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Pit lakes of the Central German lignite mining district: Creation, morphometry and water quality aspects
Abstract
About 140 pit lakes exist in Central Germany. These have resulted from lignite mining and are important parts of the post-mining landscape in the Central German lignite mining district. Their water quality is mainly influenced by the consequences of pyrite oxidation, i.e., acidification or results of natural or artificial neutralization. The major way of filling as well as a cheap and successful measure against acidification was the diversion of river water into the lakes or their filling with neutral water from mines still operating. Eutrophication, contamination by industrial pollutants and infection with pathogens imported with river water were found to be unimportant threats for the pit lakes in the Central German lignite mining district. Intrusion of naturally saline groundwater from deeper underground resulted in some cases in elevated concentrations of sodium chloride and in meromixis. The diverse uses of the lakes (e.g. recreation, nature conservation, water management) indicate that the pit lakes fulfil widely the typical functions of lakes in a landscape. The creation, the current state of water quality and lessons learned in water quality management are reported upon for the pit lakes of the Central German lignite mining district.
... Lakes in former quarries or gravel pits are exposed to chemically inert materials while water in lignite pits is in contact with overburden material (Castro and Moore 2000). In Germany, ∼500 lignite mining pit lakes (henceforth "lignite pit lakes") were created over the last century (Schultze et al. 2010); other lignite pit lakes can be found in the Czech Republic (Poláková et al. 2022), Poland (e.g., Czop et al. 2011), Australia (Kumar et al. 2009), or in the United States (Gammons et al. 2009). ...
... For at least several decades, these waterbodies have also evidenced high groundwater connectivity (Brown and Trott 2014) as their pit walls cut through aquifers, fracture bedrock, and initially lack a sealing sediment layer . Hence, inflowing groundwater passes through aquifer sections with pyrite oxidation, making these waters sulfate-rich and acidic (Schultze et al. 2010). Because young pit lakes often exhibit low P concentrations (Kleeberg and Grüneberg 2005) and low phytoplanktonic activity (Gammons et al. 2009), CO 2 imported by groundwater, heterotrophic CO 2 , or CO 2 from widely practiced carbonate amendments (neutralization reactions; Stumm and Morgan 1996) may be less intensively consumed by primary production, potentially leading to CO 2 supersaturation and CO 2 emissions. ...
... Störmthal showed extended CO 2 oversaturation, even during summer, and an overall increasing trend within the study period. The missing CO 2 uptake and the low chlorophyll a concentration are likely the result of low photosynthetic activity, a common characteristic for young, oligotrophic lignite pit lakes , Schultze et al. 2010 and usually a result of low P concentrations due to adsorption to and sedimentation with iron oxides or hydroxides (Kleeberg and Grüneberg 2005). High pCO 2 in Störmthal could not only result from CO 2 production during neutralization reactions and missing biological CO 2 consumption, but also from releases through additional sources. ...
The abundance of human-made inland waters, such as artificial ponds and reservoirs, has multiplied over the last decades. Compared to natural lakes, reservoirs and retention basins can exhibit a higher accumulation of organic carbon and a higher emission of greenhouse gases. Magnitude and dynamics of related emission fluxes are important to understand the role of inland waters in the global carbon cycle. However, origin and use of artificial waterbodies are diverse, and it is unclear whether current gas flux estimates adequately represent all important types and conditions of artificial inland waters. This study compares drivers of CO2 and CH4 emissions from two types of temperate artificial waters that are widespread in central Europe: reservoirs and artificial lakes in former open-pit lignite mines (pit lakes). We measured CO2 exchange at the water surface, calculated surface water CO2 from long-term DIC and pH data, and measured CO2 and CH4 concentrations throughout the water column. We found that an older, eutrophic pit lake showed seasonal variations in CO2 fluxes including uptake during summer and release during turnover, similar to three studied freshwater reservoirs. In contrast, reacidification and repeated addition of carbonate (liming) led to sustained CO2 supersaturation in a young, oligotrophic pit lake throughout the year, potentially making it a steady source of CO2 to the atmosphere. This implies that on an annual level, pH regulation and lake maturity largely determine whether pit lakes act as sources of CO2 (young, slightly acidic) or sinks of CO2 (older, neutral pH).
... The creation of artificial lakes by flooding former open pit mines has become the most common strategy for the long-term rehabilitation of abandoned mine sites [1][2][3][4][5]. The forming lakes constitute important sites of culture and recreation. ...
... S eff = S r − S res,min S sat,max − S res,min (2) where S r is the degree of saturation, S res is the residual degree of saturation, and S sat is the saturated degree of saturation, while the indices max and min denote the maximum and minimum values respectively. Assuming that the air-pore pressure is assumed to be negligibly low, the effective stress is simply expressed as: ...
... Therefore, it follows that more active pressure (and consequently less effective stress) is developed at the higher rate of water level reduction. In detail, an active pore pressure equal to 533 kN/m 2 During dissipation, the soil mass consolidates, producing a negative vertical displacement. The results indicate that the lower the falling rate, the higher the vertical effective stress in depth. ...
This paper presents the results of a geotechnical investigation regarding the slope stability in a pit lake, emphasizing the impact of water level variations. Advanced analysis techniques were utilized for this study. The research was performed by using fully coupled flow-deformation analyses. For the fully coupled approach, Bishop’s effective-stress equation was used, and for the description of soil hydraulic behavior, the Van Genuchten’s model was applied. The analysis of slope stability associated with reservoir water level changes revealed that the slope tended to become unstable as the water level decreased; the stability factor was negatively related to the rate of water level reduction. Concerning the water level fluctuations, the analyses revealed that the soil mass seemed to become less stable as the rate of water level change increased. Under a specific range of rates of water level variation, the safety factor became higher as the number of fluctuations increased. Additionally, the simulation results concerning the water level rising indicate that the pressure due to the external water level acts on the slope surface with a positive impact on the stability factor. The results obtained reflect the effects under a specific site condition, but they can be used as a reference for evaluating slope stability in a pit lake design.
... Baggerseen lassen sich nur schwer in ein klar definiertes Schema eines bestimmten Gewässertyps einordnen (Beucker 1984, Brämick 2005, zu unterschiedlich sind sie hinsichtlich ihrer Genese, Morphologie und physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften (Mollema & Antonellini 2016). Im Vergleich zu natürlichen, in Norddeutschland vor allem eiszeitlich entstandenen Seen, sind Baggerseen in der Regel sehr jung, zumeist nicht älter als 100 bis 120 Jahre (Schultze et al. 2010, Mollema & Antonellini 2016. Häufig verfügen sie über keinen oberirdischen Zu-und Ablauf, sondern werden ausschließlich oder überwiegend durch Grund-und Niederschlagswasser gespeist. ...
... Durch den Bodenabbau werden in sauerstofffreien (anoxischen) Bodenschichten Oxidationsprozesse initiiert, die anfänglich zu einer starken Versauerung der Gewässer führen können (z. B. durch die Oxidation von Pyrit, Schultze et al. 2010). Sie wird jedoch häufig mit fortschreitendem Alter der Gewässer, z. ...
... Sie wird jedoch häufig mit fortschreitendem Alter der Gewässer, z. B. durch den zunehmenden Einfluss von Niederschlagswasser und durch gewässerinterne, biologische Prozesse, auf natürliche Weise reduziert (Schultze et al. 2010), sodass die überwiegende Zahl der Baggerseen einen neutralen pH-Wert aufweist (Mollema & Antonellini 2016). ...
... Furthermore, the groundwater level is also lowered during open-cast mining activities. In areas with soils containing iron disulphide minerals, e.g., marcasite or pyrite, low groundwater levels enable the reaction between these minerals, atmospheric oxygen and precipitation water, which leads to the decomposition of the minerals into sulphate, ferrous iron (Fe(II)) ions and hydrogen [4,5]. The low groundwater level also has a negative impact on the surrounding flora and fauna, as well as stream biodiversity [6][7][8][9]. ...
... The products of pyr in the hydrosphere reached surrounding surface waters via aquifers. The F oxidized in the oxygen-rich water to Fe(III) ions [5]. Open-cast lignite mining in Lusatia has the greatest impact on this section of the river [47]. ...
... The products of pyrite weathering in the hydrosphere reached surrounding surface waters via aquifers. The Fe(II) ions were oxidized in the oxygen-rich water to Fe(III) ions [5]. ...
It is a well-known fact that water bodies are crucial for human life, ecosystems and biodiversity. Therefore, they are subject to regulatory monitoring in terms of water quality. However, land-use intensification, such as open-cast mining activities, can have a direct impact on water quality. Unfortunately, in situ measurements of water quality parameters are spatially limited, costly and time-consuming, which is why we proposed a combination of hyperspectral data, in situ data and simple regression models in this study to estimate and thus monitor various water quality parameters. We focused on the variables of total iron, ferrous iron, ferric iron, sulphate and chlorophyll-a. Unlike other studies, we used a combination of airborne hyperspectral and RGB data to ensure a very high spatial resolution of the data. To investigate the potential of our approach, we conducted simultaneous in situ measurements and airborne hyperspectral/RGB aircraft campaigns at different sites of the Spree River in Germany to monitor the impact of pyrite weathering on water bodies after open-cast mining activities. Appropriate regression models were developed to estimate the five variables mentioned above. The model with the best performance for each variable gave a coefficient of determination R 2 of 64% to 79%. This clearly shows the potential of airborne hyperspectral/RGB data for water quality monitoring. In further investigations, we focused on the use of machine learning techniques, as well as transferability to other water bodies. The approach presented here has great potential for the development of a monitoring method for the continuous monitoring of still waters and large watercourses, especially given the freely available space-based hyperspectral missions via EnMAP.
... Furthermore, the groundwater level is also lowered during open-cast mining activities. In areas with soils containing iron disulphide minerals, e.g., marcasite or pyrite, low groundwater levels enable the reaction between these minerals, atmospheric oxygen and precipitation water, which leads to the decomposition of the minerals into sulphate, ferrous iron (Fe(II)) ions and hydrogen [4,5]. The low groundwater level also has a negative impact on the surrounding flora and fauna, as well as stream biodiversity [6][7][8][9]. ...
... The products of pyr in the hydrosphere reached surrounding surface waters via aquifers. The F oxidized in the oxygen-rich water to Fe(III) ions [5]. Open-cast lignite mining in Lusatia has the greatest impact on this section of the river [47]. ...
... The products of pyrite weathering in the hydrosphere reached surrounding surface waters via aquifers. The Fe(II) ions were oxidized in the oxygen-rich water to Fe(III) ions [5]. ...
... Some of the latter are open-pit basins. These are former excavations of clay, sand and gravel [18,[25][26][27], stone quarries [20,[26][27][28][29][30], open-cast coal [18,[25][26][27][31][32][33][34] and lignite mines [26,27,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37], as well as open-cast ore metal mines [18,25,27,34]. When the mining process, and thus the dewatering of the pit, is discontinued, they often fill with groundwater, rainfall and surface runoff, which results in the emergence of mine or quarry lakes [17,20,21,36,[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]. ...
... Depending on the type of the excavated resources and the mining technology used, mine and quarry lakes may vary in depth, surface area, and volume, retaining even up to hundreds of millions of cubic meters of water [17,20,28,32,33,35,39,42,43,48,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]. Usually, the largest mine lakes emerge in former lignite mines [24,35,59,60], which even led to the creation of an Anthropogenic Lake District [60,61]. ...
... Depending on the type of the excavated resources and the mining technology used, mine and quarry lakes may vary in depth, surface area, and volume, retaining even up to hundreds of millions of cubic meters of water [17,20,28,32,33,35,39,42,43,48,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]. Usually, the largest mine lakes emerge in former lignite mines [24,35,59,60], which even led to the creation of an Anthropogenic Lake District [60,61]. ...
This paper presents the results of bathymetric measurements of quarry lakes located in inactive granite quarries (Poland, Lower Silesia, County Strzelin), which were used, among other reasons, to determine the surface area, depth, and volume of water retained in the analysed quarry lakes. The usability of water in quarry lakes for agricultural irrigation was also assessed, based on the FAO Guidelines and the PN-84/C-04635 standard. The average surface area of the analysed quarry lakes was 0.99 ha, the average depth was 6.0 m, and the maximum depth was 14.3 m. At the same time, the total volume of the retained water amounted to 307.8 thousand m3, which accounts for 10.6% of the retention capacity of water reservoirs situated in the catchment of the Oława River. The average values of water quality indicators were as follows: electrical conductivity—0.332 mS × cm−1; sodium adsorption ratio—0.56; total dissolved solids—212.4 mg/L; water pH—7.8; BOD5—2.4 mgO2/L. The mean concentrations of ions had the following values: nitrates—0.91 mgN-NO3−/L; sulphates—176.3 mg SO42−/L; chlorides—36.56 mg Cl−/L; sodium ions—14.8 mg Na+/L; calcium—41.3 mg Ca2+/L; magnesium—7.48 mg Mg2+/L; manganese—0.1 mg Mn/L; and iron—0.01 mg Fe/L. The concentrations of water quality indicators that were recorded for the analysed Strzelin quarry lakes were similar to those observed in natural lakes and uncharged water bodies. Water from the analysed quarry lakes met (with some minor limitations) the requirements that enable them to be used for agricultural irrigation. The volume of the water retained in the analysed quarry lakes constitutes an important element of the total balance of water retained in all the reservoirs, ponds, and all Strzelin quarry lakes situated in the catchment of the Oława River, accounting for 10.6% of the total volume of retained water. The article presents the innovative concept of the possibility of using water from quarry lakes in agriculture, based on their quantity and quality and the requirements for the purpose for which they will be used, e.g., for agricultural irrigation.
... In many countries (e.g., the U.K. and the USA), hundreds of new pit or quarry lakes have been created [3,12,13,16,19,20,23,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] in former excavations of clay, sand and gravel, in former stone quarries, and in former open-cast coal and lignite mines when their respective operations ceased [10,15,23,36,[38][39][40][41]. Pit lakes or quarry lakes may be used for various purposes, including, among others: recreation and tourism [3,5,[9][10][11][12]16,17,21,26,[42][43][44], wildlife habitats [5,[9][10][11][12]16,24], aquaculture and fish farming [3,5,24,26,36,[45][46][47][48], water management [3,5,[10][11][12][13]16,23,24,36,42,48], floating photovoltaic systems [49], potable and industrial water reservoirs or irrigation water storage for agriculture and horticulture [3,[10][11][12]16,19,20,24,26,36,44,48,50,51], capturing flood waters, or improving the flow rate in water courses during droughts [36,[52][53][54]. ...
... In many countries (e.g., the U.K. and the USA), hundreds of new pit or quarry lakes have been created [3,12,13,16,19,20,23,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] in former excavations of clay, sand and gravel, in former stone quarries, and in former open-cast coal and lignite mines when their respective operations ceased [10,15,23,36,[38][39][40][41]. Pit lakes or quarry lakes may be used for various purposes, including, among others: recreation and tourism [3,5,[9][10][11][12]16,17,21,26,[42][43][44], wildlife habitats [5,[9][10][11][12]16,24], aquaculture and fish farming [3,5,24,26,36,[45][46][47][48], water management [3,5,[10][11][12][13]16,23,24,36,42,48], floating photovoltaic systems [49], potable and industrial water reservoirs or irrigation water storage for agriculture and horticulture [3,[10][11][12]16,19,20,24,26,36,44,48,50,51], capturing flood waters, or improving the flow rate in water courses during droughts [36,[52][53][54]. ...
... In many countries (e.g., the U.K. and the USA), hundreds of new pit or quarry lakes have been created [3,12,13,16,19,20,23,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] in former excavations of clay, sand and gravel, in former stone quarries, and in former open-cast coal and lignite mines when their respective operations ceased [10,15,23,36,[38][39][40][41]. Pit lakes or quarry lakes may be used for various purposes, including, among others: recreation and tourism [3,5,[9][10][11][12]16,17,21,26,[42][43][44], wildlife habitats [5,[9][10][11][12]16,24], aquaculture and fish farming [3,5,24,26,36,[45][46][47][48], water management [3,5,[10][11][12][13]16,23,24,36,42,48], floating photovoltaic systems [49], potable and industrial water reservoirs or irrigation water storage for agriculture and horticulture [3,[10][11][12]16,19,20,24,26,36,44,48,50,51], capturing flood waters, or improving the flow rate in water courses during droughts [36,[52][53][54]. ...
This paper presents the results of an analysis of the pace of filling one of the deepest European granite quarries with water. A DTM (digital terrain model) based on data from LiDAR ALS (light detection and ranging airborne laser scanning) was used to create a model of the pit of the Strzelin I granite quarry and to determine the reach and surface area of the direct catchment of the excavation pit. The increase in the volume of water in the excavation pit was determined. Analogue maps and DTM were used to calculate the maximum depth of the pit (113.3 m), its surface area (9.71 ha), and its capacity (5.1 million m 3). The volume of water collected in the excavation pit during the years 2011-2018 was determined based on the analogue base map and the DTM. The result was 0.335 million m 3. Based on the data made available by the mining company, the correlation of the DTM with the orthophotomap of the mining area and additional field measurements, the ordinates of the water level in the years 2011-2018 were determined. Initially, the water surface level in the quarry was located on the ordinate of 66.6 m a.s.l. (July 20, 2011). After the pumping of water was discontinued, the level rose to 96.1 m a.s.l. (January 28, 2018). The increase in the water volume in the quarry pit during specific periods was determined (actual retention increase). The obtained data on the volume of the retained water referred to the period during which it accumulated in the quarry. On average, the net increase in water retention in the excavation pit was 138.537 m 3 ·d −1 , and the calculated net supply from the direct catchment (16.04 ha) was 101.758 m 3 ·d −1. The use of DTM and measurements of the water level in the excavation pit seem to be an efficient means of estimating the pace of spontaneous filling of the quarry with water supplied from the direct physiographic catchment.
... Mine or quarry lakes may occur in pits, which, after the end of dewatering, slowly fill with groundwater, rainfall, and surface runoff 32,34,46,47 . The mine or quarry lakes created in closed mines may have different depths, surface areas and volume, depending on the type of the excavated raw material and the mining technology 14,32,35,[43][44][45][48][49][50] . Depending on the size of the open-cast mining pit, the hydrogeological conditions, and the geological structure of the mine and its surroundings, the mine flooding process may last for several months, up to several decades 14,32,33,45,49,51 . ...
... Depending on the size of the open-cast mining pit, the hydrogeological conditions, and the geological structure of the mine and its surroundings, the mine flooding process may last for several months, up to several decades 14,32,33,45,49,51 . The potential use of mine and quarry lake water remains dependent on the water quantity and quality 35,43,44,48,[52][53][54] . Mine or quarry lakes may be used for various purposes, among others: recreation and tourism 18,30,31,41,55 , wildlife habitats 16,18,26,27 , aquaculture and fish farming 18,40,43,56,57 , water management 14,16,31,40,43,56,58 floating photovoltaic systems 59 , potable and industrial water reservoirs or irrigation water storage for agriculture and horticulture 31,40,43,45,52,53,55,57 , capturing flood waters, or improving the flow rate in water courses during droughts 42,43,60 . ...
... The potential use of mine and quarry lake water remains dependent on the water quantity and quality 35,43,44,48,[52][53][54] . Mine or quarry lakes may be used for various purposes, among others: recreation and tourism 18,30,31,41,55 , wildlife habitats 16,18,26,27 , aquaculture and fish farming 18,40,43,56,57 , water management 14,16,31,40,43,56,58 floating photovoltaic systems 59 , potable and industrial water reservoirs or irrigation water storage for agriculture and horticulture 31,40,43,45,52,53,55,57 , capturing flood waters, or improving the flow rate in water courses during droughts 42,43,60 . ...
The paper presents the results of the analysis of the volume of water retained in Strzelin Quarry Lakes (SQLs). The volume of retained water was estimated by using the computational method, where the proposed reduction factors were determined with the use of DTM (digital terrain model). 2.6 hm ³ of water was retained in seventeen Strzelin Quarry Lakes, of which 1.2 hm ³ in the Ślęza River catchment (3 quarry lakes), and 1.4 hm ³ in the Oława River catchment (14 quarry lakes). The obtained data of the volume of water retained in SQLs were compared to the balance of the water retention capacity of water reservoirs in the catchments of the Ślęza River (0.809 hm ³ ), part of the WR08 Bystrzyca balance catchments (16.190 hm ³ ) and in the catchments of the Oława River (2.782 hm ³ ), part of the WR09 Nysa Kłodzka balance catchment (104.960 hm ³ ). Inclusion the volume of water retained in Strzelin Quarry Lakes in the small scale water retention (reservoirs and ponds) balance would increase the volume of retained water by 156.0% in the Ślęza catchment (by 7.8% in the WR08 Bystrzyca balance catchment) and by 49.5% in the Oława catchment (by 1,3% in the WR09 Nysa Kłodzka balance catchment). Under favorable hydrogeological and geomorphological conditions water reclamation of the excavations may be one of the main aspects of increasing the retention capacity of the catchment, what is particularly important in areas characterized by low water resources.
... Die hohe Belastung mit Eisen und Sulfat ist eine direkte Folge der Bergbauaktivität in der Lausitz und entsteht durch Oxidationsprozesse von eisendisulfidhaltigen Formationen (Pyrit und Markasit) (Schultze et al. 2010). Wenn diese Schichten durch die Absenkung des Grundwasserspiegels oder als Folge des Abbaus mit Sauerstoff in Kontakt kommen, setzen Oxidationsprozesse ein Schultze et al. 2010 ...
... Die hohe Belastung mit Eisen und Sulfat ist eine direkte Folge der Bergbauaktivität in der Lausitz und entsteht durch Oxidationsprozesse von eisendisulfidhaltigen Formationen (Pyrit und Markasit) (Schultze et al. 2010). Wenn diese Schichten durch die Absenkung des Grundwasserspiegels oder als Folge des Abbaus mit Sauerstoff in Kontakt kommen, setzen Oxidationsprozesse ein Schultze et al. 2010 ...
Zusammenfassung
Neben den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels gestaltet sich die Beurteilung der Effekte der Post-Bergbau-Ära auf Wasserhaushalt und Qualität der Spree in der Zukunft als anspruchsvoll. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, das komplexe Zusammenspiel zwischen Oberflächen- und Grundwasser im Kontext der Verockerungs-Problematik der Spree besser zu verstehen. Dabei werden Ergebnisse einer kontrovers diskutierten Arbeit aus dem Jahr 2018 aufgegriffen und im Zusammenhang mit aktuellen Entwicklungen verglichen. Basierend auf einer räumlich differenzierten Bilanzierung beläuft sich die Gesamtmenge des im Einzugsgebiet der Spree und ihrer Zuflüsse immobilisierten Eisens auf etwa 30 t/Tag. Neben der Spree und ihrem Einzugsgebiet (39 %) spielen insbesondere die Tagebaurestseen (24 %) sowie die Zuflüsse zur Spree mit ihren jeweiligen Einzugsgebieten (34 %) eine bedeutende Rolle beim Rückhalt von Eisen. Die räumliche Verteilung der Grundwasserzuflüsse in die Spree, quantifiziert mithilfe von Radon als natürlichem Tracer, zeigt präferenzielle Eintritte entlang der Spreewitzer Rinne, die bis zu 70 % des gesamten Zuflusses (139.800 m³/d) ausmachen.
... Socio-environmental concerns are increasing around pit lakes, with long-term chemical evolution of pit lake water quality of worldwide environmental concern across a wide range of end use values (Beddoes et al. 2016;Gammons and Icopini 2019;Heyworth et al. 2010;Maest et al. 2020;McCullough et al. 2013a;McCullough and Schultze 2018b;Palit et al. 2017;Schultze et al. 2010;Vandenberg and McCullough 2017;Vandenberg et al. 2022;Williams et al. 2019). Although high NO 3 − concentrations have been found in pit lakes globally (Table 1), NO 3 − has rarely been identified in this literature, which has typically focussed on acidity and geochemical contaminants e.g. ...
... Case studies of pit lakes across a range of commodities and geographies have found that NO 3 − often undergoes net removal over time (Jessen et al. 2022;Juncosa et al. 2023;Lund and McCullough 2009;McNee et al. 2003;Muellegger et al. 2013;Schultze et al. 2010;Vandenberg and Litke 2017). These pit lake NO 3 − loss processes tend to be dominated by denitrification and ammonification of NO 3 − and other nitrogen compounds, with denitrification (Juncosa et al. 2023) and assimilation by primary producers accounting for some of the highest N removal rates in the literature under eutrophic conditions (Nizzoli et al. 2020). ...
This study reviewed nitrate (NO3−) dynamics in non-acidic dry-zone pit lakes to indicate likely gains, losses, transformations, and trends over time. Nitrate dynamics are more complex in such lakes as many nitrogen transformation and loss processes are inhibited at low pH. However, NO3− dynamics in drier regions present greater potential hazards due to NO3− evapo-concentration. Mine water inputs from in-pit and ex-pit waters elevated with NO3− from dissolution of blasting agents and contact with mine wastes are likely to be the highest concentration NO3− sources for pit lakes. However, groundwater inflows from aquifers with naturally elevated NO3− concentrations can sometimes contribute markedly to pit lake NO3− budgets. Case studies of pit lakes have found that NO3− appears to undergo net removal over time at rates relative to concentration, through processes that tend to be dominated by denitrification and ammonification of NO3−. As a consequence, although pit lakes often contain elevated NO3− concentrations, these concentrations can diminish over the first few years to decades. Longer term concentrations will depend on the rates of more sustained inputs of NO3− over periods of decades to centuries, including nitrogen fixation and surface and groundwater sources.
... Large scale open-pit coal mines are usually developed on relatively level terrain in sedimentary rocks of low mechanical strength, while overburden is removed and coal is mined along a long linear front [2]. The lakes of the last category ( Fig. 1), those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [3][4][5][6][7][8]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [9][10][11][12], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry (as some open pit lakes are acidic); evolution of water quality [9,[13][14][15][16]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/or by human interventions [8,[17][18][19]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [8,19,21]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [20][21][22][23][24]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [25]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
... Large scale open-pit coal mines are usually developed on relatively level terrain in sedimentary rocks of low mechanical strength, while overburden is removed and coal is mined along a long linear front [2]. The lakes of the last category ( Fig. 1), those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [3][4][5][6][7][8]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [9][10][11][12], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry (as some open pit lakes are acidic); evolution of water quality [9,[13][14][15][16]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/or by human interventions [8,[17][18][19]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [8,19,21]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [20][21][22][23][24]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [25]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
This study aims to present some ecological aspects regarding these lakes, and, as case study, we chose the lake formed in the remaining gap of Urdari open-pit (within the Rovinari Mining Basin). Artificial lakes, resulting either from damming watercourses or by flooding of gaps resulting from excavations are often found all over the world. Formation of so-called open-pit lakes has become an increasingly common practice in Romania (more precisely in the Oltenia Mining Basin, where the lignite deposit contained in Dacian and Romanian formations was and is extracted through open-pits). The flooding process of the remaining gaps is in general a natural one, as water comes from underground sources (phreatic and pressurized aquifers) and from precipitations (including runoff waters from the surrounding terrains). This practice is considered to be a type of ecological reconstruction of former exploitation areas and has been applied worldwide for quite a time (in Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Spain, USA, Australia, etc.). The modifications of the physical and chemical properties of the biotope are the consequence of the activity of the biocenoses. There is an interdependence between the biotope and the biocenosis, the interrelationships are close and the influences are mutual. However, the authors consider that given the multitude of similar conditions (bioclimate, geology, topography, etc.) in which they form, the preliminary conclusions of this study can be extrapolated for other lakes in the area (existing, such South Pesteana and Moi, or planned, such as Rosia and North Pesteana). This study presents data on the existing biotope and biocenoses (restricted to species identification), without going into specific details about populations, ecosystem production, energy and matter flows within it, as these investigations demand a longer period of time and more resources and are foreseen for a future development stage of this study. We recommend continuous monitoring of the vegetation in the studied area, in order to complete the inventory with phytocoenoses whose emergence is related to natural multi-annual dynamics as well as human interventions.
... The lakes of the last category, those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [1,2]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [3][4][5][6], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry; evolution of water quality [3,7]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/ or by human interventions [8][9][10]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [9,10]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [11][12][13][14][15]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [16]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
... The lakes of the last category, those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [1,2]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [3][4][5][6], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry; evolution of water quality [3,7]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/ or by human interventions [8][9][10]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [9,10]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [11][12][13][14][15]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [16]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
Formation of so-called open-pit lakes has become an increasingly common practice in Romania (more precisely in the Oltenia Mining Basin, where the lignite deposit contained in Dacian and Romanian formations was and is extracted through open-pits). The flooding process of the remaining gaps is in general a natural one, as water comes from underground sources (phreatic and pressurized aquifers) and from precipitations (including runoff waters from the surrounding terrains). This practice is considered to be a type of ecological reconstruction of former exploitation areas and has been applied worldwide for quite a time (in Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Spain, USA, Australia, etc.). The present paper aims to present some ecological aspects regarding these lakes, and, as case study, we chose the lake formed in the remaining gap of Urdari open-pit (within the Rovinari Mining Basin). However, the authors consider that given the multitude of similar conditions (bioclimate, geology, topography, etc.) in which they form, the preliminary conclusions of this study can be extrapolated for other lakes in the area (existing, such South Peșteana and Moi, or planned, such as Roșia and North Peșteana). This study presents data on the existing biotope and biocenoses (restricted to species identification), without going into specific details about populations, ecosystem production, energy and matter flows within it, as these investigations demand a longer period of time and more resources and are foreseen for a future development stage of this study.
... The lakes of the last category, those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [1,2]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [3][4][5], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry; evolution of water quality [3,6]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/or by human interventions [7][8][9]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [8,9]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [10][11][12][13][14]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [15]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
... The lakes of the last category, those resulting from flooding the remaining gaps of some former quarries and open-pits, from which useful minerals were extracted, whether formed voluntarily or involuntarily, aroused the interest of researchers in several directions, such as: the geotechnical risks posed by these lakes to neighboring areas during and after flooding [1,2]; the evolution of the basin from a morphological point of view [3][4][5], the influence of the rocks that make up the lake basin on the water chemistry; evolution of water quality [3,6]; evolution of vegetation and fauna installed spontaneously and/or by human interventions [7][8][9]; their ecology, functionality and dynamics [8,9]; usage possibilities for various purposes (recreational lakes, sport fishing, irrigation tanks, flood protection, etc.) [10][11][12][13][14]; influences on zonal hydrological regimes [15]; the influences exerted on the local microclimates, etc. ...
Flooding the remaining gaps of lignite open-pits and the formation of so-called open-pit lakes tends to become an increasingly common practice in Romania (in the Oltenia Mining Basin, where the lignite deposit contained in Dacian and Romanian formations was and is extracted through open-pits). This type of ecological reconstruction of former exploitation areas has been applied worldwide for quite a time, and there are many references in this regard in the scientific literature. In this context, the present paper aims to present some preliminary results regarding the ecology of these lakes, being taken as case study the lake formed in the remaining gap of Urdari open-pit, within the Rovinari Mining Basin. However, given the multitude of similar conditions (bioclimate, geological framework, the formation of the remaining gaps, etc.) in which they form, we appreciate that the conclusions of this study can be extrapolated for other lakes in the area (eg. South Peșteana). We point out from the outset that this study presents data on the existing biotope and biocenoses (restricted to species identification), without going into details about populations, ecosystem production, energy and matter flows within it, these investigations being foreseen for a future development stage of the present study.
... A reaction path modeling framework was developed to evaluate the adverse effects that PHS operations in former open-pit lignite mines could have on the hydrochemistry of the reservoir and connected aquifers. Experience with lignite mine flooding indicated the potential of acidification and elevated sulfate and metal concentrations in the pit lake and related environmental issues due to pyrite oxidation in the mine dump sediments (Grützmacher et al. 2001;Lenk and Wisotzky 2011;Nixdorf et al. 2016;Schultze 2012;Schultze et al. 2010). With the present modeling framework, the aim was to quantify the effect of additional pyrite oxidation induced by water level changes and oscillating water in the reservoir mine-dump interface layer. ...
Pumped hydropower storage (PHS) operations in former open-pit lignite mines can provide substantial additional energy storage capacities, which are urgently needed for the current European energy transition. However, this storage concept requires adequate water quality to mitigate both environmental and technical impairments. Pyrite oxidation, acid buffering, and dilution are crucial processes for predicting water pollution by sulfate, iron, and acidity in the system. A novel reaction path modeling framework based on numerical geochemical batch reactors was developed using PHREEQC to assess the hydrogeochemical processes in the storage reservoirs and their adjacent groundwater aquifers over a hypothetical PHS lifetime. The results of 36,380 simulation scenarios reveal that while PHS operations generally have limited influence on pH, sulfate, and iron concentrations compared to natural processes in commonly flooded pit lakes, certain conditions, such as insufficient buffering capacity or pyrite oxidation by atmospheric oxygen, can cause variability. The pH values stabilize within a range of 1.9 – 7.9 over 20 years of PHS operation time, with carbonate buffering and dilution playing a critical role in mitigating acidification. Elevated acidity and sulfate concentrations, driven by pyrite oxidation and incomplete precipitation, pose potential risks to PHS infrastructure as well as adjacent aquifers and require careful management. These findings highlight the importance of early site-specific geochemical assessments and proactive measures to manage pyrite oxidation and maintain buffering capacity, ensuring the long-term integrity of PHS systems in flooded open-pit lignite mines.
... Dewatering processes to prevent groundwater flow from aquifers into the open-pit mines initiated a succession of chemical oxidations of minerals. Products of those reactions are highly acidic and soluble, thus making them prone to mobilization when entering the saturated zone (Gammons et al., 2009;Schultze et al., 2010;Schultze, 2013). Since the research area presented in this study is also influenced by the aforementioned consequences of coal mining in North-Rhine Westphalia, reliable predictions regarding the future development of the local groundwater table as well as possible mobilization of pollutants are challenging. ...
... Pit lake highwalls may, therefore, be unstable, particularly following rebounding groundwater pore pressures [142] and decades of wave action. Steep pit walls are not well-stabilised by water pressure until the lake water level equilibrates [143], a process that may take hundreds of years. ...
Located in northern Western Australia, the Pilbara is the highest productivity region for iron ore and other metal mining in Australia. As elsewhere, mine closure guidelines typically require post-closure landforms to be safe, stable, non-polluting and sustainable here in the long-term. I reviewed the primary literature, including international, national and state government guidelines and regional case studies for mine closure and related socio-environmental topics, to understand the key risks and management strategies needed to achieve these broad expectations for below water table (BWT) mining. Many BWT open cut mining projects will result in pit lakes in this region, many of which will be very large and will degrade in water quality with increasing salinisation over time. As an arid region, risks are dominated by alterations to hydrology and hydrogeology of largely unmodified natural waterways and freshwater aquifers. Although remote, social risks may also present, especially in terms of impacts to groundwater values. This remoteness also decreases the potential for realising practicable development of post-mining land uses for pit lakes. Explicitly considered risk-based decisions should determine closure outcomes for BWT voids, and when pit backfill to prevent pit lake formation will be warranted. However, maintaining an open pit lake or backfilling a void should also be considered against the balance of potential risks and opportunities.
... Numerous studies conducted on different abandoned pit holes have compared the evolution of the physico-chemical quality of the lakes forming in abandoned pit holes with natural lakes (Castro and Moore 2001;Werner et al. 2001a, b), as well as in the analysis of the environmental impact that originates in the environment and in the waters that accumulate in the hole (Werner et al. 2001a, b;Boland and Padovan 2002;Denimal et al. 2005, among others). The application of models to analyse the evolutionary behaviour of the physico-chemical quality of pit mine water, once formed, is less widespread (Schultze 2016;Schultze et al. 2010;Geller et al. 2013). ...
The use of modelling techniques for the study and thermohydrochemical characterisation of lakes is conditioned by the availability of data with which to validate the model created. There are not many validated numerical models that reproduce the physico-chemical behaviour of a lake. During the period March 2008–October 2019 we have been monitoring the filling and post-filling process of an old open-pit, forming the Meirama lake in NW Spain. With the data measured during these years we have had the opportunity to develop a model of the thermo-hydrochemical behaviour of the vertical profile of the lake. Thus, this article presents a vertical profile numerical model of the thermal behaviour and transport of sulfate of the lake under the current conditions of steady-state hydrodynamic operation, when the complete flooding of the mine pit was reached (May 2016–October 2019). The model developed has been a conservative diffusive transport model and a thermal conductive transport model. The developed model reproduces acceptably the vertical profiles of the analysed parameters. In these profiles, it can be seen that the chemocline originating from the filling process diffuses slowly. There are two differentiated water bodies separated by a chemocline. The model also reproduces the seasonal evolution of the temperature profile in the shallowest zone of the lake; i.e., there is a significant thermocline in the upper zone that tends to disappear during the winter season: it tends to homogenize at a temperature between 11 and 12 °C, tending to a vertical profile.
... Finally, as the epilimnion cools down, mixing along the lake begins. While monomictic lakes are a possible outcome for filled pit lakes, other thermal structures could occur given variations in the water salinity or its chemical and biological contents, such as meromictic conditions, where deep water layers of the lake do not participate in seasonal mixing 52 , which falls outside the scope of this study. ...
The addition of ground heat exchangers (GHEs) to a pit lake’s basin has the potential for abundant, clean and renewable geothermal energy extraction using shallow geothermal systems. Basin-embedded GHEs avoid direct interaction with mine water, which has been shown to impact efficiency and longevity in mine open-loop geothermal systems negatively. The now accelerated closure of open-pit coal mines presents itself as an opportunity to use this technology. However, no guidelines currently exist for designing or operating GHEs embedded in the sediment of water bodies. Furthermore, the two-way coupling between the complex annual thermal fluid dynamics that lakes are naturally subjected to and heat fluxes on the sediments and the GHE system has not been explored. In this study, we develop and validate finite element models to assess the relevance of lake thermal stratification in the performance of a geothermal system embedded in water bodies basins, e.g., on open-pit mine closures, under temperate residential thermal loads. The results show that the pit lake’s role as a thermal sink improves significantly when the lake’s thermal dynamics are accounted for, with an increase of up to 292% in the lake’s available energy budget. A minor variation in energy budget (~8%) was found whether the lake is modelled explicitly or simplified as a transient Dirichlet temperature boundary condition. This small difference vanishes if horizontal circulation along the lake is considered, highlighting the lake’s thermal energy potential. Finally, the impact on the GHE Coefficient of Performance (COP) is evaluated, with a maximum of ~15% difference among all cases.
... The cold waters at the lake's surface begin to warm in the autumn progressively into the summer, where a clear stratification is observed. With the arrival of winter, the temperature differences between the surface and the bottom of the lake reduce until its eventual mix as the surface waters go below the 4°C threshold 50,51 . ...
In the shift to cleaner technologies, coal thermal power plants and mines will be decommissioned earlier than planned. These open-pit coal mines show potential as a geothermal source/sink for space heating and cooling, yet this post-closure use option remains unexplored. Here, we assess the techno-economic feasibility of providing heating and cooling using a decommissioned mine pit as a source or sink of heat for nearby population centres. Mixed integer quadratically constrained programming is employed for operational optimisation. The results show that thermal provisioning, considering centralised and decentralised arrangements, is economically competitive under specific scenarios regarding commodities prices, thermal demands and pit source temperature. Notably, a higher pit temperature reduces the overall thermal provisioning costs for residential thermal demands. Improvements in the economics due to transmission pipeline insulation are limited. While an expected decline in the system lifecycle costs occurs for decreasing electricity prices, the results highlight that the relative economic competitiveness of the thermal systems is tied to the individual alternatives’ performance at the same commodities prices. Overall, this paper identifies general conditions for techno-economic competitiveness for the implementation of shallow geothermal systems in the context of mine closure.
... In arid to semi-arid regions, evaporation rates are high, and groundwater is generally the dominant source of inflowing water to mine pits. This is in contrast to regions with predominantly humid climates and pit lakes with surface water connections, such as found in Germany (Schultze et al. 2010), Indonesia (Tuheteru et al. 2021) or New Zealand (Castendyk and Webster-Brown 2007). While in humid climates pit lake inflow may be dominated by surface water or a combination of surface and groundwater, this article focuses on arid and semi-arid climates where pit lakes are commonly groundwater-fed. ...
Open pit mining frequently requires regional water tables to be lowered to access ore deposits. When mines close, dewatering ceases allowing the water table to recover. In arid and semi‐arid mining regions, the developing pit lakes are predominantly fed by groundwater during this recovery phase and pit lakes develop first into “terminal sinks” for the surrounding groundwater system. With time, the re‐establishment of regional hydraulic gradients can cause pit lakes to develop into throughflow systems, in which pit lake water outflows into adjacent aquifers. In this study, we use numerical groundwater modeling to aid process understanding of how regional hydraulic gradients, aquifer properties, net evaporation rates, and pit geometry determine the hydraulic evolution of groundwater‐fed pit lakes. We find that before the recovery of the regional water table to its new equilibrium, pit lakes frequently transition to throughflow systems. Throughflow from pit lakes to downstream aquifers can develop within two decades following cessation of dewatering even under low hydraulic gradients (e.g., 5 × 10 ⁻⁴ ) or high net evaporation rates (e.g., 2.5 m/year). Pit lakes remain terminal sinks only under suitable combinations of high evaporation rates, low hydraulic gradients, and low hydraulic conductivities. In addition, we develop an approximate analytical solution for a rapid assessment of the hydraulic status of pit lakes under steady‐state conditions. Understanding whether pit lakes remain terminal sinks or transition into throughflow systems largely determines the long‐term water quality of pit lakes and downstream aquifers. This knowledge is fundamental for mine closure and planning post‐mining land use.
... "Advances in Pit Lake Science" volume of Mine Water and the Environment 39-3, 2020) and/or revision papers on specic pit lake districts (e.g. Sánchez-España et al. 2008aSchultze et al. 2010;Kumar et al. 2013). ...
Acidic pit lakes formed in coal and metal open-pit mines are currently attracting an increasing scientific attention from the geomicrobiological community due to their high potential to host novel microbial metabolisms of biotechnological and astrobiological interest. These lakes represent unusual environments where geochemical and ecological features are intermediate between typical acid mine drainage systems and volcanic crater lakes. Acidophilic microalgae specially adapted to extremely low light conditions are the main primary producers in the photic zone. The transitional redoxclines are inhabited by a diverse microbial community which fuels iron and sulfur cycling. The deep anoxic waters are particularly interesting and may contain significant and invaluable biological dark matter. Although these environments have been largely unexplored, recent “omics” research has shown a high abundance of bacterial and archaeal metabolisms involved in iron and sulfur cycling. The reported presence of sulfate-reducing, sulfur-reducing and sulfur-disproportionating bacteria shows that biosulfidogenesis is feasible and even common in these extreme environments. Most microorganisms found in acid pit lakes are polyextremophiles adapted to extreme acidity, salinity and metal concentrations, and may include moderate thermophiles and halophiles.
... In the east of Germany a former coal mining region has been transformed into a recreational district containing 26 lakes, including one of over 1800 ha (Transition in Coal Intensive Regions, 2019). Old lignite mines were reshaped and filled with water from four nearby rivers (Schultze et al., 2010). Recreational lakes are earmarked for swimming, boating, water sports, and riparian activities such as art, music, camping, picnicking and cycling, and have been reported to draw over 500,000 visitors per year (Worker, 2016). ...
... Deshayes 13 Si l'exploitation forestière couvre l'essentiel des surfaces réhabilitées, la constitution de plusieurs dizaines de nouveaux lacs, dont les plus grands s'étendent sur plusieurs De la crise à la résilience : les nouveaux paysages post-miniers dans le bass... e-Phaïstos, XI-2 | 2023 centaines d'ha, a permis d'envisager un nouvel avenir touristique autour de ces plans d'eau que l'on a réussi à rendre de qualité suffisante afin de pouvoir être utilisés pour des activités balnéaires (Schultze, Pokrandt, Hille 2010). Seuls certains lacs en cours de constitution, comme le lac de Bluno, ont encore des eaux de qualité trop médiocre (ph trop acide), pour pouvoir servir de support à des activités. ...
... The common water policy established in the European countries assumes ensuring access to good water quality, i.e., at least good ecological status (for natural water bodies) or potential (for heavily modified or artificial water bodies), for all water bodies across Europe, in sufficient quantity as well. The creation of new man-made water reservoirs have become more common in Europe [1,2], and, therefore, such water bodies are also of special concern. They play an important role in the functioning of urbanized areas, providing a new means to secure an emergency water supply [3], and supporting the provision of crucial water resources to local communities. ...
The creation of man-made reservoirs has become more common globally and provides many important technical, biological, and socio-economic functions. The study focused on abiotic–biotic and trophic interrelations responsible for ecological potential and biodiversity in potentially stabilized conditions of the aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, the analyses concerned 2014–2015 and 2018–2019, assuming repeatable hydrochemical conditions, in three chambers (C1–C3) of the Kamień sedimentation pond supplied through opencast mine drainage. The studies indicated eutrophic levels and at least good ecological potential. Phytoplankton were quite abundant at an average biomass of 10.0 mg L−1, while zooplankton and planktivorous fish were estimated at 0.51 mg L−1 and 74.3 g m−2, respectively The general order of the growth level in chambers was C-1 > C-2 > C-3, C-1 < C-2 < C-3, and C-1 < C-3 < C-2 for phytoplankton, zooplankton, and planktivorous fish, respectively, and indicated clear differences. Both mechanisms of the top-down and bottom-up effects were revealed in all chambers. Some significant differences between abiotic and biotic (i.e., fish density and biomass, phytoplankton density) factors were recorded on a temporal scale, whereas the density and biomass of planktivorous fish were significantly differentiated on a spatial scale. The stabilized conditions concerned relatively high biodiversity but quite abundant phytoplankton and lower zooplankton abundances, trophic efficiency, and eutrophy under the maximum ecological potential.
... Almost all post-exploitation open-pit mines in the world are generally shaped as a final reservoir intended to be filled with water (McCullough et al. 2020;Cala and Polak 2012;Johnstone 2018). In Europe, the creation of water reservoirs is the most common way of reclaiming post exploitation voids (Schultze et al. 2010Oggeri et al., 2019;Redondo-Vega et al. 2021). These artificial lakes are currently (and in the future) reserved for economic and recreational purposes . ...
Almost all post-exploitation open pit mines in the world are shaped as a final reservoir intended to be filled with water. In Europe, the creation of water lakes is the most common way of reclaiming post open pit mines. The safety and the security of mine lakes is one of the mine regions priorities. Several hazards related to mine activities should be assessed. Qualitative and quantitative approaches were suggested based on the existing data. One of the main hazards identified is the slope stability of lake banks. To develop a reliability methodology for assessing the long-term stability of flooded open pit mines, a large-scale numerical model of the lake was carried out and was applied on lake Most, which is one of the largest mining lakes in Europe (Czech Republic). The large-scale numerical model was built, based on site observations, large-scale LiDAR data and geotechnical data. The results highlighted the reliability of the methodology to combine the geometric model with the geological model to create a large-scale numerical model, and to identify local potentially instable zones..
... Thus, sediment P sorption in the ML largely contributes to low P Lake concentrations which are mainly oligotrophic (Kleeberg & Grüneberg, 2005). Similarly, Schultze et al. (2010) concluded that eutrophication concerns in the ML of the Central German lignite mining district were of low importance for the ML. ...
To mitigate lake eutrophication, phosphorus (P) availability can be managed by iron (Fe) amendments, which bind P in the water column and settle as Fe oxy-hydroxides. In the fluvial-lacustrine system Spree, Fe oxy-hydroxides enter lakes due to lignite mining in the Lusatian Area (NE Germany). We hypothesized that the amount of P that can be retained from the water column by sediments is positively correlated with their iron content. Column experiments were used to investigate uptake and release of P in the sediments under oxic and anoxic conditions in three downstream lakes (Lake Neuendorfer See, Lake Glower See, Lake Müggelsee) with decreasing mining influence and thus iron loads, and one nearby non-mining-affected lake (Lake Schwielochsee). In lakes interconnected by River Spree, the cumulative P uptake in sediments increased significantly with increasing sedimentary Fe concentrations under both oxic and anoxic conditions. Only the sediments of Lake Glower See had higher P uptake under anoxic than oxic conditions, most likely due to vivianite formation. The net P sedimentation was higher with higher Fe concentration and higher under oxic than anoxic conditions. However, the lakes are classified as eutrophic because although the sediments of the Spree lakes can store further P, this additional P uptake is of little relevance for the P budget in highly P-loaded lakes with short water residence times (10–100 d), as is typical for fluvial-lacustrine systems.
... Coal and mineral mining activities on large-scale mining will leave behind openings that will become ex-mining holes. Lakes will be formed when water fills such openings, commonly known as ex-mining lakes or pit lakes [1] [2]. Indonesian mining regulations allow pit lakes as one of the mine-closure programs, known as reclamation in other forms, considering complete backfilling (in-pit dump) is not possible for several conditions [3]. ...
The quality of pit lake water during development and final condition is affected by various factors, including geochemical characterization of materials of a pit wall, which may consist of in-situ and backfilling materials. This research aims to obtain a geochemical characterization of pit wall materials using 3 main laboratory tests and analysis, namely static test, mineralogical and elemental composition analysis, and kinetic test using free draining column leach test. Static test results show that 5 of 6 samples exhibit low paste pH and NAG pH. Pyrite is found in four samples and is responsible for acid mine drainage production. Some samples contain acid-consuming carbonates and oxides such as calcite and periclase. Four samples exhibit leachates’ pH values lower than 3,00, mostly during all cycles. Alongside the lithostratigraphic distribution of pit wall rocks, these results imply a potential occurrence of acid mine drainage that will become a critical issue for water quality development and final condition in pit lake formation. Therefore, these results become essential feedback for the stakeholders to plan and implement acid mine drainage management to minimize the adverse impact of acid mine drainage in pit lakes. Immediate understanding of the geochemical characteristics of leachates from pit wall rock, which control the overall mine water quality.
... The term 'pit lake' is commonly used for lakes formed by the flooding of excavated mining pits [1]. Several studies published in the past were focused on pit lakes and formation of acid mine drainage (AMD) waters, i.e., waters with low pH and high concentrations of sulfate and metal(loids) [2][3][4][5][6][7]. The impact of water chemistry in the pit lakes on aquatic biota has also been studied (e.g., [8,9]). ...
Long-term coal mining activities in the Upper Silesia significantly affect the environment in southern Poland. Discharges of brines (with TDS reaching over 110 g/L) from mines are the main source of pollution of many rivers in Poland, including the Vistula River. The Zakrzówek horst is a small geological structure composed of the Upper Jurassic limestones. These limestones were exploited in several quarries. In the largest one (the “Zakrzówek” quarry), exploitation reached the depth of 36 m below the water table, i.e., about 32 m below the average water level in Vistula River which flows 700 m from the quarry. An important part of this inflow into quarries came from the contaminated Vistula River, with a chloride concentration over 2 g/L. The exploitation ceased in 1991, and dewatering ended in 1992. In the old quarry area, pit lakes appeared, which are unique because they present an example of a post-mining site affected by the riverine water contaminated with brines. Investigations of physicochemical parameters of water in the Zakrzówek area were carried out in the period of 1990–2020. Results showed that the largest pit lake was initially meromictic with a distinct stratification. After several years, holomictic conditions developed due to the surface layer freshening and convective mixing.
... During the period of filling prior to achieving the final pitlake design, drainage boreholes above surface waters may be required for groundwater pressure control and to minimise the risk of ground movements. Further hydrogeological factors impacting stability include surface rebound as aquifers repressurise, scouring and erosion of mine surfaces due to wave effects and increased seismic risks due to pit-lake filling (Schultze et al. 2010). ...
Large-scale open-pit mining activities have profound impacts on the surrounding landscape and environment. At the cessation of open-pit mining, the rehabilitation of large void spaces can be achieved by pit-lake filling, where the water body provides a confining pressure on surrounding mine surfaces, reducing both the likelihood of slope failure and the need for ongoing slope maintenance. Although pit-lakes present a range of long-term benefits, the geotechnical performance of mines containing soft soils that are susceptible to creep under increasing loads due to pit-lake filling is seldom considered. From a geotechnical standpoint, creep induced failure is commonly associated with slow, downslope movements, prior to critical slope failure events. In this research, time-dependent slope stability analyses based on creep-sensitive materials are presented for an open-cut mine undergoing pit-lake filling. Numerical simulation provides a mechanism for the assessment of materials exhibiting soft soil creep constitutive behaviour under various loading conditions due to pit-lake filling. The response of mine surfaces is investigated for various filling regimes, highlighting location-dependent deformation rates, pore pressures and slope Factors of Safety for a large Australian open-pit brown coal mine. Results are presented for two separate creep-sensitive materials, identifying the ability to achieve final, stable landforms for a range of long-term pit-lake conditions.
Article Highlights
Time-dependent creep deformation behaviour is investigated for a large Victorian open-pit brown coal mine undergoing pit-lake rehabilitation.
The soft soil creep model is implemented for a large open-pit rehabilitation model, to assess long-lasting creep movements of a specific mine slope.
Mine void filling rates are simulated for a range of rehabilitation scenarios over a 5 to 40 year period, identifying the excess pore water pressure distributions in addition to vertical and horizontal deformations rates.
The long-term behaviour of 8 cross-section profiles is presented, identifying the effect of pit-lake filling for silt and clay interseam materials.
... Almost all post-exploitation open-pit mines in the world are generally shaped as a final reservoir intended to be filled with water (McCullough et al. 2020;Cala and Polak 2012;Johnstone 2018). In Europe, the creation of water reservoirs is the most common way of reclaiming post exploitation voids (Schultze et al. 2010Oggeri et al., 2019;Redondo-Vega et al. 2021). These artificial lakes are currently (and in the future) reserved for economic and recreational purposes . ...
Almost all post-exploitation open pit mines in the world are shaped as a final water reservoir. One of the main hazards is the slope stability of lake banks. To develop a reliability methodology for assessing the long-term stability of flooded open-pit lake, a back analysis was conducted using 2D and 3D large-scale numerical models of Lake Most, which is one of the largest mining lakes in Europe (Czech Republic). The large-scale numerical model was built, based on the site observations, large scale LiDAR data, insitu characterisation tests, and statistical analysis of geotechnical data, on DTMs defining the complex geology of the site and on numerous piezometric levels to build the water table. Local and global safety factor (SF) were calculated using the strength reduction method. The results highlighted the reliability of the methodology to combine the geometric model with the geological model to create a large-scale numerical model, to identify local and potentially instable zones, and to highlight the role of a weak contact layer. The calculation of 3D SF has shown a very good correlation between the lowest SF and the ground movement observations noted by the Czech authorities.
... The zone in the water column where these gradients concur is referred to as the hypolimnion. Increased conductivities within the hypolimnion of post-mining lakes, such as that examined here, could result from the legacy of the former mine drainage and/or from groundwater inflow (e.g., Denimal et al., 2005;Schultze et al., 2010). ...
In the low-nutrient, redox-stratified Lake Medard (Czechia), reductive Fe(III) dissolution outpaces sulfide generation from microbial sulfate reduction (MSR) and ferruginous conditions occur without quantitative sulfate depletion. The lake currently has marked overlapping C, N, S, Mn and Fe cycles occurring in the anoxic portion of the water column. This feature is unusual in stable, natural, redox-stratified lacustrine systems where at least one of these biogeochemical cycles is functionally diminished or undergoes minimal transformations because of the dominance of another component or other components. Therefore, this post-mining lake has scientific value for (i) testing emerging hypotheses on how such interlinked biogeochemical cycles operate during transitional redox states and (ii) acquiring insight into redox proxy signals of ferruginous sediments underlying a sulfatic and ferruginous water column. An isotopically constrained estimate of the rates of sulfate reduction (SRRs) suggests that despite high genetic potential, this respiration pathway may be limited by the rather low amounts of metabolizable organic carbon. This points to substrate competition exerted by iron- and nitrogen-respiring prokaryotes. Yet, the planktonic microbial succession across the nitrogenous and ferruginous zones also indicates genetic potential for chemolithotrophic sulfur oxidation. Therefore, our SRR estimates could rather be portraying high rates of anoxic sulfide oxidation to sulfate, probably accompanied by microbially induced disproportionation of S intermediates. Near and at the anoxic sediment–water interface, vigorous sulfur cycling can be fuelled by ferric and manganic particulate matter and redeposited siderite stocks. Sulfur oxidation and disproportionation then appear to prevent substantial stabilization of iron monosulfides as pyrite but enable the interstitial precipitation of microcrystalline equant gypsum. This latter mineral isotopically recorded sulfur oxidation proceeding at near equilibrium with the ambient anoxic waters, whilst authigenic pyrite sulfur displays a 38 ‰ to 27 ‰ isotopic offset from ambient sulfate, suggestive of incomplete MSR and open sulfur cycling. Pyrite-sulfur fractionation decreases with increased reducible reactive iron in the sediment. In the absence of ferruginous coastal zones today affected by post-depositional sulfate fluxes, the current water column redox stratification in the post-mining Lake Medard is thought relevant for refining interpretations pertaining to the onset of widespread redox-stratified states across ancient nearshore depositional systems.
... Oxidation of pyrite releases Fe 2+ and hydrogen ions, which acidify water, and produces sulfates and other ions (Welch et al. 2021). However, this acidification may be neutralized by carbonate minerals and/or clay minerals present in the overburden (see Banks et al. 1997;Schultze et al. 2010 for a detailed description of the process). The presence of these neutralizing minerals in the spoil heap material of the North Bohemian lignite basin has resulted in an alkaline water pH, typical for freshwater habitats in this area ( Table 1). ...
Many studies examining plant and terrestrial invertebrate communities have revealed the high conservation potential of spoil heaps. On the other hand, the freshwater communities inhabiting post‐mining ponds within these human‐made habitats are almost unexplored. We focused on aquatic macroinvertebrate, zooplankton and phytoplankton communities in the littoral zones of 24 ponds situated on spoil heaps created after lignite mining in the Czech Republic. We compared environmental factors, taxa richness and conservation value (number of threatened aquatic macroinvertebrate species) in the ponds, based on the type of restoration approach applied, i.e. technical reclamation, spontaneous succession and their combination (semi‐spontaneous succession). While macroinvertebrate and zooplankton taxa richness did not differ significantly between the three types of pond, the phytoplankton community did, with the highest taxa richness recorded in technically established ponds. From a nature conservation point of view, the spontaneously developed ponds hosted almost twice as many threatened macroinvertebrates as the other ponds; nevertheless, even the technically constructed ponds hosted considerable populations of rare species, e.g. the regionally extinct beetle Limnebius nitidus (Marsham, 1802), and contributed to the overall conservation value of the spoil heaps. The most significant driver structuring post‐mining pond freshwater communities was the percentage of vegetation in the littoral zone. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Mining results in high concentrations of iron and sulphate in water bodies all over the world (Kefeni et al., 2017), for example in Brazil (Rocha-Nicoleite et al., 2017), Germany (Schultze et al., 2010), New Zealand (Olds et al., 2016), South Africa (Naicker et al., 2003), Spain (de la Torre et al., 2011) and the USA (Vile and Wieder, 1993). During and after mining, pyrite-bearing excavation material reacts with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid and dissolved iron. ...
Acidification and salinisation of groundwater and surface water bodies are worldwide problems in post-mining landscapes due to acid mine drainage (AMD). In this study, we hypothesised that highly decomposed peat offers a suitable substrate for mitigating AMD pollution of water bodies and that hydraulic load affects the removal efficiency of iron and sulphate. A lysimeter experiment was conducted mimicking peatland rewetting to quantify
iron and sulphate removal and pH changes at different loading rates. The low initial pH of 4 rose to 6 and electrical conductivity declined by up to 47%. The initially high concentrations of iron (>250 mg/L) and sulphate (>770 mg/L) declined by, on average, 87 and 78%, respectively. The removal efficiency of sulphate was negatively correlated with either the hydraulic or the sulphate load, respectively, i. e. the lower the hydraulic load, the higher the removal efficiency of sulphate. However, the removal of iron was not explained by the load.
The results imply that desulphurication and thus subsequent precipitation of iron sulphides was the main removal process and that peatland rewetting is an effective measure to mitigate AMD pollution of freshwater systems. For the heavily AMD-polluted studied section of the River Spree, we estimated by combining experimental with field data that a sulphate load reduction of the river by about 20% (36,827 tons/yr) will occur if all peatlands in the sub-catchment (6067 ha; 6.7% of the total area) are rewetted. Future investigations must show if
the pollutant removal is declining over time in decomposed peat layers due to acidification and/or lack of bioavailable carbon and how the rewetting of peatland with AMD will affect the restoration of their ecosystem functioning in the long term.
... One of the most common uses of pit voids left by large scale mining operations, such as surface lignite mining, is the formation of pit lakes by flooding pit voids after mine closure. Pit lakes offer the opportunity to enhance the recreational or ecological benefits by relandscaping and revegetating the shoreline, creating aquatic life and maintaining water quality [1][2][3]. ...
In this study we present a generic probabilistic risk assessment methodology to evaluate the risk associated with flooding process of a pit. We use the bow-tie analysis to analyze the critical events (we focus on slope failures) and the systemic risk assessment methodology to estimate the risk for the population, for the environment and for the infrastructure. Furthermore, we perform a spatial analysis of the risk by discretizing the affected area into squares, by estimating the risk in each one and finally by creating the risk map. The methodology is implemented by specialized software that has been created in a Matlab environment for the deduction of such risk assessments. The developed methodology was applied in the area of the pit lake Most in Czech Republic.
... After closing the mine in 1993, recultivation plans were developed for improving the strongly impacted hydrological situation. Since June 30, 2003, the abandoned open pit was refilled with about 50 m³/d additional water from River Saale (SCHULTZE et al. 2010) in order to create Lake Geiseltal. Since April 30, 2011, the lower Geisel is regulated by a drainage structure, primarily aiming the EFR supply. ...
The local water regime of the small-scale Geisel catchment in Central Germany is vastly impacted by strong lignite-mining activities. Missing knowledge about hydrological regimes and low-flow discharges in this impacted region prevented integrated environmental flow assessments. As a consequence, targeted environmental flows of the lower Geisel usually cannot be achieved. To close this knowledge gap, we present a novel approach for an integrated environmental flow assessment in non-natural catchments using long-term baseflow rates, seen as an approach to environmental flows, and simple hydrological methods. Since baseflow rates cannot be estimated accurately in non-natural catchments, we combine 14 different hydrograph separation methods, statistical regionalization, and numerical catchment descriptors. The long-term baseflow equals 0.28 m³/s from 1981 to 2017 (75.4% of total discharge), and in the post-mining era since 2011, the mean baseflow equals 0.115m³/s (77.2% of total discharge). The combination of hydrograph separation with hydrological regionalization and numerical catchment descriptors reveals new opportunities for describing discharge components in non-natural catchments. Determined environmental flows are similar as achieved by other hydrological methods and can be linked to different intensities of anthropogenic impacts. The environmental flow assessment reveals required additional water amounts of 0.0608 m³/s during summer and 0.0874m³/s during winter for achieving quasi-natural flow regime conditions. The approaches enable long-term low-flow analyses and environmental flow assessments in mining impacted catchments.
... A considerable volume of literature has been published on rehabilitation practices concerning the utilization of water stored in pit lakes, while other studies have reported the use of pit lakes for recreation, fishery, or wildlife habitat (Blanchette and Lund 2016;Dimitrakopoulos et al. 2016;Holcombe and Keenan 2020;McCullough and Lund 2006;McCullough et al. 2020;Schultze et al. 2010Schultze et al. , 2011Schultze 2012;Sokratidou et al. 2018;). A number of studies have also considered the application of pumped hydro-storage (PHS) technology in abandoned mines, where pit lakes are repurposed as PHS dams and the technical potential is examined for a hybrid electric power system, combining renewable energy sources (such as photovoltaic electricity) and PHS plants as energy storage units (Bódis et al. 2019;Nikolić and Nikolić 2018;Pujades et al. 2017;Wessel et al. 2020). ...
Sustainable mine closure is one of the main priorities of the mining industry. The aim of this research was to predict the spatiotemporal development of water levels in a mined-out pit by generating forecasts of the dependent variables (rainfall and temperature) via linear (autoregressive integrated moving average) and non-linear (artificial neural network) models. We investigated natural water level development in one mined-out pit of the closed lignite mines in Amynteon, north Greece, with no artificial recharge. The forecasted rate of water level increase was estimated to be ≈ 10 m per year in the ‘early’
stage of pit lake spatiotemporal evolution (first 10 years), and 0.1 m per year in the ‘last’ stage of potential lake development (after year 2060). Also, the optimum lake surface (i.e. the level where no significant increase in water level rate appears) was estimated at + 520 m, which was predicted to occur in ≈ 40 years. The proposed methodology was validated via water level measurements performed during the first year of lake development, where field measurements of water elevations closely followed predictions. Forecasting pit lake water levels is essential for strategic planning, examining pit lake repurposing
options, and informing decisions about post-mining futures and economic transitions.
The work discusses the water and sediment geochemistry of the post-reclamation Przykona water reservoir. The analysis mainly focuses on the reservoir's through-flow nature, given that its post-mining history has not resulted in any important contamination of its waters. In the water, cations (Na+, NH4+, K+ , Ca2+ and Mg2+) and anions (Cl−, NO3−, NO2− and SO42−) were examined using ion chromatography (IC). Metals (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) in the water and sediment were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-QQQ). Extractions with 3 mol/L HCl were used to prepare sediment samples. It was shown that the Teleszyna River waters on the side of its inflow have significantly higher contents of all elements than do the reservoir waters. In addition, CA chemometric analysis allowed the samples to be divided into two groups. The first included samples from the Teleszyna River inflow and those closest to it, while the second included samples from the river outflow and those close to it. A comparison of elemental concentrations in the reservoir's waters and the river inflow and outflow indicate that the river's waters undergo purification as they flow through the reservoir. This is confirmed by analysis of metals in bottom sediments at the Teleszyna River inflow, where sedimentation of metals transported by the river takes place. In addition, calculations of the Igeo, CF and PLI indices clearly confirmed the lack of toxicity of the deposited metals.
One of the most common solutions for more than 50 years for the recovery of mine holes generated during mining activities is their transformation into lakes. This paper presents the activities carried out from the closure of the As Pontes mine to the total filling of the mining lake. The environmental solution adopted for the recovery of the mining hole and its transformation into a mining lake is described, as well as the methodology followed for its filling, defining the water sources used, its volume and its chemical quality. Perfect mix and stratified lake models were performed to simulate the final chemical quality of the lake. The details of the studies carried out on waves on the shores of the lake and the stability of the slopes of the mine are also presented. The hydraulic works carried out to reintegrate into the lake the watercourses that were diverted during the mining exploitation are also indicated. Water chemical data of the As Pontes lake collected during and after the filling of the lake show the presence of two well-differentiated zones separated by a chemocline. The uppermost layer has a slightly acid pH and oxic conditions, while the deeper layer has very low pH values and anoxic conditions. The methodology used was successful and the forecasts made are in line with the results obtained both in relation to the filling time of the lake and the quality of the overflow waters, which comply with all the established limits.
This study evaluated periphyton biomass, nutrient content, and taxonomical composition in three nutrient-poor post-mining lakes in the Czech Republic. Two methods, microscopy and chemotaxonomy, were used to determine the taxonomical composition of autotrophs. Both methods identified diatoms, Chlorophyta, and Cyanobacteria as the dominant groups across the lakes. Considerable congruence of the taxonomical methods was found for diatoms and Chlorophyta, however results for Cyanobacteria showed poor correlation. The differences in periphyton features among the lakes were mostly explained by the lake age and trophy. Moreover, high amounts of overwintering biomass show that periphyton development is not established “de novo” each year but its current stage is a cumulative result of previous years. Beside the lake age and trophy, limnological characteristics such as Si or Mg²⁺ also affect periphyton taxonomical composition. No correlation of periphytic C:N:P molar ratios with lake water nitrogen and phosphorus, suggests role of additional process to the nutrient uptake, likely internal nutrient recycling in periphyton. These findings are essential in predicting further succession in the examined post-mining lakes and serve as a model for newly formed lakes. As more lakes will be formed within the post-mining recultivation in the short horizon, our study contributes to their successful management.
Mine pit lakes are formed when open‐cut pits flood with water, and these lakes occur by the thousands on every inhabited continent. The remediation and closure of pit lakes is a pressing issue for sustainable development and provision of freshwater ecosystem services. While pit lakes can be spectacular examples of recreation and renewal, pit lakes may be better known for their poor water qualities and risks to communities and the environment. Often the public wants to simply “fill the pits in” to restore a terrestrial landscape, but this is not always possible. Therefore, planning for remediation and future uses is likely to provide the best outcome. Poor water quality is not necessarily a barrier to future use, although it may limit the number of uses. Short‐term future uses tend to require commercial viability, active infrastructure investment, and maintenance, and should transition to complementary long‐term uses that promote biodiversity. Long‐term future uses require relatively less ongoing maintenance beyond the initial investment and adhere to the principles that pit lakes should be safe, sustainable, and non‐polluting in perpetuity. Pit lakes will eventually develop “ecosystem values,” and the time to do so depends on the nature of the intervention and the values ascribed by the community. Where possible, closing pit lakes as sustainable ecosystems is the most realistic goal that permits a variety of future uses that is likely to see pit lakes valued by future generations.
This article is categorized under: Engineering Water > Planning Water
Human Water > Value of Water
Human Water > Water as Imagined and Represented
Central Europe is naturally very rich in lakes in many regions, partly as a result of glacial landscape history. In addition, there are a large number of artificial lakes. One of the main environmental pressures on lake ecosystems today is the load of pollutants and nutrients. Restoration measures are, therefore, very often linked to the reduction of high nutrient concentrations (especially phosphorus) both, in the water body and in the sediment, and thus, to the restoration of near-natural water chemistry conditions and biotic communities in and around the water. Just like the restoration of rivers and floodplains, lake management must also be implemented on a spatially comprehensive basis, i.e., with regard to the entire catchment area. However, many lake restoration projects, which are carried out at great technological and financial expense, hardly show the expected success in the long term. The urban Tegeler See in Berlin is presented as a case study for lake restoration.
While small-scale extraction sites of minerals can often be restored passively, i.e., without restoration intervention, various restoration measures are applied in the case of large-scale opencast lignite mining sites and post-mining landscapes as well as mining and waste disposal sites in order to restore species-rich habitats, on the one hand, and land-use systems of agriculture and forestry and local recreation and tourism (recultivation), on the other hand. This is presented here for the opencast mining areas of Central Europe, drawing on several decades of experience. Challenges for ecosystem restoration are the often extreme site conditions that do not occur in the natural and traditional cultural landscape. As a case study, the abandoned chalk quarries on the North-east German island of Rügen are presented.
Los ríos que drenan la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (FPI) presentan un grave problema de contaminación por aguas ácidas procedentes de minas de sulfuros abandonadas. La construcción de la presa de Alcolea, localizada en el río Odiel, se empezó en 2014 pero se paralizó en 2017, aunque actualmente hay una fuerte presión de los regantes para que se retome. Debido a la acidez que presenta el río Odiel existe una gran polémica sobre la calidad del agua de este embalse. En este trabajo se investiga la calidad del agua en los grandes embalses de la FPI a partir de la información analítica de la red oficial de control de calidad. Los embalses no afectados por aguas ácidas (Jarrama y Corumbel) tienen valores de pH próximos a neutros y muy baja concentración de sulfatos (<12 mg/L). Los embalses de Andévalo y Olivargas tienen un nivel de afección intermedio, presentan también un pH neutro aunque se tienen concentraciones más elevadas de sulfatos (~60 mg/L) y de algunos metales. El embalse del Sancho presenta un nivel de afección mucho mayor y, como consecuencia, tiene un pH medio de 3,6 y elevadas concentraciones de sulfatos (media de 184 mg/L) y metales tóxicos. Se estima que, si no se adoptan medidas de restauración, las condiciones en el embalse de Alcolea serán similares o peores a las del embalse del Sancho.
This thesis is concerned with an under-recognised human impact on rivers: river relocations (called diversions herein), in which a section of river is diverted into an entirely new channel for part of their length. Relocated channels present a consistent set of physical and ecological challenges, often related to accelerated erosion and deposition. I develop a classification of river diversions and present a series of case studies that highlight some of the key issues with river diversion construction and performance. Changes to channel dimensions and materials, alongside changes to flow velocity and channel capacity, lead to a consistent set of problems, such as heightened erosion or deposition, hanging tributaries, vegetation loss, water quality issues, and associated ecological impacts. Diversion channels often suffer engineering failures. This thesis reviews river diversions as a global phenomenon, and then focuses on a major class of diversion in which streams are diverted around mine sites. Mining river diversions are constructed to avoid flooding of the mine site and to allow access to ore. During mine operation, river diversion channels are designed to convey large floods with an emphasis on channel stability and effective flow conveyance. After mining has ceased, the expectation is increasingly that river diversion channels eventually behave more like a natural river system and imitate characteristics of surrounding watercourses. However, in many regions there is limited guidance on how to incorporate the natural geomorphic and environmental attributes of the neighbouring watercourses into these diversion designs. The Pilbara region in Western Australia has many open-pit mines and river diversion channels relocating small headwater channels but generally there is a poor understanding of the regional watercourses within this semi-arid landscape. I examine the geomorphology of small arid zone streams in the Pilbara to provide improved guidelines for geomorphic criteria for river diversion designs. This work also fills a basic knowledge gap around the geomorphology and hydrology of headwater channels in the dryland Pilbara. Geomorphic processes occur on a continuum of timescales, where landforms are influenced by a series of imposed controls (e.g. climate and geology) and flux controls, those that adjust over geomorphic timescales (e.g. vegetation, bedforms). After a review of river diversions in general, this thesis uses an integrated approach to combine geomorphology, hydrology, hydraulics and ecohydrology to address three key questions about Pilbara streams: 1) What is the geomorphology of headwater streams in the Pilbara and what are the key sedimentological, hydrological, and hydraulic controls? 3) What are the conditions required to allow natural channel morphology to develop within river diversion channels? 4) How long does it take for a target morphology to develop in river diversion channels? Based on extensive field surveys, this thesis develops the first classification of dryland headwater channels in the Pilbara, describing the variation in channel form and the range of geomorphic features found in them. Vegetation contributes 35-54% of channel roughness (resistance) in these dryland channel types and can increase channel roughness by 110% in low-slope anabranching sandy channels. This thesis highlights the importance of incorporating appropriate roughness in diversion channels through the presence and distribution of vegetation. To better understand sediment flux in these catchments, I assessed the long-term denudation within catchments using cosmogenic nuclides (26Al and 10Be) using a nested catchment approach to quantify dominant sediment pathways from slopes to larger channels. Denudation rates in the Upper Fortescue catchments are among the lowest recorded between 0.94 - 4.04mMyr-1 and channel sediment have a complex exposure history. This is attributed to sediments undergoing prior-burial for a minimum of a few hundred thousand years, and/or b) sediments being largely derived from below the surface from cliff faces through spalling and slab fragmentation. This thesis is the first comprehensive geomorphic study of headwater channels in the Pilbara, generating a series of guideline hydraulic values for different channel types. Two-dimensional hydrodynamic modelling was used to estimate peak flood flows in lieu of adequate stream gauging. Before this research, there have been limited attempts to determine the best regional flood frequency estimates for small headwater catchments in the Pilbara, leading to confusion about the most appropriate approaches to calculate peak discharges. Finally, the thesis integrates the new geomorphic knowledge to produce a series of guideline hydraulic criteria for river diversions across a range of flood intervals. The developed hydraulic guidelines for the different channel types can help engineers and managers design a permanent river diversion that replicates conditions found within local headwater channels. The results also indicate a wide range of hydraulic values within each channel type, highlighting the importance of localised fluctuations in velocity, streampower and basal shear stress in maintaining channel form and complexity.
Although ecosystem restoration is based on the concepts, approaches, and applied aspects of restoration ecology, science and practice of restoration must go far beyond that in a multidimensional perspective. This is shown by deepening certain topics related to ecosystem and landscape restoration. Hereby, terra preta as an ancient soil management, multipurpose plant species, and Cultural Keystone Species are introduced. Since the restoration and revitalization of cultural landscapes encompasses also socio-economic aspects and approaches, the village as an engine for cultural landscape maintenance and rural development, traditional cultural landscapes as tourist destinations, health care on the countryside, rural-urban partnerships, infrastructure and energy in rural areas, and the design of new cultural landscapes based on land-use traditions are discussed. Also, Higher Education should contribute to ecosystem and landscape restoration by preparing a new generation of well-skilled actors, stakeholders, and scholars who can apply their knowledge in an interdisciplinary and intercultural environment.KeywordsCultural keystone speciesInfrastructureMultipurpose speciesRenewable energyRural-urban partnershipsTerra pretaVillage
In recent years, the accelerated development of the remote sensing domain and the improvement of the resolution and frequency of satellite images allowed the increase in the accuracy of the evaluation of morphometric characteristics and the spatiotemporal distribution of pit lakes, including the small ones. Our study quantitatively analyzes small-scale pit lakes in the piedmont and subsidence plains from contact with the Getic and Curvature Subcarpathians from Romania using the normalized difference water index (NDWI) and data series, with different resolutions, from Landsat 8, Google Earth, and Sentinel 2A. The problems encountered in extracting the contours of the gravel pit lakes were determined by the different resolution of the images, the uneven quality of the images exported from Google Earth, and an additional challenge was given by the diversity of the analyzed land surfaces, the land use, and the optical properties of the lakes. A comparison of the obtained NDWI values using data series from Sentinel 2A and Landsat 8 highlighted the importance of resolution and also showed a larger spectral difference between the identified water bodies and the surrounding land in favor of Sentinel 2A. Regarding the vegetation-derived indices, superior leaf area index (1.8–3) was recorded in low-lying plains and mixed areas (tall shrubs, wetlands, etc.) because the river banks have increased moisture that supports taller species with denser foliage and the sparsely vegetated areas are located in agricultural crops and in/near villages. Changes in vegetation richness and abundance can be spatiotemporally monitored using indices derived from the spectral bands of satellite imagery.
Study region
This article contributes to understanding processes occurring in long-time abandoned, shallow and unremediated mining lakes exemplified by the Colorful Lakes near Wieściszowice, Southwest Poland.
Study focus
Temporal and spatial water chemistry variation and stable isotopic composition has been investigated in two sampling campaigns in wet and dry seasons. Novelties relating to these Lakes are that for the first time, depth and temporal dependent samples were studied chemically and isotopically. Water samples from various depths of the lakes and drainage water were analyzed for main ions, trace and semi-metals as well as sulfur and water isotopes. Data were interpreted statistically and with the chemical-thermodynamic code PHREEQC.
New hydrological insights for the region
Processes in the lakes are similar, resulting from rain and groundwater infiltrating the rocks and mine residues and leaching efflorescent salts. Differences result from the lakes’ depth, altitude, and source of inflow. They cause the Blue Lake to be in the Al- and the Yellow and Purple Lakes in the Fe-buffer-range. These lakes’ characteristics result either in stratification, evaporation influence or a well-mixed pit lake identified by the isotope variability. Isotope results further identified bacterial sulfate reduction throughout the lake water column during spring and summer. Saturation indices show an undersaturation in relation to most phases, and the species distribution in the lakes mirrors their individual buffer environment.
Two meromictic pit lakes formed in the former lignite mine Merseburg-Ost between Halle and Leipzig, Germany, since mining ceased in 1991. Fresh and highly saline groundwater as well as diverted river water filled the lakes. The lakes also received acid water from dewatering operations in a neighboring gravel pit. The development of stratification and water quality are presented. Perspectives of future development and general conclusions for meromictic pit lakes are drawn.
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The filling of pit lakes is often accelerated to minimize acidification, to stabilize the sidewalls of the former mine pit, and to make the lakes available for public use as fast as possible. Rivers are the major sources of filling water. In addition, the permanent flushing of pit lakes with river water may be an option to abate acidification and its consequences. However, the use of river water is often accompanied by the risk of eutrophication due to the water quality in the rivers. Our central demonstration object is Lake Goitsche near Bitterfeld in Germany. The void originates from former lignite mining, which was filled with water from River Mulde from 1999 to 2002. The initially acidic lake water was successfully neutralized. The high amounts of phosphorus introduced with the river water did not cause eutrophication but were bound in the lake sediment. The comparison with other lignite mining lakes indicates, that the very good experiences from Lake Goitsche cannot be transferred to every other pit lake. There may be a risk of long-term re-acidification and of temporary or long-term eutrophication in certain cases.
About 500 pit lakes which result from lignite mining exist in Germany today. Acidification is the most important issue of water quality in these lakes since about 50% of them have been initially acidic. Only few of the acidic lakes became neutral within years or decades due to natural processes without any remediation measure. Other pit lakes remained acid over decades without any progress in neutralization. About 120 of the pit lakes have been filled since 1990. The filling of these lakes had to fulfill modern environmental standards. The main strategy to prevent and overcome acidification of pit lakes is their filling and flushing with water from external sources instead of naturally rising ground water. External sources may be rivers or dewatering of operating mines depending on the availability of such water. Long-term inflow of acidifying groundwater requires additional approaches as well: prevention of acidification during active mining, in-situ ground water treatment and in-lake treatment. These approaches are based on addition of alkaline substances, on microbial sulfate reduction and on electrolysis. An overview over the state of pit lake water quality and the experiences with different strategies of water quality management in German pit lakes is presented.
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A small, highly eutrophic mining lake (Golpa IV) in eastern Germany with a continuous input of nutrients and metals was used to study the mechanisms of phosphorus (P) fixation in the sediment. The sediment (0-15 cm) is characterised by high contents of iron (96 mg g-1 DW), aluminium (37.3 mg g-1 DW) and sulphur (54.3 mg g-1 DW) and an extreme accumulation of some trace metals. Despite oxygen free conditions in the hypolimnion and intensive sulphate reduction in the sediment, high P retention rates could be calculated from dated sediment cores (1986-1995: 11 g P m-2 a-1). The lake has shown a rapid response to reduction of P loading.
In some sediment layers unusually high total sediment P concentrations with more than 24 mg P g-1 DW were observed. More than 80% of total sediment P was bound in the BD-SRP and NaOH-SRP fractions (extraction scheme according to Psenner et al., 1984) which indicates that a substantial portion of deposited P is immobilised in an Fe or Al bound form. This corresponds well with the presence of oxidised Fe species at all sediment depths. Furthermore thermodynamic calculations indicate that vivianite precipitation is favourable in deeper anoxic sediment layers. The inventory or input of Fe or Al seems to be more important for the permanent P immobilisation in the sediment of the investigated mining lake than redox forced mobilisation processes (e.g. iron or sulphate reduction).
Problemstellung: Um die hygienische Qualität von Badegewässern zu beurteilen existieren nationale und übernationale Richtlinien (EU-Badegewässerrichtlinie, WHO-Richtlinien). E.coli, Intestinale Enterokokken und Enteroviren dienen dabei als Indikatoren für die Belastung des Gewässers mit humanpathogenen Keimen bzw. Viren. Als Indikatoren für die virale Belastung sind in diesem Zusammenhang unter anderem Bakteriophagen im Gespräch. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit sind die Evaluierung von Somatischen und F+ RNA Coliphagen als Indikatoren für die Kontamination mit enteralen Viren am Beispiel eines Tagebausee sowie die Dokumentation der hygienischen Wasserqualität des Tagebausees unter Berücksichtigung des Flutungswassers. Vorgehensweise: In wöchentlichen Routineuntersuchungen wurden die Konzentrationen bakterieller und viraler Indikatoren, sowie die An- oder Abwesenheit enteraler Viren im Tagebausee "Werbeliner See" untersucht. Verschiedene, hygienische relevante enterale Viren (Entero-, Noro-, Astro-, Adeno-, Rotaviren, sowie Hepatitis A-Viren) wurden mittels geeigneter molekularbiologischer und zellkultureller Methoden detektiert und quantifiziert. Ergebnisse: 1. Die Kläranlage Leipzig-Rosental eliminierte sehr effizient (ca. zwei Größenordnungen) fäkale Bakterien und Bakteriophagen, wobei die Reduktion von E.coli und Enterokokken signifikant höher war als die von Cl.perfringens-Sporen und Bakteriophagen. Die Reinigungsleistung wird durch den Einsatz von chemischen Fällmitteln (Eisen-(III)-Chlorid / -Sulfat-Salze) begünstigt. 2. Noro-, Astro- und Enteroviren, für die quantitative Untersuchungen durchgeführt worden, konnten durch die Kläranlage um ein bis zwei Größenordnungen reduziert werden. 3. Alle untersuchten Viren konnten in Zu- und Ablauf der Kläranlage molekularbiologisch nachgewiesen werden. 4. Die Konzentration fäkaler Bakterien im Werbeliner See war sehr gering. Die Vorgaben der EU-Badegewässerrichtlinie (76/160/EWG) von 2000 . (100 ml)-1 (E.coli, Grenzwert) bzw. 100 . (100 ml)-1 (Enterokokken, Leitwert) wurden dabei, auch bezogen auf die einzelnen Probenahmetage, deutlich unterschritten. 81 % bzw. 92 % der Seeproben (außer Einleitungsstelle) lagen unterhalb der Nachweisgrenze von 0,1 PFU . ml-1 für Somatische- bzw. F+ RNA Coliphagen. 5. Im Kontrast dazu konnte DNA bzw. RNA aller untersuchten Viren im See gefunden werden. Die genomische Viruslast der mittels real-time-PCR detektierten Entero-, Noro- und Astroviren lag zwischen 0 und 105 Gen.äquiv. . l-1. 6. Der Nachweis infektiöser Enteroviren auf BGM-Zellen im Werbeliner See ergab ein einzelnes positives Ergebnis im Untersuchungszeitraum (= 1,2 %). Allerdings lag die Konzentration detektierter Enteroviren-Genome im Mittel drei bis vier Größenordnungen unter der Konzentration von Noro- und Astroviren. Es kann deshalb spekuliert werden, dass für diese Viren ebenfalls ein hoher Anteil infektiöser Proben zu erwarten gewesen wäre. 7. Die niedrige Nachweisrate infektiöser Enteroviren im Werbeliner See spiegelte sich in der sehr niedrigen Konzentration an Bakteriophagen wider. Allerdings lässt der direkte Vergleich der Bakteriophagenkonzentration mit dem Nachweis infektiöser Enteroviren im Flutungswasser Zweifel am Indikatorwert von Bakteriophagen für eine Kontamination mit Enteroviren aufkommen. Eine exklusive Indikation von Bakteriophagen bezüglich einer Kontamination mit Enteroviren scheint anhand dieser Befunde nicht möglich. 8. E.coli und Enterokokken wurden in Laborversuchen unter verschiedenen Versuchsbedingungen signifikant schneller inaktiviert als Somatische Coliphagen und Noroviren. Gleiches galt im Vergleich zu Cl. perfringens-Sporen, Astroviren und F+ RNA Coliphagen. 9. Bakteriophagen könnten deshalb auf Grund ihrer vergleichsweise hohen Resistenz eine wichtige Schlüsselfunktion für die Beurteilung der hygienischen Qualität einer Wasserprobe spielen.
In general, the consensus of the group was that the physical properties play a very important role in the oxidation of pyrite mainly because of the following two reasons: (1) physical properties are regulating mass/diffusion transport of atmospheric oxygen into the overburden, and (2) physical properties include particle size which affects specific surface (metres squared per gram). The latter influences fate of pyrite oxidation products, including Fe3+ which is the main pyrite electron acceptor.
The central German coalfield has an area of around 50,000 hectares, making it the third largest in Germany. It is regarded as the “classic location of German lignite mining” (Meyer et al. 1995) and contains about 33 % of the minable lignite stocks in eastern Germany.
The quality of water in mine pit lakes depends in part on the physical limnology, including such factors as thermal and chemical stratification, turnover and the development of anoxic conditions with depth. Limnologic data collected from four existing pit lakes in Montana and Saskatchewan indicate that pit lakes develop a thermocline (temperature stratification) in the upper 10 to 30 m (33 to 100 ft) of the water column. Two of the pit lakes, 26- and 55-m (85-and 180-ft) deep, undergo seasonal turnover of the entire water column, whereas two deeper pit lakes, 110- and 240-m (360- to 790-ft) deep, undergo seasonal turnover of only the upper portion of the water column. In the deeper lakes, seasonal mixing does not extend through the entire water column, and a distinct chemocline develops with depth.
The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the reader with the importance of biochemical processes in organic geochemistry. Unfortunately, it is not possible to explain in detail all of the biochemical processes that affect organic solutes. Therefore, this chapter introduces basic concepts of biochemical processes. First, the chapter discusses the general decomposition of organic carbon, which is a major biogeochemical pathway in natural systems. The chemical processes of life put together amino acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids to build specific compounds, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. When the death of an organism occurs, then the biochemical processes of decay and decomposition take over, and an entirely different suite of fragmented compounds occur. The general decomposition of organic carbon is a broad view of this complicated process.
Lignite was for decades the main source of energy and the primary raw material used by the chemical industry in the now German Federal States of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Brandenburg. Except during the initial phases of extraction, lignite was exclusively recovered by opencast mining. The close ties between industry and mining led to the establishment of major industrial operations such as petrochemical, organochemical, and electrochemical plants located near the mining centers. In terms of its quality and composition, lignite in eastern Germany can be classified into West and East Elbian formations, corresponding to the Central German and the Lusatian mining districts.
A vast number of lakes developed in the abandoned opencast lignite mines of Lusatia (East Germany) contain acidic waters (<pH 3) with high concentrations of dissolved iron and sulfate. The elimination of iron and sulfate by microbially mediated reduction processes produces alkalinity, whereas the reoxidation of reduced sulfur compounds consumes alkalinity. In order to determine the influence of environmental factors with the prospect of biological remediation strategies, these processes were investigated in sediments of two acidic and one pH-neutral mining lake. Slightly acidic sediment underlying permanently anoxic waters showed a higher accumulation rate of reduced inorganic sulfur than the pH-neutral sediment (60 v.s. 45 mmol S m-2 a-). Potential Fe(III) reduction measured by the accumulation of Fe(II) during anoxic incubation yielded similar rates in both types of sediments, however, the responses towards the supplementation of Fe(III) and organic carbon were different. Sulfate reduction rates estimated with 35S-radiotracer were much lower in the slightly acidic sediment than in the pH-neutral sediment (156 v.s. 738 mmol SO42- m-2 a-1). However, sulfate reduction rates were increased by the addition of organic carbon. Severe limitation of sulfate-reducing bacteria under acidic conditions was also reflected by low most probable numbers (MPN). High MPN of acidophilic iron- and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in acidic sediments indicated a high reoxidation potential. The results show that potentials for reductive processes are present in acidic sediments and that these are determined mainly by the availability of oxidants and organic matter.
The characteristic feature of the Quaternary geology of eastern Germany (location map, Fig. 1) is a sequence of more than 50 horizons and complexes of glacial (laminated clays, tills, glaciofluvial sediments) and periglacial (river gravels, gelifluction sheets, alluvium, loess) facies. In the period between the younger Tertiary and the first Elsterian continental glaciation, at least four gravel terraces were built up under cold climate conditions. The youngest of these gravel bodies lacks Scandinavian rocks and is interbedded with Elsterian glaciolacustrine deposits. Pre-Elsterian temperate periods have been recorded at a number of places (i.e. Zeuchfeld, Untermassfeld, Voigtstedt, Süssenborn). Two major ice advances with additional minor oscillations have been identified, of Elsterian and Saalian ages. Complete Eemian and Holsteinian sequences are represented showing vegetational development through each interglacial cycle (cool, temperate–warm, cool). The Weichselian glacial Stage in eastern Germany is represented by thick periglacial sedimentation, including gravels, gelifluction sheets, alluvium, debris covers and loess. Within these sediments is a wide variety of glaciotectonic structures and periglacial soil structures, including classical involutions and ice-wedge casts. An outline of the present state of knowledge of the Quaternary of eastern Germany is given in Tables 1–3 while Table 4 presents a stratigraphical comparison with the neighbouring regions and countries. The palaeogeography of the region during the periods of the European continental glaciation is depicted in Fig. 2.
The lowlands around Leipzig and the adjoining region between the River Saale and River Elbe were a low subsiding basin from the Middle Eocene to the Middle Miocene that merged with the Tertiary basin of northern Germany in the Middle Oligocene. In addition to epirogenic subsidence, subrosive (solution) lowering resulted in complicated patterns of sedimentation. Solution along individual beds has resulted in enormous variations in the thickness of lignite in areas such as Geiseltal, the Weisse Elster Basin, and in the Lützen–Merseburg and Düben–Torgau graben. Fluvial, fluvial–limnic and organic sediments interbed with marine and marine littoral facies, and four marine transgressions can be identified in the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene. During the Middle Oligocene, the marine transgression reached its maximum extent in eastern Germany. During the period between the Middle and Upper Oligocene, uplift of the area resulted in subaerial erosion and valley-like dissection of the older Tertiary strata. From the Upper Miocene through to the Pliocene, erosion has been dominant.
Examination of the levels of dissolved matter in layered water bodies (case I) of the Bitterfelder Muldestausee (dam) showed a specific distribution of the element concentrations largely depending on the ion potential (inner migration factor) and the degree of saturation for oxygen (outer migration factor). During the summer, the elements (and/or ions) Al, PO43--P, V, As, Mo, B, Ce, Y, Zr, Sb, Cr characterized by a high ion potential and a high energy coefficient chiefly accumulate in the epilimnion rich in oxygen. However, the hypolimnion, which is free of oxygen, features increased concentrations of the dissolved elements (and/or ions) Mn, Co, NH4+-N, Zn, Cd, Cu, and Ni. From the beginning of the hydrologic winter (case II), the lake water is completely intermingled with the cold incoming Mulde water streams, and the anoxic conditions of the deep water zones disappear. The distribution of element concentrations intermingled in the water body is characterized by processes of dilution and increases in concentration as well as by element-specific precipitation and reverse dissolution.
Pyrite and marcasite oxidation in the consequence of lignite surface mining creates lakes with pH as low as 2 to 3, buffered by high contents of iron and aluminium. Living conditions in this extreme habitat for plants and animals are described as well as the characteristics of the pioneer settlement. The utilization of these fish-free lakes is very limited. As possibilities for a water quality improvement special recultivation methods of overburden, chemical neutralization and biological ecotechnologies are recommended.
Analyses of water, suspended particulate matter, and sediment for the area drained by the river Mulde (Germany) for the early 90's show a high level of pollution in several sections of the river system. This was caused primarily by mining, and industrial and urban activity. The influence of the extreme “100‐year‐flood” into the Mulde and Elbe river systems as a result of the extremely high precipitation in the ore mountains (Erzgebirge) in August 2002 was studied. During the flood, large amounts of strongly polluted sediments were transported into the Freiberger Mulde and Zwickauer Mulde, and deposited on the flooded areas and along river banks in the Vereinigte Mulde. Concentrations of As and heavy metals in the flood sediments of the Freiberger Mulde were found to be very high. This is due primarily to waste dump leaching into the polluted part of the river near Freiberg. Studies in such strongly polluted area show that there is a permanent supply of pollutants from point and diffuse sources, and new sediments with the same level of pollution are formed in the river system.
The study of the Bitterfelder Mulde river reservoir documents its function as a sink for suspended matter and heavy metals in the lower Mulde and Elbe system, even at extremely high flow rates. As a result of the flooding of the Lake Goitsche, large amounts of sediment were observed, particularly in the first subbasin Döbern. The deposited sediments contained large concentrations of As and heavy metals.
Lake Bockwitz, a pit lake in a former lignite open-cast mine south of Leipzig (Germany), was neutralised (from pH 2.65 to pH 7.1) by addition of soda ash (14,620 t) from 2004 to 2007. The additions had to be continued due to ongoing inflows of acid ground and surface water. This paper reports on the changes in the plankton community accompanying the neutralisation.At the beginning, the community composition and biomass was comparable to other acidic pit lakes, i.e. the pigmented flagellates Chlamydomonas and Ochromonas dominated the autotrophs, and ciliates and rotifers were the top predators. The biomass was small (maximum 2 mg fresh weight per litre) and decreased until the end of 2008. With increasing pH, the autotrophic community became more diverse, whereby diatoms, chrysophyceans and blue greens contributed significantly to biomass. Although neutral pH conditions were achieved in autumn 2007, picocyanobacteria were not present until the end of 2008. In addition, crustaceans were under-represented in terms of biomass and diversity. Daphnids were not found. We attributed this to short-term changes of the ionic composition of the water and to the limited time available for non-acido-tolerant organisms to colonise the system.
Changes in benthic retention and mobility of P were studied in a chronosequential approach in acid (pH 2.5–3.5) to moderately acid (pH 5.6–6.8) mining lakes (MLs) with respect to the threat of eutrophication during maturation. Although various MLs exhibit a high pelagic P availability there is currently no distinct threat of an enhanced eutrophication due to a C limitation and a high benthic P immobilization potential. The sequential P extraction applied revealed an increase in sedimentary total P with increasing pH due to the additional uptake of P by Al- and Fe-hydroxides, but no increase in mobile P forms. Currently, the excess in reactive Fe at a high Fe:P ratio in surface sediment at pH ∼3 favours an efficient P precipitation of Fe-oxi-hydroxides with a high specific surface area for P adsorption. However, an enhanced future P mobility of ML sediments and a threat of eutrophication results from: (1) a distinct reduction of the import of Fe and Al from the catchment over time, resulting in a lower supply towards the sediments, and (2) a reduction in the sedimentary Fe mineral surface area due to the future rise in pH.
A system of connected lignite mining pits (part of the former Goitsche mining complex, Germany) was flooded with river water between 1999 and 2002. A considerable accumulation of acid associated with oxidized sulfides in sediments was seen as a critical point for the development of the lake water. To characterize the components contributing to the supply of dissolved lake water SO4 hydro-chemical and isotope investigations with respect to groundwater, pore water in the sulfide bearing sediments, river water and lake water were performed. δ34S of pore water SO4 that was dominated by oxidized pyrites ranges around −25‰ VCDT and differs strongly from river water SO4 with about +4.4‰. Thus, interactions between lake water and sediments were particularly pronounced during the first phase of flooding. For this period, a more quantitative estimation of the SO4 components in the lake water was difficult because of the heterogeneous SO4 distributions between the different sub-basins of the lake and according to the flooding process itself. Later, a component separation was attempted following mixing of the whole lake, which first occurred in spring 2002. A very heterogeneous groundwater environment with respect to highly variable SO4 concentrations and δ34S values and changing interaction with the forming lakes proved to be one of the most important limitations in the calculations of the mixing.
At the lignite dump site Espenhain (East Germany) weathering zones with the typical phenomena of acid mine drainage (high salt content, increase of acidity and metal mobility) are obvious. Considerable amounts of Fe2+, SO42−, Ni, Zn and Al are dissolved there. To understand the distribution of the acidity potential and the dump water composition a geochemical fore field balance is essential. Therefore a thickness weighted balance of the important geochemical parameters was carried out. At the 50 year old southern part of the covering dump, beneath the weathering zone, anaerobic conditions are established and a sequence of microbial reductive processes occurs. This sequence reaches up to the sulphate reduction stage. Together with the subsequent iron sulphide precipitation this represents a natural attenuation process. For the East German lignite dumps further investigations should be carried out to determine process rates, to characterise boundary conditions and to develop technical methods to enhance the process.
The exceptional flooding event of the river Mulde in August 2002 led to an unexpected filling of the Goitzsche, an open-pit lignite mining lake, within two days. Due to this exceptional situation, the groundwater table in the vicinity of the lake rose several meters in the area of Bitterfeld. Over the last 100 years, this region has been affected by a large-scale contaminated aquifer of the former chemical industry complex Bitterfeld/Wolfen. Consequent to the rising groundwater level, the regional hydraulic situation and the groundwater flow direction changed entirely, as proven by hydraulic modelling results. Due to the heterogeneous aquifer conditions, the hydraulic importance was shown of a small scale channel-fill at the bottom of the upper aquifer. This predominant geological structure evidently affects the groundwater flow direction indicated by the modelled path lines. The resulting pathways of the contaminants can be used for the identification of exposure routes related to areas of high ecological sensitivity. The monitoring of highly soluble groundwater contaminants (e.g. benzene, TCE, cis-1,2-DCE), close to the flooding event, shows (irregular patterns of increasing, as well as decreasing, concentration values of related groundwater contaminants. Until the present, no consistent regional pattern can be recorded in the shift of the distribution of the concentration induced by the flooding event. Local differences in the concentration values are obviously more related to small scale variations within the Quaternary aquifer in terms of hydraulic conductivity and higher residual concentration of the contaminated matrix sediments. The temporal effects of concentration values ca be traced back, by most of the organic compounds, to distinct observation wells within the monitored time span at the starting point before flooding.
Ein mit hochtoxischen Schwelwässern aus der Braunkohlenchemie gefülltes Tagebaurestloch (“Phenolsee”) wurde in einem interdisziplinären Projekt durch die gezielte Unterstützung der natürlichen Selbstreinigungskräfte zu einem ungefährlichen Ökosystem mit klarem Wasser. Grundlage des Erfolges war das Wissen um die Entstehung und die Eigenschaften von natürlichen Huminstoffsystemen und deren Funktionen in natürlichen Kreisläufen und Prozessen. Gealterte Deponiewässer der Carbochemie enthalten vergleichbare chaotisch strukturierte Makromoleküle.
A former open-cast pit was used as deposit for wastewater from lignite-pyrolysis processes until 1990. The lake formed was filled with highly toxic and dark phenolic water. Traditional remediation methods were not applicable and it was therefore necessary to develop a new ecologically and economically acceptable remediation strategy. The full-scale remediation of this lake was realized as the results of an interdisciplinary research by a team of chemists, microbiologists and hydrologists. The newly developed complex remediation strategy is mainly based on the knowledge of the chemistry of dissolved-organic matter systems. We could show the similarity of dissolved natural humic substances to the industrially formed black phenolic macromolecules formed in the wastewater deposit lake. Transfer of the knowledge originating from research on humic substances, their chemical reactions and microbiological interactions and on the hydrological behaviour of natural lakes helped to create a successful mild remediation strategy. As a result of the full-scale application, after 10 years now, a new ecosystem with clear water was formed without any danger for the environment.
In the abandoned lignite mine of Merseburg-Ost in Central Germany, the lakes 1a and 1b have been filled the natural recovery of the artificially lowered groundwater level for a period of several years. Recently the flooding from a nearby small river has started. The long-term conditions of the developing lakes, especially the degree of salt accumulation from deep saline groundwaters and the behaviour in time of the highly saline monimolimnia which formed at the base of the lakes were assessed. To reproduce the interaction between the groundwater flow and physical processes within the lakes, a 3D density-sensitive hydrogeological model to predict groundwater inflows and outflows was coupled with a limnophysical model of high vertical resolution.
The results of a coupled hundred-years-prognosis is shown. Evidence is provided that the different behaviour of the two lakes is a consequence of the differences in the groundwater inflows.
Thirty-five mines in Nevada currently have, or will likely have, a pit lake. The large bulk mineable deposits in Nevada mined below the water table are of several types, including Carlin-type Au, quartz-adularia precious metal, quartz-alunite precious metal and porphyry-Cu (-Mo) deposits. Of the 16 past or existing pit lakes at 12 different Nevada mines, most had near neutral pH and low metal concentrations, yet most had at least one constituent (e.g., SO4) which exceeded drinking water standards for at least one sampling event. Water quality data indicate that, in general, poor water quality will not develop in Carlin-type Au deposits. Wall rocks in the geologic environment typical of these deposits, and in the specific pits sampled, contain substantial amounts of carbonate, which buffers the pH at slightly basic conditions and thereby limits the solubility of most metals. Similarly, the quartz-adularia precious metal deposits generally have geologic conditions that buffer pH and naturally prevent the development of poor water quality. In both of these deposit types, certain elements such as As and Se that are mobile in neutral to basic waters may accumulate to levels near or exceeding drinking water standards. Pit lakes forming in quartz-alunite precious metal deposits hosted in volcanic rocks or in porphyry-Cu (-Mo) deposits in plutonic rocks are of greatest environmental concern in Nevada, as both deposit types have relatively high acid-generating potential and low buffering capacity. However, the sampled Nevada pits in these deposit types indicate that the water may not be of poor quality. In addition, water quality in some pits may actually improve with time due to the increased water-rock ratio as the pit fills with water, as suggested by pit waters at one mine in a Carlin-type deposit (Getchell) that improved between 1968 and 1982. Although water quality in pits in each deposit type is generally good, local, site specific conditions (e.g., surface water inflow) and variations (e.g., evaporation rates) result in some pit lakes (e.g., Boss) in the quartz-adularia deposit type being of substantially poorer water quality than other lakes (e.g., Tuscarora) in the same deposit type. Despite underlying geologic controls based on deposit type, site specific variations in hydrogeologic conditions and surface geologic features can result in differing water quality in pit lakes in the same deposit types, and these factors may, in some cases, provide an overriding control on the geochemical evolution of specific pit lakes.
Investigations have been carried out on a post-mining lake (Lake Senftenberg) near the town of Senftenberg, Germany, which was flooded 25 years ago. In its close vicinity several mines have just been abandoned or will be abandoned in the next few years. A change of the local hydrologic flow system is expected. All water levels in post-mining lakes in this area will be controlled to maintain a level low enough to prevent buildings from being damaged. The lakes and most surface waters in this area are influenced by acidic mine drainage. Based on a regional groundwater model, geochemical mass balance calculations were performed. Water quality changes due to the oxidation, hydrolysis and precipitation of metals were investigated. These calculations reveal a high probability of acidification for the investigated Lake Senftenberg. The surrounding post-mining lakes will reach a higher water level than Lake Senftenberg. Thus, after 2010, ground water from the north will flow through large overburden dumps and infiltrate Lake Senftenberg.
This study examines some relevant limnological and hydrogeochemical characteristics of 22 mine pit lakes of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB). The studied pit lakes include some of the largest and historically most important mines of the IPB (including Corta Atalaya and Cerro Colorado in Riotinto, Filón Norte, Filón Centro and Filón Sur in Tharsis, Aznalcóllar, or San Telmo) and many other of minor size. As a whole, these lakes constitute, at present, a large volume of highly acidic and metal-polluted water. Some of these pit lakes are very recent (e.g., Corta Atalaya, 2.5 a; Los Frailes, 6 a) and present a continuous hydrological and geochemical evolution, although many others were abandoned decades ago and show nearly constant water volume. Depth profiles obtained in several pit lakes (e.g., San Telmo, Confesionarios, Cueva de la Mora, Concepción) indicate that many of them have developed meromixis and show, at present, a permanent thermal and chemical stratification with a well defined chemocline separating an anoxic, Fe(II)-rich monimolimnion, and a well mixed, oxygenated and Fe(III)-rich mixolimnion. In the upper layer, the bacterial oxidation of Fe(II) competes with photoreductive processes which take place in the surface water, thus provoking diel cycles of Fe(II) concentration. The observed water chemistry reflects the oxidation and dissolution of pyrite and other sulphides and gangue aluminosilicates from the country rock. The pit lakes of the IPB cover a wide range of water compositions, from circumneutral and relatively low-metal (e.g., Los Frailes, pH 7.2, 0.07 mg/L Fe, 3.8 mg/L Mn, 30 mg/L Zn), to extremely acidic and metal(loid)-rich (e.g., Corta Atalaya, pH 1.2, 36.7 g/L Fe, 6.7 g/L Zn, 1.3 g/L Cu, 159 mg/L As). Most pit lakes, however, are comprised within the pH range of 2.2–3.6 and appear to be strongly buffered by the hydrolysis and precipitation of Fe(III) in the form of schwertmannite, which forms colloids that can sorb trace elements from the aqueous phase.
A German mining lake and the supplying surface waters, which are located downstream of a sewage plant, were examined regarding their microbiological and virological quality. Between October 2002 and September 2003, specific PCR methods were used to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in 123 water specimens drawn at different sites downstream of the waste water treatment plant and in 9 samples from the sewage plant influent. Detection rates in sewage plant effluents and surface water samples depended on sampling sites and were: 29-76% for enterovirus (EntV), 24-42% (astrovirus, AstV), 15-53% (norovirus, NV), 3-24% (rotavirus, RoV), 5-20% (hepatitis A virus, HAV) and 20% (adenovirus, AdV). AstV genome load of selected samples was between 3.7 x 10(3) to 1.2 x 10(8) genome equivalents per liter (gen.equ./l), depending on sampling location; NV average genome load ranged from 1.8 x 10(4) to 9.7 x 10(5) gen.equ./l. Cell culture methods showed that three out of 18 PCR positive samples contained infectious EntV. Even though microbiological parameters such as Escherichia coli, enterococci and coliphages indicated acceptable microbiological water quality, the virological data of this study suggest the possibility that surface waters may be a source for enteric viral infections.
The quality of both groundwaters and surface waters that arise during flooding of abandoned lignite open pits are influenced by regional and local factors. A typical regional factor is due to oxidised sedimentary sulfides. A more local factor is the interaction of shallow water with highly saline groundwater, which is important in Merseburg-Ost (Germany). Investigation of this system is aided by the use of many environmental isotope tracers but special problems can arise. In order to reveal processes in the mine environment (shallow groundwater, lake water) and to characterise mixtures with saline groundwater results are described using the tracers deltaD, delta18O, delta13C, delta34S, 87Sr/86Sr, 3H, 14C, 39Ar, and 222Rn. Deep highly saline groundwater had a radiocarbon concentration typically below 10 pMC. The values of delta13C(DIC) are around-5 per thousand. As delta13C of the aquifer rock samples (Permian, Zechstein carbonates) was in the range of-6...+5 per thousand, residence time corrections based on delta13C are questionable. Additional checks with 39Ar, as well as results from the variationof delta18O (or deltaD) with respect to the salinity, emphasise a Holocene age; as is also the case for most mineralised groundwaters and also for water having a low delta18O (and deltaD). For saline groundwater residing in the Zechstein aquifer the measured delta34S values of about 12 per thousand are close to those expected from the literature. In contrast, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of dissolved strontium is far from the values anticipated for the aquifer rocks despite there being proportionality between the chloride concentration and the strontium concentration. Furthermore, the proportionality is not valid in lower mineralised water. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio can, therefore, hardly be used as a tracer for the distribution of ascending saline water. The amount of salt-water coming from below into the residual quarry basins is an essential contribution to the lake inventories. Therefore, 222Rn was used to assist in determining the renewal of salt-water layers that formed in deep lake locations. In the deep zones 222Rn concentrations up to 6 Bq/l were measured but were dominantly in equilibrium with 226Ra, which was found in all higher mineralised groundwater samples. Excess radon was limited to just a few decimetres above the lake sediment surface but does not appear to be caused by continuous groundwater discharge. Hydrochemical investigations of groundwater from the Quaternary aquifer were carried out over the last six years before flooding was complete. Apart from a slight downward shift of the average sulfate concentration, other changes showed virtually no trends. An increase of the sulfate concentration was mostly correlated with a decrease of delta34S for individual sites only, but not for the whole ensemble of sampling locations. Sulfate from pyrite oxidation plays an important role but cannot be attributed unequivocally to coal mining. There are hints that the conditions closer to the basin edges may differ from those remoter parts of the flood plain.
Lakes developing in former coal mine pits are often characterized by high concentrations of sulfate and iron and low pH. The review focuses on the causes for and fate of acidity in these lakes and their watersheds. Acidification is primarily caused by the generation of ferrous iron bearing and mineralized groundwater, transport through the groundwater-surface water interface, and subsequent iron oxidation and precipitation. Rates of acidity generation in mine tailings and dumps, and surface water are often similar (1 to >10 mol m(-2) yr(-1)). Weathering processes, however, often suffice to buffer groundwaters to only moderately acidic or neutral pH, depending on the suite of minerals present. In mine lakes, the acidity balance is further influenced by proton release from transformation of metastable iron hydroxysulfate minerals to goethite, and proton and ferrous iron sequestration by burial of iron sulfides and carbonates in sediments. These processes mostly cannot compensate acidity loading from the watershed, though. A master variable for almost all processes is the pH: rates of pyrite oxidation, ferrous iron oxidation, mineral dissolution, iron precipitation, iron hydroxide transformation, and iron and sulfate reduction are strongly pH dependent. While the principle mechanism of acidity generation and consumption and several controls are mostly understood, this cannot be said about the fate of acidity on larger spatial and temporal scales. Little is also known about critical loads and the internal regulation of biogeochemical iron, sulfur, and carbon cycling in acidic mine lakes.
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