater in the intervention group. Self-efficacy and knowledge also increased in the intervention group compared with the control group. The intervention did not affect self-report measures of adherence, stress, control, or quality of life.
The video-game intervention significantly improved treatment adherence and indicators of cancer-related self-efficacy and knowledge in adolescents and young adults who were undergoing cancer therapy. The findings support current efforts to develop effective video-game interventions for education and training in health care.
To examine the role of physical activity, inactivity, and dietary patterns on annual weight changes among preadolescents and adolescents, taking growth and development into account.
We studied a cohort of 6149 girls and 4620 boys from all over the United States who were 9 to 14 years old in 1996. All returned questionnaires in the fall of 1996 and a year later in 1997. Each child provided his or her current height and weight and a detailed assessment of typical past-year dietary intakes, physical activities, and recreational inactivities (TV, videos/VCR, and video/computer games).
Our hypotheses were that physical activity and dietary fiber intake are negatively correlated with annual changes in adiposity and that recreational inactivity (TV/videos/games), caloric intake, and dietary fat intake are positively correlated with annual changes in adiposity. Separately for boys and girls, we performed regression analysis of 1-year change in body mass index (BMI; kg/m(2)). All hypothesized factors were in the model simultaneously with several adjustment factors.
Larger increases in BMI from 1996 to 1997 were among girls who reported higher caloric intakes (.0061 +/-.0026 kg/m(2) per 100 kcal/day; beta +/- standard error), less physical activity (-.0284 +/-.0142 kg/m(2)/hour/day) and more time with TV/videos/games (.0372 +/-.0106 kg/m(2)/hour/day) during the year between the 2 BMI assessments. Larger BMI increases were among boys who reported more time with TV/videos/games (.0384 +/-.0101) during the year. For both boys and girls, a larger rise in caloric intake from 1996 to 1997 predicted larger BMI increases (girls:.0059 +/-.0027 kg/m(2) per increase of 100 kcal/day; boys:.0082 +/-.0030). No significant associations were noted for energy-adjusted dietary fat or fiber.
For both boys and girls, a 1-year increase in BMI was larger in those who reported more time with TV/videos/games during the year between the 2 BMI measurements, and in those who reported that their caloric intakes increased more from 1 year to the next. Larger year-to-year increases in BMI were also seen among girls who reported higher caloric intakes and less physical activity during the year between the 2 BMI measurements. Although the magnitudes of these estimated effects were small, their cumulative effects, year after year during adolescence, would produce substantial gains in body weight. Strategies to prevent excessive caloric intakes, to decrease time with TV/videos/games, and to increase physical activity would be promising as a means to prevent obesity.
In this study of 278 children from the seventh and eighth grade of five elementary schools in Enschede, The Netherlands, the relationship between the amount of time children spent on playing video games and aggressive as well as prosocial behaviour was investigated. In addition, the relationship between the preference for aggressive video games and aggressive and prosocial behaviour was studied. No significant relationship was found between video game use in general and aggressive behaviour, but a significant negative relationship with prosocial behaviour was supported. However, separate analyses for boys and girls did not reveal this relationship. More consistent results were found for the preference for aggressive video games: children, especially boys, who preferred aggressive video games were more aggressive and showed less prosocial behaviour than those with a low preference for these games. Further analyses showed that children who preferred playing aggressive video games tended to be less intelligent.
Lieberman, D.A. (2001). Using Interactive Media in Communication Campaigns for Children and Adolescents. Chapter in R.E. Rice & C.K. Atkin (Eds.), Public Communication Campaigns (Third Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications.
Abstract
Interactive media offer a sharp contrast to traditional persuasional approaches to campaigns. Whereas mass media direct predominantly one-way messages at audiences, interactive media teach via participation and by individualized responses to each user's input. Campaign designers using interactive media can focus on experiential interventions instead of persuasive message construction. With interactive media, we can conceptualize a campaign and develop goals and methods that have not previously been feasible on a large scale. Although no two people are likely to experience any campaign the same way, with interactive media the choices are theirs, and the system's responses to each person are unique. These experiences are enhanced by the interpersonal communication channels that interactive media also offer.
Campaign designers are only beginning to tap the potential of interactive media, as new concepts, theories, and applications are being developed in this field. Already, however, a small body of research, evaluation studies, and campaign experiences from the field has shown us what works and what does not.
This chapter discusses unique advantages of video games as media that can motivate and support health behavior change in children and adolescents. To engage young people in a health topic, video games can present appealing role-model characters that players control or interact with, provide scenarios that involve making health decisions and carrying out self-care skills, and depict realistic consequences in response to players’ decisions and actions.
The chapter also discusses mediating, or intervening, factors that games can improve in players and that can in turn lead to better health behaviors and outcomes, and it cites supporting theory and research evidence. Mediating factors that can be enhanced by playing well designed games include attention to and active processing of health promotion messages, increased motivation to learn about the health topic, knowledge about prevention and self-care related to a health topic, self-efficacy for specific health behaviors, and communication about one’s own health and the health topic in general with friends and family who can provide social support. The chapter provides a variety of evidence-based design strategies for integrating standalone and online video games into health interventions for people of all ages.
--------------------
Bibliographic reference:
Lieberman, D.A. (1997). Interactive video games for health promotion: Effects on knowledge, self-efficacy, social support, and health. Chapter in R.L. Street, W.R. Gold, & T. Manning (Eds.), Health promotion and interactive technology: Theoretical applications and future directions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 103-120.
Excerpts available on Google Books (see link below). For more information, go to publisher's website : http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780805822335/
Significant use of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) for supporting collaborative learning approaches are discussed. The ability of MMORPGs to engage large groups of remotely located users has prompted research projects and military training organizations to start using these online gaming approaches for engaging and retaining large number of remotely located learner groups, supporting collaborative learning objectives and community practices. Another project has also demonstrated potential use of the tool for supporting collaborative learning processes, such as those associated with problem and experience-based learning. It also allowed learners to design and develop the game themselves. The online role-play game was based upon a multiuser domain object oriented (MOO) that was used to support English and history students.
Two experiments examined whether video game expertise transfers to performance on measures of spatial ability. In Experiment 1, skilled Tetris players outperformed non-Tetris players on mental rotation of shapes that were either identical to or very similar to Tetris shapes, but not on other tests of spatial ability. The pattern of performance on those mental rotation tasks revealed that skilled Tetris Players used the same mental rotation procedures as non-Tetris players, but when Tetris shapes were used, they executed them more quickly. In Experiment 2, non-Tetris players who received 12 hours of Tetris-playing experience did not differ from matched control students in pretest-to-posttest gains on tests of spatial ability. However, Tetris-experienced participants were more likely to use an alternative type of mental rotation for Tetris shapes than were Tetris-inexperienced participants. The results suggest that spatial expertise is highly domain-specific and does not transfer broadly to other domains. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We examined cardiovascular (CV) reactivity and hostility among 30 male undergraduates after either nonviolent (billiards) or 1 of 2 levels of violent videogame play. Violence varied among 2 versions of the game Mortal Kombat (MK1 = less violent, MK2 = more violent)—all other factors (graphics, sound) were held equal. As expected, increased game violence elicited greater CV reactivity and higher scores on hostility measures. Subjects who played MK1 or MK2 had higher heart rate reactivity than those who played billiards. Subjects who played MK2 showed greater systolic blood pressure reactivity than those who played MK1 or billiards. Finally, subjects who played MK2 scored higher on the hostility measures than those who played MK1, who in turn scored higher than those who played billiards. These results indicate that the level of videogame violence, not just violence per se, should be of concern to consumers.
Especially in vocational education, attention should be paid not only to the use of new technological solutions but also to collaborative learning and cooperative working methods in order to develop students’ skills for their future jobs. This study involves a design experiment including the design process of a new game environment, description of the script developed for this game, as well as the empirical study with multiple data collection methods, data analysis, results and conclusions for further work. The aim of the study was twofold. Firstly, we aimed to develop a game environment to simulate the work context of a vocational design process, and secondly, to investigate how effective the game environment is in vocational learning and how scripting affected students’ group processes during the game. It seems that, at their best, such “edugames” may enrich learning and the pedagogical use of technology. Although integrating learning and games provides tempting possibilities, it also contains many challenges, such as different group-specific learning processes despite the scripted environment.
To respond to learning needs, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) must provide instructional support. The particular focus of this paper is on designing collaboration in a 3-D virtual game environment intended to make learning more effective by promoting student opportunities for interaction. The empirical experiment eScape, which encourages learners to solve problems collaboratively, is also presented. eScape is a design experiment, comprising both the process of designing a collaborative game environment and an empirical study where data is collected using a variety of methods and analysed, after which the findings and conclusions serve as a basis for further design work. By designing and testing game-players' activities, this study attempted to find out whether the characteristic features of 3-D games can be used to create meaningful virtual collaborative learning environments. The results revealed that the scripted game persuaded student teams to enter into collaboration, but the actual processes varied.
Older adolescents played the video game Tetris for a total of 6 hr each in two separate experiments. None of the subjects had had any prior experience with Tetris, a video game requiring the rapid rotation and placement of seven different-shaped blocks. In Experiment 1, subjects were pre- and posttested on paper-and-pencil measures of spatial ability. In Experiment 2, computerized measures of mental rotation and visualization skills were administered. In both studies, experimental subjects' pre-post scores were compared to pre-post scores obtained from a control sample of subjects. Results indicated that playing Tetris improves mental rotation time and spatial visualization time. Consistent with earlier research, reliable and consistent differences between males and females were only obtained on complex mental rotation tasks.
The present study documents family media habits in six areas: electronic and print Media Use, parental Monitoring of children's media, parental Consistency regarding rules for children's media use, parents' reports of observable Media Effects on their children, parents' Knowledge about media and media effects, and how much children participate in Alternative Activities to electronic media. A random national sample of 527 parents of 2- to 17-year-olds were surveyed. Normative descriptive statistics in each of the six categories are provided. In general, families' scores in five of the six categories are positively correlated, indicating that families that practice positive media habits in one area tend to practice positive habits in other areas. Many family media habits predict children's school performance. Furthermore, having TVs in children's bedrooms is correlated with lower scores in all six areas, as well as with lower school performance. This study provides a normative baseline for future research.
An experimental study was conducted to test the transfer of skills from a complex computer game to the flight performance of cadets in the Israeli Air Force flight school. The context relevance of the game to flight was argued on the basis of a skill-oriented task analysis, using the framework provided by contemporary models of the human processing system. The influence of two embedded training strategies was compared, one focusing on the specific skills involved in performing the game, the other designed to improve the general ability of trainees to cope with the high processing and response demands of the flight task and teach better strategies of attention control. Efficient control and management of attention under high task load are argued to be skills that can improve with proper training and generalize to new situations. Flight performance scores of two groups of cadets who received 10 h of training in the computer game were compared with those of a matched group without game experience. Both game groups performed significantly better than the no-game group in the subsequent test flights. The results are discussed with reference to the theoretical framework within which the context relevance of the game was supported. Also considered are the effects of the different training schedules and the significance of the data to the study of attention control. The game has now been incorporated into the regular training program of the Air Force.
Researchers have studied whether some youth are "addicted" to video games, but previous studies have been based on regional convenience samples. Using a national sample, this study gathered information about video-gaming habits and parental involvement in gaming, to determine the percentage of youth who meet clinical-style criteria for pathological gaming. A Harris poll surveyed a randomly selected sample of 1,178 American youth ages 8 to 18. About 8% of video-game players in this sample exhibited pathological patterns of play. Several indicators documented convergent and divergent validity of the results: Pathological gamers spent twice as much time playing as nonpathological gamers and received poorer grades in school; pathological gaming also showed comorbidity with attention problems. Pathological status significantly predicted poorer school performance even after controlling for sex, age, and weekly amount of video-game play. These results confirm that pathological gaming can be measured reliably, that the construct demonstrates validity, and that it is not simply isomorphic with a high amount of play.
The relationship between exposure to violent electronic games and aggressive cognitions and behavior was examined in a longitudinal study. A total of 295 German adolescents completed the measures of violent video game usage, endorsement of aggressive norms, hostile attribution bias, and physical as well as indirect/relational aggression cross-sectionally, and a subsample of N=143 was measured again 30 months later. Cross-sectional results at T1 showed a direct relationship between violent game usage and aggressive norms, and an indirect link to hostile attribution bias through aggressive norms. In combination, exposure to game violence, normative beliefs, and hostile attribution bias predicted physical and indirect/relational aggression. Longitudinal analyses using path analysis showed that violence exposure at T1 predicted physical (but not indirect/relational) aggression 30 months later, whereas aggression at T1 was unrelated to later video game use. Exposure to violent games at T1 influenced physical (but not indirect/relational) aggression at T2 via an increase of aggressive norms and hostile attribution bias. The findings are discussed in relation to social-cognitive explanations of long-term effects of media violence on aggression.
The purpose of this retrospective and prospective case report is to describe the feasibility and outcomes of using a low-cost, commercially available gaming system (Wii) to augment the rehabilitation of an adolescent with cerebral palsy. PATIENT AND SETTING: The patient was an adolescent with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy classified as GMFCS level III who was treated during a summer session in a school-based setting.
The patient participated in 11 training sessions, 2 of which included other players. Sessions were between 60 and 90 minutes in duration. Training was performed using the Wii sports games software, including boxing, tennis, bowling, and golf. He trained in both standing and sitting positions.
Three main outcome measures were used: (1) visual-perceptual processing, using a motor-free perceptual test (Test of Visual Perceptual Skills, third edition); (2) postural control, using weight distribution and sway measures; and (3) functional mobility, using gait distance. Improvements in visual-perceptual processing, postural control, and functional mobility were measured after training.
The feasibility of using the system in the school-based setting during the summer session was supported. For this patient whose rehabilitation was augmented with the Wii, there were positive outcomes at the impairment and functional levels. Multiple hypotheses were proposed for the findings that may be the springboard for additional research. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first published report on using this particular low-cost, commercially available gaming technology for rehabilitation of a person with cerebral palsy.
There is a current trend of thought among some scholars of gambling that arcade video game playing in some adolescents may develop into a behavior which resembles a gambling addiction. A scale, developed to identify arcade video game addiction in adolescents, was administered to 467 secondary school children in a coastal town in the UK. Initial psychometric tests show that the scale has acceptable internal consistency reliability and factorial validity, and is significantly related to alternative means of assessing excessive video game play. The implications of the study findings are discussed together with its limitations and suggestions for future research.
As computer game playing is a popular activity among adolescents, a questionnaire study was undertaken with 387 adolescents (12-16 years of age) to establish their "dependence" using a scale adapted from the DSM-III-R criteria for pathological gambling. Analysis indicated that one in five adolescents were currently "dependent" upon computer games. Boys played significantly more regularly than girls and were more likely to be classified as "dependent." The earlier children began playing computer games it appeared the more likely they were to be playing at "dependent" levels. These and other results are discussed in relation to research on other gaming dependencies.
In this study of 278 children from the seventh and eighth grade of five elementary schools in Enschede, The Netherlands, the relationship between the amount of time children spent on playing video games and aggressive as well as prosocial behaviour was investigated. In addition, the relationship between the preference for aggressive video games and aggressive and prosocial behaviour was studied. No significant relationship was found between video game use in general and aggressive behaviour, but a significant negative relationship with prosocial behaviour was supported. However, separate analyses for boys and girls did not reveal this relationship. More consistent results were found for the preference for aggressive video games: children, especially boys, who preferred aggressive video games were more aggressive and showed less prosocial behaviour than those with a low preference for these games. Further analyses showed that children who preferred playing aggressive video games tended to be less intelligent.