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Parental depression, parenting and family adjustment, and child effortful control: Explaining externalizing behaviors for preschool children
Abstract
Contributions of symptoms of parental depression, marital/family adjustment, parents' coercive (physical restraint, criticism, directives) and instructional behaviors (cognitive guidance, i.e., explanations of goals/strategies, suggestions regarding strategies for completing tasks), and children's effortful control to preschool children's externalizing behavior problems were investigated. It was hypothesized that children's higher levels of effortful control serve a protective function, leading to lower levels of child conduct difficulties despite parental/familial risk factors. Higher levels of depressive symptoms, coercion, and cognitive guidance, along with lower levels of child effortful control, were associated with higher levels of child externalizing behaviors. Differences in hierarchical regression models were observed for data obtained from mothers and fathers, with maternal coercive behavior and cognitive guidance serving as statistically significant predictors of children's externalizing behavior and reports of marital/family adjustment predicting child externalizing problems described by fathers. These parental/family factors, along with child effortful control, should be considered in understanding the development of behavior problems in early childhood, and could be addressed within school or community-based interventions.
... Supporting the notion of effortful control as a protective factor, parental hostility and physical punishment were generally predictive of externalizing behavior only for children with lower effortful control [7,32] with few exceptions [36]. With respect to positive parenting, some studies have suggested that children with poor effortful control may benefit more from parental warm responsiveness [8,36] and inductive discipline [9] whereas others have reported non-significant interactive effects of positive parenting and effortful control in relation to externalizing behavior [7,[37][38][39]. ...
... Consistent with the second hypothesis, higher levels of child effortful control at 3 years were predictive of fewer externalizing problems concurrently and longitudinally, regardless of levels of parenting behaviors examined in this study. This finding corresponds with previous literature emphasizing the unique effect of self-regulatory ability on early disruptive behaviors [20,37,53,54]. However, children's effortful control at 3 years was not associated with their externalizing behavior at 6 and 10 years when physical punishment was included in the model, which is probably due to a modest but significant correlation between effortful control and physical punishment (r = − .20). ...
... This is consistent with earlier studies [7,9,32] suggesting that children's ability to regulate their own emotional and behavioral reactions towards the environment may function as a protective factor against the harmful effects of punitive discipline. On the other hand, effortful control did not moderate the effects of inductive or responsive parenting on children's externalizing problems, implying that positive parenting may not function differentially depending on the child's regulatory abilities in early childhood [7,37,39]. These results add support to the diathesis-stress model rather than differential susceptibility model, in that children low in effortful control were especially vulnerable to negative outcomes in the face of physical punishment but did not necessarily benefit from positive parenting compared to their peers with better regulatory skills. ...
This study aimed to examine independent and interactive contributions of parenting behaviors (e.g., physical punishment, inductive discipline, warm responsiveness) and child effortful control on child externalizing problems during early and middle childhood. Participants were 241 children (123girls) of middle-income families in the U.S. who were primarily European Americans (91%) and at risk for school-age problem behaviors. Data were collected at ages 3, 6, and 10 using multiple methods, informants, and contexts. Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated both independent and interactive influences of parenting behaviors and child effortful control on children’s externalizing behaviors. Importantly, effortful control buffered the negative influence of physical punishment, but not other parenting behaviors, such that physical punishment was associated with external behaviors at 6 years only for children with poorer effortful control abilities. The results highlight both parental discipline strategies and child effortful control as promising targets for early identification and prevention of future problem behaviors. Summary: Parenting and child effortful control have long been topics of research on child development. However, relatively little is known about the long-term effects of early parenting in the context of effortful control and the possibility that those processes may differ across different dimensions of parenting (i.e., warm responsiveness, inductive discipline, and physical punishment) Therefore, this study aimed to examine independent and interactive contributions of parenting behaviors and child effortful control on child externalizing problems during early and middle childhood. Participants were 241 children (123girls) of middle-income families who were at risk for school-age problem behaviors. Data were collected using multiple methods, informants, and contexts. Specifically, child effortful control at 3 years was measured using multiple tasks, and parenting at 3 years was assessed via maternal report during home interview. Teachers contributed ratings of child externalizing behaviors at 3, 6, and 10 years. Results indicated both independent and interactive influences of parenting behaviors and child effortful control on children’s externalizing behaviors. Importantly, effortful control buffered the negative influence of physical punishment, but not other parenting behaviors, such that physical punishment was associated with external behaviors at 6 years only for children with poorer effortful control abilities. Moreover, parents’ use of physical punishment at age 3 showed a long-lasting association with children’s problem behaviors at ages 6 and 10 years. The findings suggest that children with more advanced effortful control may be less susceptible to long-term detrimental contribution of physical punishment, although by no means they are protected from harmful effects of punitive discipline. This study provides more sophisticated explanations on the influence of early parenting and child effortful control on externalizing behaviors spanning early to middle childhood. The results also highlight different parental discipline strategies and child effortful controls as promising targets for early identification and prevention of children’s future problem behaviors in childhood.
... In infancy, increased MDS were associated with a decrease in Orienting/Regulatory Capacity from 8 to 10 months of age (Gartstein & Hancock, 2019), and in early childhood, higher levels of MDS were associated with lower Effortful Control (Gartstein et al., 2013). Further research has shown that a combination of high MDS and low child Effortful Control increased the likelihood of the child exhibiting externalizing behavioural difficulties (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). The authors of this study proposed that depressive symptoms may impact the attitudes, parenting strategies and emotional availability of the mother (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). ...
... Further research has shown that a combination of high MDS and low child Effortful Control increased the likelihood of the child exhibiting externalizing behavioural difficulties (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). The authors of this study proposed that depressive symptoms may impact the attitudes, parenting strategies and emotional availability of the mother (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). For example, a depressed mother with low confidence in her parenting abilities and high levels of negative emotion may be less likely to provide the child with effective strategies and opportunities to practice regulating their own behaviour and emotions. ...
... In data collected before the pandemic, we expected to observe longitudinal stability in ratings of MDS and overall temperament indices of Negative Affect, Effortful Control and Surgency (Putnam et al., 2006(Putnam et al., , 2008Takács et al., 2019). We also expected to find concurrent and longitudinal associations between MDS and specific dimensions of infant temperament, such as Negative Affect (Bates et al., 2020;Feldman et al., 2009;Granat et al., 2017;, Effortful Control (Choe et al., 2014;Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Rigato, Charalambous, et al., 2020), and Surgency (Gartstein & Hancock, 2019). ...
The COVID‐19 pandemic is an unexpected and major global event, with the potential to have many and varied impacts on child development. However, the implications of the pandemic for maternal depressive symptoms, early childhood temperament dimensions, and their associations, remain largely unknown. To investigate this, questionnaires were completed by mothers (N = 175) before and during the pandemic when their child was 10‐ and 16‐months old (Study 1), and by an extended group of mothers with young children (6–48 months; 66 additional mothers) during the first and second national lockdowns in the United Kingdom in 2020 (Study 2). Results indicated that while maternal pandemic‐related stress decreased over the first 6 months of the pandemic, there was an increase in mothers who reported feeling some level of pandemic‐specific depression. Despite this, we did not observe an increase in the severity of global maternal depressive symptoms, or any negative impact of the pandemic on the development of temperament in infancy and early childhood.
... With regard to mechanisms, parenting has received the most attention (Lovejoy, Graczyk, O'Hare, & Neuman, 2000). Maternal depression is additionally believed to increase children's vulnerability by conferring deficits in children's self-regulation abilities (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Goodman & Gotlib, 1999) and greater clarity of the effects of maternal depression on children's developing self-regulation is needed. Furthermore, how pre-and postnatal depression influence parenting and children's self-regulation over and above the effects of stress and other contextual risk factors has not been well clarified. ...
... There is a small, mixed body of literature examining maternal postnatal depression as a correlate or predictor of children's effortful control, or effortful control as a putative mediator of the relationships between maternal depression and children's adjustment. While some studies report findings that are supportive of a relation between maternal depression and children's effortful control (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hughes, Roman, Hart, & Ensor, 2013), other studies find no association between them (Jessee, Mangelsdorf, Shigeto, & Wong, 2012;Klimes-Dougan, Ronsaville, Wiggs, & Martinez, 2006;Micco et al., 2009). Again, discrepancies in findings may be due to methodological differences, such as the use of mother report (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Jessee et al., 2012) versus observed effortful control (Hughes et al., 2013;Klimes-Dougan et al., 2006;Micco et al., 2009), and developmental differences, with studies spanning the preschool period (Brock et al., 2009;Hughes et al., 2013;Jessee et al., 2012) through adolescence (Klimes-Dougan et al., 2006;Micco et al., 2009). ...
... While some studies report findings that are supportive of a relation between maternal depression and children's effortful control (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hughes, Roman, Hart, & Ensor, 2013), other studies find no association between them (Jessee, Mangelsdorf, Shigeto, & Wong, 2012;Klimes-Dougan, Ronsaville, Wiggs, & Martinez, 2006;Micco et al., 2009). Again, discrepancies in findings may be due to methodological differences, such as the use of mother report (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Jessee et al., 2012) versus observed effortful control (Hughes et al., 2013;Klimes-Dougan et al., 2006;Micco et al., 2009), and developmental differences, with studies spanning the preschool period (Brock et al., 2009;Hughes et al., 2013;Jessee et al., 2012) through adolescence (Klimes-Dougan et al., 2006;Micco et al., 2009). ...
This study investigated the possible unique effects of pre‐and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms in relation to parenting and children's effortful control in predicting children's adjustment. Contextual risk factors (income, negative life events) were modelled. Mothers and children (N = 306) were assessed four times, including T1 maternal reports of depressive symptoms, T2 observed parenting, T3 behavioural measures of effortful control, and T4 teacher ratings of children's outcomes. Pre‐ and postnatal contextual risk predicted maternal depression and child adjustment directly. Post‐ but not prenatal depressive symptoms predicted parenting behaviours. Pre‐ but not postnatal depressive symptoms predicted children's adjustment. Results suggest that pre‐ and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms are uniquely associated with parenting and child outcomes.
• This study asks if pre‐ and postnatal depressive symptoms effect children's adjustment through mothers' parenting and children's subsequent self‐regulation.
• Multiple methods were utilized and showed that postnatal depressive symptoms predict parenting while prenatal depressive symptoms predict adjustment.
• Pre‐ and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms are uniquely associated with parenting and child outcomes.
... Regarding child regulation as a buffering moderator, Lengua (2008) posited that children's effortful control interacts with parenting in predicting child EXT, whereby harsher parenting is a stronger risk factor for child EXT if the child is low in effortful control; conversely, high effortful control protects or buffers the child's EXT because having stronger effortful control allows the child to better regulate their behavioral and emotional responses to HP exposures. Other studies have also shown clear evidence for this anticipated moderation effect of effortful control (e.g., Lee et al., 2022;Morris et al., 2002;Xu et al., 2009), though some other studies have not found this (e.g., Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hong, 2021;Zubizarreta et al., 2019). ...
... In contrast, for children with low effortful control, physical punishment was not associated with EXT, and inconsistent discipline was related to higher EXT. Still, other studies using multiple informants, or a single informant, have reported no child effortful control moderation effect (e.g., Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hong, 2021). Thus, there are inconsistent findings regarding the moderating role of child effortful control on the association between HP and child EXT. ...
The authors examined task-based (i.e., executive function), surveyed (i.e., effortful control), and physiological (i.e., resting cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) measures of child and maternal regulation as distinct moderators of longitudinal bidirectional links between child externalizing (EXT) behaviors and harsh parenting (HP) from 6 to 9 years. The sample size was 299 (50.9% female; 1% Asian, 4% multiple races; 14% Black; 78% White), and participants were recruited in the United States (a rural college town in Virginia and a midsized city in North Carolina). Higher child EXT at 6 years predicted higher HP at 7–8 years, which predicted higher EXT at 9 years. Also, this path was moderated by 6-year child effortful control, 6-year resting RSA, and 9-year executive function. In contrast, there was no moderating effect of any measure of maternal regulation. Findings suggest it is important to consider child self-regulation when examining bidirectionality in parent and child effects for HP and child EXT.
... Mothers' depression was associated with lower levels of sensitivity (Murray et al., 1996), warmth (Downey & Coyne, 1990), nurturance (Letourneau et al., 2010), and communication with children (Kaplan et al., 2014;Rigetti-Veltema et al., 2002). Depressed mothers were also less effective in disciplining children showing less firm, consistent parenting and effective limit setting (Letourneau et al., 2010;Middleton et al., 2009), lower level of cognitive guidance such as explanation of goals and strategies (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003), and higher levels of coercion and criticism (Hails et al., 2018;Lovejoy et al., 2000). ...
... More concretely, mothers' higher depression levels are significantly associated with children's diverse problems including lower positive affect for self (Cicchetti et al., 1997) and higher sadness and less expression of interest (Pickens & Field, 1993). They are also associated with higher levels of internalizing problems including separation anxiety symptoms, social withdrawal (Herba et al., 2013), and higher levels of externalizing problems including conflict with others and violation of social norms (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). Specifically, it is suggested that children of an early age are especially vulnerable to mothers' depression, as they are more dependent on adults and spend more time with their mothers compared to school-age children and adolescents (Bagner et al., 2010;Goodman & Garber, 2017). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic is affecting families and children worldwide. Experiencing the pandemic leads to stress in families resulting from fear of infection and social isolation derived from social distancing. For families raising preschoolers, the prolonged closure of childcare centers puts additional childcare burden on family members, especially mothers. Due to the limited research exploring the impact of COVID-19 on preschool children’s problem behaviors, this study examines the association between stress due to COVID-19 and preschool children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors related to mother’s depression and parenting behavior. The study sample included data collected from 316 South Korean mothers raising preschool-aged children aged 3 to 5. The study findings suggest that mother’s COVID-19 stress was indirectly associated with preschool children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors resulting from the mother’s depression and parenting behaviors, although the direct effect of COVID-19 stress on preschool children’s outcomes was not statistically significant. Increase in mother’s COVID-19 stress was associated with increase in depression, and sequentially decreased positive parenting behaviors, which in turn resulted in preschool children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. The study findings highlight the need to focus on enhancing mental health of mothers and preschool children’s adjustment by implementing supportive interventions to reduce the adverse impacts of the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic.
... Children of depressed mothers and fathers demonstrate psychological distress (Shelton & Harold, 2008), negative mood and temperament (Hanington et al., 2010), internalizing and externalizing problems (Fisher et al., 2015;Ramchandani et al., 2005), and general psychopathology (Goodman et al., 2011). Such developmental outcomes are thought to be a result of early deficits in child regulation, namely effortful control (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). Effortful control is a self-regulatory ability involving attentional control (voluntarily altering or shifting attention), behavioral regulation (the inhibition of behavior), and motor regulation or the modulation of speed (Kochanska et al., 2000). ...
... Healthy child self-regulation, namely effortful control, develops in part within a warm and supportive parent-child relationship through coregulation and modeling of regulatory behaviors (Eisenberg et al., 2005;Karreman et al., 2006). Parenting that is harsh and characterized by negative emotionality is associated with parental depression as well as deficits in effortful control and selfregulatory behaviors among children (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Karreman et al., 2008). Further findings suggest that parental depression can lead to deficits in child self-regulation through the mechanism of low parenting efficacy (Bates et al., 2020). ...
Parental depression has significant implications for family functioning, yet much of the literature does not consider family-level dynamics in investigating individual, parenting and child outcomes. In the current study we apply a new index of couple-level support, partner reflective functioning (RF), or the romantic partner's ability to consider how the partner's mental states can guide behavior, to study familial resiliency in the face of prenatal parental depression among first-time parents. We investigate how partner RF buffers the association between prenatal parental depression and outcomes of postnatal parental depression, parenting style, and child effortful control. Maternal and paternal depression were measured in 91 primiparous couples during the sixth month of pregnancy and parental depression, partner RF, parental RF at 6 months postnatally. Outcomes of parental depression, permissive parenting, and children's effortful control were assessed 24 months post-natally. Results indicate that average and high levels of paternal partner (not parental) RF attenuate risk for maternal postnatal depression, maternal permissive parenting, and deficits in child effortful control. Implications are discussed from a family systems approach.
... Researchers have increasingly recognized children's selfregulation as a mediating mechanism between parental factors, such as parents' psychopathology and parenting behaviors, and child adjustment (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hardaway et al., 2012). Building on the literature, the present cross-sectional study further examined mindful parenting as a mediator between the parents' depressive symptoms, children's selfregulation, and adjustment outcomes. ...
... Somewhat surprisingly, however, mothers', but not fathers', depressive symptoms were associated with children's self-regulation. Contrary to studies showing both maternal and paternal effects of depressive symptoms on child adjustment (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Ramchandani et al., 2005Ramchandani et al., , 2008, fathers' depressive symptoms were not related to children's self-regulation when mothers' effect was taken into account. In the present sample, 91.80% of fathers were employed full-time, compared to only 46.20% of mothers. ...
Objectives
Parental depression is linked to a myriad of child adjustment outcomes. To identify the potential processes between parents’ depressive symptoms and child adjustment in early childhood, this cross-sectional study investigated mindful parenting and children’s self-regulation as mediators.Methods
Participants were 320 Chinese families involving maritally intact mothers, fathers, and children (49.01% girls) from 34.73 to 55.66 months old (M = 46.32, SD = 3.77). Mothers and fathers completed self-report questionnaires assessing parental depressive symptoms, mindful parenting, children’s self-regulation, and adjustment outcomes. Children completed a task assessing their self-regulation. A structural equation model was conducted to examine the mediation model cross-sectionally.ResultsThe structural equation model indicated that mindful parenting and children’s self-regulation mediated the association between parents’ depressive symptoms and children’s adjustment. Specifically, mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms were associated with their own, but not their spouses’, mindful parenting. Mindful parenting was then associated with children’s self-regulation, which was related to internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and prosocial behavior. Differential findings as a function of parents’ gender were also indicated.Conclusions
The present study revealed mindful parenting and children’s self-regulation as mediators between parental depressive symptoms and adjustment in early childhood. Both mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms were associated with mindful parenting, which was crucial for children’s self-regulation, psychosocial adjustment, and behavioral adjustment. These findings inform practitioners about the relevance of parents’ depressive symptoms and mindful parenting to children’s adjustment in early childhood.
... Still, the role of the family environment should not be ignored (Eisenberg et al., 2005;Rothbart and Bates, 2006). Previous studies confirmed that both mother and father could help children learn emotional and behavioral control through appropriate parenting behaviors such as guidance, demonstration, and correction (Gartstein and Fagot, 2003;Eiden et al., 2004). However, according to the family system theory, all parenting behaviors in the family context are not isolated from each other (Bowen, 1966). ...
... For instance, the parents' different attitudes toward the grandparents' parenting behaviors may trigger their dissatisfaction to each other, which would lead to a low level of marital adjustment. In this case, both parents may experience more emotional depression, feel increasing parenting stress, and adopt more negative parenting behaviors, which would threaten the children's development of effortful control (Gartstein and Fagot, 2003;Ponnet et al., 2013;Lin et al., 2017;Taraban et al., 2017). Although the reliability and validity of the above possible explanations still wait to be substantiated, they all indicate a potential research direction for future studies that intergenerational co-parenting relationships may influence children's developmental outcomes through some kinds of interparental relationships, which is also consistent with the family system theory that all relationships in the family system are interdependent and interacted with each other (Bowen, 1966). ...
Parent–grandparent co-parenting has become a common mode in Chinese families; however, its correlation with children’s development in the long run remains unclear. Herein, a 10-month follow-up survey was conducted among 253 preschool children and their parents from Chinese parent–grandparent co-parenting families. It aimed to examine the bidirectional longitudinal correlation of children’s effortful control with mother–grandparent and father–grandparent co-parenting relationships, as well as the dissimilarity of the two co-parenting relationships. In addition, the moderating role of maternal parenting self-efficacy in these relationships was also investigated. A cross-lagged model showed that the (1) mother–grandparent co-parenting relationship (T1) positively predicted the father–grandparent co-parenting relationship (T2), (2) dissimilarity of the mother–grandparent and father–grandparent co-parenting relationships (T1) negatively predicted children’s effortful control (T2), and (3) maternal parenting self-efficacy significantly moderated the predictive effect of children’s effortful control on a father–grandparent co-parenting relationship. However, a further simple slope analysis showed that after controlling the father–grandparent co-parenting relationship (T1), the children’s effortful control (T1) did not significantly predict the father–grandparent co-parenting relationship (T2) either in the high or low maternal parenting self-efficacy group. These results indicated that in Chinese parent–grandparent co-parenting families, the father-grandparent co-parenting relationship was influenced by the mother–grandparent co-parenting relationship, and similar mother–grandparent and father–grandparent co-parenting relationships were conducive to the development of the children’s effortful control.
... A culmination of adverse life circumstances, particularly those that are introduced by parents, can create excessive stress in the child's environment, reducing the child's ability to control their behaviors and attention via the effect of the adverse environment on the neuroendocrine system (Lengua et al., 2015;Ng-Knight & Schoon, 2017). Such stress can contribute to reduced attentional and inhibitory control subsequently leading to behavior problems, and most notably externalizing problems (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). ...
... Finally, we hypothesized that there would be an association between the adolescent's effortful control and subsequent externalizing problems. This hypothesis was supported in that there was a medium size association between lower levels of adolescent effortful control at Time 2 and greater adolescent externalizing at Time 2 and a small effect on externalizing at Time 3. The relations between effortful control and externalizing behaviors have been well-established in both childhood and adolescence (Eisenberg et al., 2009;Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Nigg, 2006). It is not surprising that children with an inability to focus and shift their attention or inhibit negative behaviors would be more likely to exhibit externalizing behaviors in their everyday life. ...
Adolescents' effortful control is subject to numerous maternal influences. Specifically, a mother's own effortful control is associated with her child's effortful control. However, maternal substance use, psychopathology, and stress within the parenting role may also lead to poor effortful control for their child. Poor effortful control during adolescence can subsequently contribute to a variety of negative outcomes, including externalizing behaviors. A sample of 460 adolescents (47% female, 59.3% Non‐Hispanic Caucasian) was selected from a longitudinal, multigenerational study. The goal was to examine maternal effortful control, substance use, psychopathology, and stress in their offspring's childhood (Mage = 6.27) and their influence on their children's effortful control in early adolescence (Mage = 12.21) and the subsequent effect of effortful control on adolescents' externalizing behavior (Mage = 13.53). Maternal effortful control (measured via conscientiousness) and psychopathology were associated with adolescent effortful control, which was associated with externalizing behavior a year later. Additionally, there was a significant indirect association between maternal effortful control and adolescent externalizing behaviors via adolescent effortful control. Thus, adolescent effortful control is associated with maternal effortful control but also subject to specific maternal risk factors in childhood. These results inform potential maternal strategies for promoting positive developmental outcomes in adolescents. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... The present study contributes to the literature addressing neighborhood effects, indicating that parenting behaviors other than monitoring youngsters' activities (e.g., Bacchini et al., 2011) moderate effects of community exposure to crime. Initially considered in a problemsolving context (Rogoff, 1990;Vygotsky, 1978), the importance of parental scaffolding has been extended to understanding the development of self-regulation or executive functions (e.g., Hammond, Muller, Carpendale, & Bibok, 2011;Lengua, Kiff, et al., 2013), as well as behavior problems (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). In this present study, scaffolding represents a balance of autonomy granting and structure, that appears relevant to children's health behaviors and BMI, as lower levels of scaffolding were particularly problematic with respect to child obesity risk in the context of greater community crime exposure. ...
... Responsiveness, thought to contribute to reduced risk for obesity, did not emerge as a significant predictor, nor did negative parenting behaviors, either in the context of main effects of interaction terms. Negative parental behaviors (e.g., coercive parent-child interactions, negative affect, intrusive behaviors) were shown to play an important role in predicting behavior problems (e.g., Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998;Gartstein & Fagot, 2003), yet did not present as equally relevant when examined in relation to risk for obesity in the present investigation. Thus, negative affectivity in parenting may be less critical in this health-related context. ...
Contributions of parental limit setting, negativity, scaffolding, warmth, and responsiveness to Body Mass Index (BMI) were examined. Parenting behaviors were observed in parent-child interactions, and child BMI was assessed at 5 years of age. Mothers provided demographic information and obtained child saliva samples used to derive cortisol concentration indicators (N = 250). Geospatial crime indices were computed based on publically available information for a subsample residing within the boundaries of a Pacific Northwest city (N = 114). Maternal warmth and limit setting moderated the association between child HPA-axis regulation and BMI. BMI was higher for children at lower cortisol concentrations with greater maternal warmth and lower for youngsters with mid-range cortisol values under high maternal limit setting. Maternal scaffolding moderated the effects of crime exposure, so that lower scaffolding translated into higher child BMI with greater neighborhood crime exposure. These parenting behaviors could be leveraged in obesity prevention/intervention efforts.
... The studies on self-control and externalizing problems have shown stronger and more consistent findings than those on self-control and internalizing problems (Eisenberg et al., 2001). A relation between low self-control and externalizing problems in children has been reported abundantly, when investigated in terms of parent-reported child self-control (i.e., effortful control; e.g., Eisenberg et al., 2001Eisenberg et al., , 2004Eisenberg et al., , 2009Eisenberg, Sadovsky et al., 2005;Eisenberg, Zhou et al., 2005;Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Lemery et al., 2002;Olson, Sameroff, Kerr, Lopez, & Wellman, 2005;Spinrad et al., 2007) and also in studies on observed behavioral control (Karreman et al., 2009;Kochanska & Knaack, 2003;Krueger, Caspi, Moffitt, White, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1996;Murray & Kochanska, 2002;Olson et al., 2005;Rapport, Tucker, DuPaul, Merlo, & Stoner, 1986;Spinrad et al., 2007). Results on the association between self-control and internalizing problems are relatively limited and seemingly inconsistent. ...
... In particular, in this study, a weaker relation between child impulsivity and externalizing problems was observed when parents exerted more positive discipline. With regard to the specific interaction between positive parenting and child self-control, one study found that interaction effects in relation to externalizing problems (Karreman et al., 2009), although this was not found in earlier work (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Olson et al., 2005). So far, to the best of our knowledge, no research has yet been done to study the interaction between positive parenting and self-control in relation to both externalizing and internalizing problems. ...
Background:
Early childhood self-control and parenting are suggested to play key roles in the development of child problem behavior. The current study aims to 1) replicate earlier work by examining the unique and combined effects of child self-control and parenting on child problem behavior and 2) extend earlier work by including both mother and father reports.
Methods:
Data were used from 107 Dutch families: mothers, fathers, and their two-year old child. Child self-control was measured using both father's and mother's reports of effortful control and with an observed behavioral task (i.e., gift-in-bag task). Similarly, parenting (i.e., emotional availability and discipline) and child problem behavior (i.e., externalizing and internalizing problems) were measured by using both father's and mother's reports.
Results:
Child self-control reported by fathers and mothers, but not observed self-control, was related to fewer externalizing and (mother-reported) internalizing problems. Paternal emotional availability showed a modest association with fewer child externalizing problems, maternal emotional availability was related to fewer internalizing problems. Finally, there was an interaction between father- (but not mother) reported self-control and paternal emotional availability in the prediction of child internalizing problems. No main or interaction effect was revealed for discipline.
Conclusion:
Findings confirm prior work on self-control, parenting, and child problem behavior. Most importantly however, the current study adds to the literature by highlighting the need for additional research including maternal as well as paternal data. Specifically, insight in the unique role of fathers may shed light on aspects of child adjustment not covered by mother reports alone.
... It is a key construct within the broad constellation of self-regulation, linking attention and emotion, and it includes attentional and inhibitory control (along with a few other facets) in children and adults alike (Eisenberg et al., 2005(Eisenberg et al., , 2011Putnam & Rothbart, 2006). EC is associated with a variety of adaptive developmental skills, including emotion regulation (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Hughes et al., 1998Hughes et al., , 2000Silk et al., 2003), social competence Fabes et al., 1999;Spinrad et al., 2006Spinrad et al., , 2007, sympathy/empathy Valiente et al., 2004), and lower levels of internalizing and externalizing disorders (Eisenberg et al., 2001(Eisenberg et al., , 2009. Very similar associations are seen with EC among adults, including sensitive caregiving behaviors that support the healthy development of children's EC and other aspects of regulation (Bridgett et al., 2011;Bridgett et al., 2015;Cumberland-Li et al., 2003;Gartstein et al., 2013). ...
Objective
We examined whether mothers' and child's regulatory capacity, measured by effortful control (EC) and its facets, is associated with variance in mother–child within‐dyad similarity in multiple aspects of positive emotions and behaviors during their interaction.
Background
Both parents' and children's self‐regulation capacities may help them to modulate their behaviors and emotions to be mutually responsive to and harmonious with their interaction partner.
Methods
Participants were children of 3‐ to‐7‐year‐olds and their mothers ( n = 147). Mothers completed a set of questionnaires regarding themselves, their child, and demographics, and mother–child interactions were observed during three cooperative tasks. We estimated mother–child within‐dyad similarity during their brief interaction using the Q‐correlation method.
Results
Mothers' general EC was statistically associated with greater mother–child similarity, but children's EC was not. When testing the subscales of EC, greater mother–child similarity was associated with mother's higher attentional control, child's better attention focusing, child's lower levels of low intensity pleasure, and older child age.
Conclusion
Mother's higher attentional control and child's better attention focusing are associated with greater mother and child within‐dyad similarity during their interactions.
Implications
This study highlights the importance of considering child and mother self‐regulation for intervention efforts to better understand how dyads match and co‐modulate their behaviors and emotions during their interactions.
... In addition, Saini et al., (2015) found that marital dissatisfaction in couples with ASD children was higher among females than males, as they had a greater caregiver burden (Higgins et al., 2005). While it has already been established that when TD children are regularly subjected to parental conflict, it increases the levels of child externalizing behaviours (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003), there is a scarcity in the research investigating the impact of parental conflict on the behaviours of children with ASD. ...
The present study examined the associations between parental conflict and externalising behaviours, specifically in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In addition, parenting styles is explored to moderate the relationship between parental conflict and externalising behaviours in these children with ASD. Participants comprised of 106 parents of Singaporean children with ASD. Parents were required to complete assessments of autism severity, externalising behaviours, parenting style and interparental conflict. The results from the regression analyses and ANOVA reveal that parenting styles can reduce externalising behaviours in children with ASD, in the context of parental conflict. The findings from the study have implications in designing targeted interventions and parent training programmes to equip parents with appropriate skills to nurture their child, thereby reducing the detrimental outcomes of parental conflict.
... Existing research further bolsters this theory when heightening the role that unpredictable parenting behaviours can have on the child's levels of anxiety (Aycicegi et al. 2002;Peleg-Popko 2002;Smith, 2004). Its is worth noting at this point that effortful control processes which are linked to ABs (see Chapter 2) facilitate the development of self-control of emotions (Fox & Calkins 2003) and serve as a protective factor lowering the levels of child conduct difficulties (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). ...
p>The thesis investigates cognitive and family factors linked to childhood anxiety in a non-referred population taking a developmental approach. It examines whether children with symptoms of anxiety exhibit a threat-related cognitive bias. Attentional and interpretive biases are specifically looked at. It also examines maternal variables that would be influential to the child’s levels of anxiety. Maternal parenting behaviours, maternal mental health and maternal beliefs and attitudes towards the child are specifically looked at. Cognitive and maternal factors are integrated in the explanation of childhood anxiety. Whether links between maternal factors and childhood anxiety are mediated by the development of biased cognitive styles is explored.
A total of 129 children aged 7-14 years and their mothers participated in the study. Children are assessed on cognitive tasks tapping into attentional and interpretive biases. Their levels of anxiety are assessed with questionnaire reports completed by themselves and their mothers. Maternal parenting behaviours and maternal mental health variables are assessed with questionnaire reports completed by the mothers. Maternal beliefs and attitudes towards the child are assessed with the Expressed Emotion index following five minute interviews.
The results show that children with symptoms of anxiety exhibit a threat-related cognitive bias. In support of developmental theories of cognition and anxiety, threat-related attentional biases (Abs) emerged for children aged over 10 years. The results also single out maternal variables that are contributing to a child’s anxiety. The association between maternal parenting behaviours or maternal beliefs and attitudes and a child’s anxiety however is shown to not be consistent. In contrast maternal depression is found to be consistently associated with a child’s symptoms of separation anxiety independent of the age of the child. Support for a cognitive mediated pathway in which threat-related ABs are partially mediating a link between maternal overprotection and a child’s separation anxiety is found. These findings add to developmental models of childhood anxiety.</p
... However, Rathert et al. (2011) found that psychological control was positively related to proactive aggression among primary school students who had a high level of effortful control. Still, Gartstein and Fagot (2003) failed to find support for the moderating effect of effortful control in the association of parental coercion and preschool children's externalizing behaviors. ...
Research Findings: This study examined whether physical coercion and psychological control by mothers and fathers can influence preschoolers’ use of physical and relational aggression, and whether the relations are moderated by children’s effortful control in a Hong Kong Chinese sample. Data were collected from a sample of 168 children (88 girls; M = 60.97 months, SD = 5.51 months) and their parents twice, six months apart. At Time 1, mothers and fathers reported on their spouse’s, as well as their own use of physical coercion and psychological control, and a puzzle box task was administered to assess child effortful control. At Time 2, mothers, fathers, and teachers completed questionnaires to assess child physical and relational aggression. Results show that mothers’ physical coercion was associated with child physical and relational aggression. In contrast, fathers’ physical coercion was significantly related to child physical aggression but its relation with child relational aggression was not statistically significant, and both these two associations were moderated by effortful control. Practice or Policy: These results suggest that general intervention efforts are needed to prevent aggression among children of physically coercive parents, and particularly among children with low effortful control and physically coercive fathers.
... Moreover, cross-sectional research has consistently established the link between MDS and child behavioral adjustment (e.g., Dawson et al., 2003;Gartstein and Fagot, 2003;Koblinsky et al., 2006;Goodman et al., 2011). Only a small number of studies have investigated this relationship longitudinally (Cents et al., 2013;Giallo et al., 2015;Park et al., 2018;Pietikäinen et al., 2020). ...
This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal associations between children’s sleep duration (SD) and problems (SPs), behavioral adjustment [externalizing behaviors (EB) and internalizing behaviors (IB)], and maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) in preschoolers over a period of 3 years (4–6 years of age). For this purpose, latent growth modeling (LGM) was conducted using 2012(W5) to 2014(W7) data from the National Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), while controlling for family contextual factors (i.e., responsive parenting, developmental stimulations, and marital conflict) and child temperament (children’s negative emotionality). First, children who slept longer at four were concurrently associated with lower levels of EB, while more SPs were associated with higher levels of EB and IB, concurrently. Second, greater decreases in SPs were associated with greater decline in EB and IB. Higher levels of MDS at four were associated with higher levels of child EB, IB, and SPs, concurrently. However, no longitudinal associations were found between the rates of change in MDS and children’s sleep and adjustment (EB and IB). Finally, the magnitude of the associations among the variables was greater overall in the SPs models than in the SD models. These findings suggest that addressing sleep problems, rather than sleep duration, seem to be more important in predicting and preventing young children’s adjustment problems and also that more attention should be paid to MDS during preschool years as much as during the postpartum period for better child adjustment outcomes.
... While Indredavik et al. [43] reported no sex differences in behavioral problems in adolescents born preterm, other studies report that boys born preterm have a higher susceptibility to externalizing problems than girls [42]. The lack of observed sex differences in externalizing problems may be due to sample size or other distinctive characteristics of this sample, such as high SES [44,45]. ...
Accumulating evidence suggests that the role of cerebellum includes regulation of behaviors; cerebellar impairment may lead to behavioral problems. Behavioral problems differ by sex: internalizing problems are more common in girls, externalizing problems in boys. Behavioral problems are also elevated in children born preterm (PT) compared to children born full term (FT). The current study examined internalizing and externalizing problems in 8-year-old children in relation to sex, birth-group, fractional anisotropy (FA) of the three cerebellar peduncles (superior, middle, and inferior), and interactions among these predictor variables. Participants (N = 78) were 44 boys (28 PT) and 34 girls (15 PT). We assessed behavioral problems via standardized parent reports and FA of the cerebellar peduncles using deterministic tractography. Internalizing problems were higher in children born PT compared to children born FT (p = .032); the interaction of sex and birth-group was significant (p = .044). When considering the contribution of the mean-tract FA of cerebellar peduncles to behavioral problems, there was a significant interaction of sex and mean-tract FA of the inferior cerebellar peduncle (ICP) with internalizing problems; the slope was negative in girls (p = .020) but not in boys. In boys, internalizing problems were only associated with mean-tract FA ICP in those born preterm (p = .010). We found no other significant associations contributing to internalizing or externalizing problems. Thus, we found sexual dimorphism and birth-group differences in the association of white matter metrics of the ICP and internalizing problems in school-aged children. The findings inform theories of the origins of internalizing behavioral problems in middle childhood and may suggest approaches to treatment at school age.
... Again, to our knowledge, no prior studies have examined the interaction between maternal depression and child effortful control on language development. However, effortful control has been conceptualized as a protective factor for exposure to high levels of adversity within the family (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). ...
The current study examined the interaction between maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament in predicting subsequent child language skills. Participants were 252 mother-child dyads recruited from the All Our Families longitudinal cohort, a primarily middle-class sample (62.9% completed postsecondary education) from Alberta, Canada (90.5% White, 6% Asian, 3.5% other). Maternal depressive symptoms at age 3, controlling for prenatal depressive symptoms, did not evidence a direct effect on child language skills at age 5 (49.6% males; mean [M] = 5.12 years old, standard deviation [SD] = .11). However, both child surgency and effortful control interacted with maternal depression at age 3 to predict later language skills. Low effortful control was a risk factor for poorer language abilities in contexts of high maternal depressive symptoms. High child surgency emerged as a differential susceptibility marker, predicting poorer language skills in contexts of high maternal depressive symptoms but better language skills in contexts of low depressive symptoms. Negative affect did not interact with maternal depressive symptoms in predicting language skills. These findings highlight the complex interaction between maternal and child characteristics in predicting language development during a developmental period in which language skills are a prime indicator of school readiness and a predictor of future academic achievement and socioemotional adjustment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... A metanalysis of the connection between parental depression and child negativity found that parental prenatal and postnatal depression were positively linked with child negative affect, although prenatal connections were stronger for mothers than fathers (Spry et al., 2020). In studies assessing more specific behavioral and emotional attributes, Hoffman and colleagues (2006) found that higher maternal depressive symptoms at age three predicted lower child emotion regulation abilities at age four, while Gartstein and Fagot (2003) described negative associations between maternal depressive symptoms and young children's effortful control. Manian and Bornstein (2009), using a still-face paradigm, demonstrated that infants of clinically depressed mothers used more internally directed self-soothing strategies whereas infants of nondepressed mothers used more attention regulation strategies to reduce negativity. ...
Although childhood depressive disorders are relatively rare, the experience of depression in children's lives is not. Developmental contextual perspectives denote the importance of considering both depressive disorder and the experience of subclinical depressive symptoms in the child and the family to fully understand the implications of depressive experience for children's developmental well-being. This Element draws on basic emotion development and developmental psychopathology perspectives to address the nature of depressive experience in childhood, both symptoms and disorder, focusing on seminal and recent research that details critical issues regarding its phenomenology, epidemiology, continuity, etiology, consequences, and interventions to ameliorate the developmental challenges inherent in the experience. These issues are addressed within the context of the child's own experience and from the perspective of parent depression as a critical context that influences children's developmental well-being. Conclusions include suggestions for new directions in research on children's lives that focus on more systemic processes.
... While Indredavik et al. [43] reported no sex differences in behavioral problems in adolescents born preterm, other studies report that boys born preterm have a higher susceptibility to externalizing problems than girls [42]. The lack of observed sex differences in externalizing problems may be due to sample size or other distinctive characteristics of this sample, such as high SES [44,45]. ...
Accumulating evidence suggests that the role of cerebellum includes regulation of behaviors; Cerebellar impairment may lead to behavioral problems. Behavioral problems differ by sex: internalizing problems are more common in girls, externalizing problems in boys. Behavioral problems are also elevated in children born preterm (PT) compared to children born full-term (FT). The current study examined internalizing and externalizing problems in 8-year-old children in relation to sex, birth-group, FA of the cerebellar peduncles, and interactions among these predictor variables. Participants (N=78) were 44 boys (28 PT) and 34 girls (15 PT). We assessed behavioral problems via standardized parent-reports and FA of the cerebellar peduncles using deterministic tractography. Internalizing problems were higher in children born PT compared to children born FT (p=.032); the interaction of sex and birth-group was significant (p=.044). When considering the contribution of the mean-tract FA of cerebellar peduncles to behavioral problems, there was a significant interaction of sex and mean-tract FA of the ICP with internalizing problems; the slope was negative in girls (p=.020) but not boys. In boys, internalizing problems were only associated with mean-tract FA ICP in those born preterm (p=.010). We found no other significant associations contributing to internalizing or externalizing problems. Thus, we found sexual dimorphism and birth-group differences in the association of white matter metrics of the ICP and internalizing problems in school-aged children. The findings inform theories of the origins of internalizing behavioral problems in middle childhood and may suggest approaches to treatment at school age.
... Psychopathology closely follows exposure to chronic stress (Kessler et al., 2010). Our findings pointing to negative relations between FCF and symptoms of mania and externalizing problems support previous work that impairment in processes underlying irritability, changes in mood, and aggressive and rule-breaking behavior, such as effortful control, self-regulation, and impulse control relate to impairments in FCF (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Horn, Roessner, & Holtmann, 2011;Mezzacappa, Kindlon, & Earls, 1999). The negative relation between FCF and exaggerated motivation to inflexibly pursue one's goals is also in line with this research. ...
This study used a machine learning framework in conjunction with a large battery of measures from 9,718 school‐age children (ages 9–11) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study to identify factors associated with fluid cognitive functioning (FCF), or the capacity to learn, solve problems, and adapt to novel situations. The identified algorithm explained 14.74% of the variance in FCF, replicating previously reported socioeconomic and mental health contributors to FCF, and adding novel and potentially modifiable contributors, including extracurricular involvement, screen media activity, and sleep duration. Pragmatic interventions targeting these contributors may enhance cognitive performance and protect against their negative impact on FCF in children.
... Further, parents who report greater conflict in their marriages engage in more negative parenting practices with their infants (e.g., Owen & Cox, 1997) and toddlers (as shown in the current sample; e.g., Stover et al., 2012). Finally, children exposed to parent internalizing symptoms are more likely to experience poorer parenting practices (Goodman, 2007;Goodman et al., 2011;Lovejoy, Graczyk, O'Hare, & Neuman, 2000;Natsuaki et al., 2014;Wilson & Durbin, 2010), dysregulated parent-child interactions (Roben et al., 2015), and difficulties with emotion regulation (Feng et al., 2008), contributing to problems with their own psychological functioning (Bagner, Pettit, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Jaccard, 2013;Goodman et al., 2011) and the development of externalizing problems (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Goodman & Gotlib, 1999;Luoma et al., 2001). However, it should be noted that parental influences on child outcomes found in previous studies using biologically related families cannot be fully attributed to the environmental influences of rearing because, in biologically related families, the associations between parenting behaviors and child outcomes could be explained by shared heritable influences between parents and children, prenatal and postnatal environmental influences, or passive rGE influences (Ge et al., 1996; Evidence for a general genetic liability for psychopathology Caspi et al. (2014) and Lahey et al. (2012) proposed a method of estimating an indicator of a general genetic risk for psychopathology that takes into account genetic influences common to a broad range of mental disorders. ...
Differential susceptibility theory (DST) posits that individuals differ in their developmental plasticity: some children are highly responsive to both environmental adversity and support, while others are less affected. According to this theory, “plasticity” genes that confer risk for psychopathology in adverse environments may promote superior functioning in supportive environments. We tested DST using a broad measure of child genetic liability (based on birth parent psychopathology), adoptive home environmental variables (e.g., marital warmth, parenting stress, and internalizing symptoms), and measures of child externalizing problems ( n = 337) and social competence ( n = 330) in 54-month-old adopted children from the Early Growth and Development Study. This adoption design is useful for examining DST because children are placed at birth or shortly thereafter with nongenetically related adoptive parents, naturally disentangling heritable and postnatal environmental effects. We conducted a series of multivariable regression analyses that included Gene × Environment interaction terms and found little evidence of DST; rather, interactions varied depending on the environmental factor of interest, in both significance and shape. Our mixed findings suggest further investigation of DST is warranted before tailoring screening and intervention recommendations to children based on their genetic liability or “sensitivity.”
... Psychopathology closely follows exposure to chronic stress (Kessler et al., 2010). Our findings pointing to negative relations between FCF and symptoms of mania and externalizing problems support previous work that impairment in processes underlying irritability, changes in mood, and aggressive and rule-breaking behavior, such as effortful control, self-regulation, and impulse control relate to impairments in FCF (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Horn, Roessner, & Holtmann, 2011;Mezzacappa, Kindlon, & Earls, 1999). The negative relation between FCF and exaggerated motivation to inflexibly pursue one's goals is also in line with this research. ...
PurposeFluid cognitive functioning (FCF), or the capacity to learn, solve problems, and adapt to novel situations, is instrumental for academic success, psychological well-being, and adoption of healthy behaviors. Our knowledge concerning factors associated with FCF, including those that may be targeted with interventions to improve outcomes, remains limited. Methods
We used a machine learning (ML) framework in conjunction with a large battery of measures from 9,718 youth from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study to identify factors associated with the observed variability in FCF performance. Youth age-corrected composite FCF score was derived from the National Institutes for Health Toolbox Neurocognitive Battery. A ML pipeline using a stack ensemble of multiple ML algorithms and nested cross-validation to avoid overfitting was conducted to examine factors associated with FCF. Results The identified ML algorithm explained 14.74% of variance (95%CI: 14.53-14.88%) in FCF. Among the most important factors were those that replicated previous research (e.g., socioeconomic factors), as well as novel, potentially modifiable factors, including extracurricular involvement, screen media activity, and sleepConclusions
Pragmatic and scalable interventions targeting these behaviors may not only enhance cognitive performance but may also protect against the negative impact of socioeconomic and mental health factors on cognitive performance in at-risk youth. The longitudinal data from ABCD will be able to begin to assess causality by examining how changes in these factors affect subsequent cognitive performance.
... Further analyses indicated that greater attrition was seen among families with mothers born outside of Canada, whereas non-response (e.g., missing data on childcare quality) was more likely among single-child families as well as those using more coercive parenting strategies. Given that coercive parenting strategies have been shown to be associated with child behavior difficulties [72], our sample might be less at risk for this factor. However, our main exposure variable of PMD did not predict attrition or non-response. ...
Recent studies have shown that the association between maternal depression and child outcome can be moderated by children's experience of childcare (e.g., daycare) during early childhood (0–5 years). We also know that maternal depression in the child's early years has long-term associations with child development. However, the moderating role of childcare quality on long-term associations between maternal depression and child outcome has not been thoroughly investigated. This article examined longitudinal associations between probable maternal depression (PMD) during early childhood (0–5 years) and childcare quality on children’s emotional and behavioral development at the age of 7–8 years (N = 207). Childcare quality was evaluated through observations within the settings. PMD during early childhood was assessed using complementary information from interviews conducted with the mother and current maternal symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Internalizing and externalizing behaviors were reported by the mother, father and the child at age 7–8 years. Results indicate that when mothers reported clinically relevant depression in early childhood, 7-8-year-old children demonstrate fewer behavioral problems if they attended a higher quality childcare setting. The moderating role of childcare quality remained after considering current maternal depression symptoms. Therefore, it is important to ensure high-quality childcare during early childhood to optimize child development.
... k = 19) parenting behaviors. On the other hand, a few studies have found that paternal depression is not significantly associated with negative parenting (e.g., Gartstein and Fagot 2003;Reeb et al. 2014;Sethna et al. 2015). Additionally, some research has demonstrated that paternal depression is positively associated with positive parenting behaviors (e.g., Middleton et al. 2009;Sethna et al. 2015), and negatively associated with negative parenting behaviors (e.g., McElwain and Volling 1999;Onatsu-Arvilommi et al. 1998). ...
Objectives
The primary objective of the current study was to provide a summary of the strength of the relationship between paternal depressive symptoms and parenting behaviors. The secondary objective of this study was to examine whether specific factors moderate the magnitude of this relationship.
Methods
A series of meta-analyses were conducted to examine the strength of the association between paternal depressive symptoms and parenting behaviors. Several moderator analyses were also conducted to examine whether specific factors influenced the strength of the relationship. Moderators analyzed included: mean paternal age, mean child age, paternal relationship status, informant of parenting behaviors, and bibliographic factors.
Results
The current study found a small relationship between paternal depressive symptoms and both positive (r= –.16; 95% CI [–.20, –.13]; k= 35; p < .001) and negative (r= .17; 95% CI [.13, .21]; k= 28; p < .001) parenting behaviors. The relationship between paternal depressive symptoms and overall parenting behaviors was significantly moderated by the informant of the parenting behavior, where father-reports of parenting behaviors (vs. child-reports, mother-reports, or observation) were associated with larger effect sizes.
Conclusions
The results of this study suggest that practitioners should be mindful of the relationship between paternal depressive symptoms and parenting behaviors when working with families. Suggestions for future research and treatment implications are provided.
... Higher levels of EC may enable children to inhibit their negative emotional responses and enact appropriate emotions or behaviors in negative emotional contexts by using other effective strategies. In addition, children with high EC could regulate emotional reactivity through modulating attention (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Shifting attention from negative aspects of situation could decrease negative emotional arousal and focusing attention on the positive aspects of the situation also could lead to low levels of negative emotion. ...
The goal of this study was to simultaneously examine the independent and interactive effects of paternal and maternal corporal punishment, and child temperament on child emotion regulation over time in China. These links were assessed on a longitudinal study of 619 father–mother dyads and their children in primary schools (data collected in 2011 and 2014). Results showed an additive model where both parental corporal punishment and child temperament independently predicted child emotion regulation 3 years later. In addition, the effects of parental corporal punishment exhibited gender differences, with paternal corporal punishment predicting girls’ emotion regulation and both paternal and maternal corporal punishment predicting boys’ emotion regulation 3 years later. Moreover, the interactive effects of paternal and maternal corporal punishment and temperament on child emotion regulation were not found in the present study. These findings point to the importance of examining multiple factors within the family system to further understand the developmental process of child emotion regulation, particularly within the Chinese cultural context.
... Selanjutnya, penyesuaian keluarga memiliki pengaruh tidak langsung terhadap agresivitas anak melalui pengasuhan. Hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian sebelumnya (Schoppe, Mangelsdorf, & Frosch, 2001;Gartstein & Fagot 2003;Anthony et al., 2005) yang menyetakan bahwa penyesuaian keluarga yang baik dapat menurunkan agresivitas melalui pengasuhan. Permasalahan emosi yang dialami oleh pengasuh (rasa sedih, tertekan, marah) akan mendorong tindakan negatif saat melakukan proses pengasuhan. ...
Inappropriate parenting can trigger emotional problems that lead to negative behavior, one of that is aggressiveness. This study aimed to analyze the effect of family adjustment, parenting, and violence in parenting on aggressiveness in among elementary school-age children. This study used a cross-sectional study design. Samples of the research were 99 families who had elementary school children and mother involved as child respondents. The study was conducted in West Bogor Subdistrict, Bogor City. The participants were choose by random cluster sampling in two selected public schools. The analysis used descriptive statistics, independent sample t-test and path analysis (path analysis). The results found that family adjustment (72,29) and parenting (63,86) had not been done optimally yet. Parenting violence was also still found in the study (14,22). Aggressiveness has begun to appear in elementary school-age children (26,44). The study found no differences in family adjustment, parenting, violence in parenting and aggressiveness in boys and girls. Meanwhile, based on variable dimensions, there are differences in cooperation in parenting, neglect parenting, and physical aggressiveness between boys and girls. The results of the analysis show that gender influenced the aggressiveness. The family adjustment had an indirect effect on aggressiveness, through parenting. Parenting has a direct negative effect on aggressiveness. Conversely, negative parenting had a direct positive effect on aggressiveness.
... This scale was used due to its previous associations with negative emotionality (e.g., Crawford et al. 2011;Shaw et al. 1997). Good short-term test-retest reliability (0.93 for total problems) has been reported for this measure (Achenbach 1991), and previous research has shown high internal consistency reliability (0.90; e.g., Gartstein and Fagot 2003). Note that at Time 1, two different versions of the CBCL were used based on the age group of the child, i.e., under or over 4 years old. ...
Parents and children with high negative emotionality may be more likely to provide and receive non-supportive contingencies, respectively. However, no study has examined child and parent negative emotionality in the same study and explored whether the link between child and parent negative emotionality may exist in part because of parental emotion socialization. The present study was designed to explore the link between the negative emotionality of mothers and their adolescent children and the potential mechanisms for this similarity. Maternal emotion socialization was explored as a mediator between maternal and adolescent negative emotionality, and between maternal negative emotionality and adolescent internalizing symptoms. Participants were mothers (M age = 30.47) with their children at two time points: preschool (Time 1; M age = 4.55 years old) and adolescence (Time 2; M = 13.73), with 81 boys and 94 girls. Negative emotionality was measured using a questionnaire, with mothers reporting for herself and her child. Maternal emotion socialization was measured by mothers’ self-report of their contingencies to their adolescent child’s negative emotions: 1) Punish; 2) magnify; 3) ignore; 4) override; and 5) support. The results revealed that the maternal punishing of the adolescent’s negative emotions was a mediator between concurrent mother negative emotionality and adolescent negative emotionality, such that higher mother negative emotionality was associated with more punishing, and more punishing was associated with higher adolescent negative emotionality, controlling for previous levels of maternal and child negative emotionality. Furthermore, being supportive of a child’s negative emotions was negatively associated with concurrent levels of adolescent internalizing symptoms, while magnifying a child’s emotions held a marginal positive association, controlling for previous levels of internalizing symptoms. The results highlight the importance of considering maternal emotion socialization strategies, even into adolescence, for a more comprehensive understanding of children’s emotional well-being. The findings have implications for developing and implementing emotion-based parenting interventions.
... The explanation might be found in the fact that attention problems and aggressive behaviors are predicted by partly different underlying capacities. For instance, aggressive behaviors appear to be predicted by self-regulatory skills and internalisation of social values and norms (e.g., Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Zhou et al., 2007). Since children begin to be capable of self-regulation at 36 months only (Kopp, 1982), aggression may keep increasing until that moment. ...
This chapter describes the results of a 4-wave longitudinal study in which the investigation of the associations between parenting and toddlers' externalizing behaviors was guided by three relatively understudied issues: (') The interactive effects of parenting and child temperament on externalizing behaviors; (2) The longitudinal relations between parenting and externalizing behaviors and (3) Differences in the contributions of maternal and paternal parenting to externalizing behaviors. Participants included in the studies were 117 boys (mean age 17 months at the time of first assessment) and their parents. A multi method (questionnaires and observations) and multi informant (mother and father) approach was used. Interactive effects between parenting and child temperament indicated that poor parenting was particularly negative for children with certain vulnerable temperamental traits. Longitudinal data provided evidence that changes in parenting were accompanied by changes in externalizing behaviors and vice versa. For very young children maternal parenting was stronger associated with externalizing behaviors than paternal parenting. During toddlerhood the influence of disciplining techniques of fathers seemed to become more similar to that of mothers. However, also for older toddlers mothers' warmth more strongly predicted children's externalizing behaviors than fathers' warmth. The implications of these findings as well as future directions for research are discussed.
... Family stress model research also has highlighted the negative impact of parental psychopathology, particularly maternal depression, on couple adjustment, parenting, and children's adjustment (e.g., Downey & Coyne, 1990;Gartstein & Fagot, 2003). A recent review focused on parental absence as a family stressor in the context of migration, parental incarceration, and military deployment (Rodriguez & Margolin, 2015). ...
Although multiple evidence‐based family interventions exist, less than a handful have been developed or rigorously tested specifically for military families. Indeed, few interventions available to military families are theory based or empirically validated; most have good face validity but little data on efficacy or effectiveness. This article argues for an emphasis on the rigorous evaluation, via pragmatic randomized controlled trials, of theory‐based family interventions to strengthen and support military families. Data are provided from a theory‐based, empirically validated parenting program for families (After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools, or ADAPT) to demonstrate the potential for randomized controlled trials to yield rich data about family functioning beyond program outcomes. Opportunities to generate theoretically informed, evidence‐based family interventions for military families will contribute not only to testing theories about military families but also to advancing well‐being for the next generation of service members and their families.
... Caregivers of children with ASD are more likely to experience higher depressive symptoms (Bennett et al. 2012;Daniels et al. 2008;Estes et al. 2009), and increased depressive symptoms may influence parental identification, report and interpretation of child behaviors as "problematic" (Bennett et al. 2012;Ordway 2011). Gartstein and Fagot (2003) found that maternally reported depressive symptoms explained the greatest variance in mothers' ratings of their 5-year old 1 3 children's externalizing behaviours, more than the children's gender or the family's socioeconomic index. ...
Current research on children’s autistic traits in the general population relies predominantly on caregiver-report, yet the extent to which individual, caregiver or demographic characteristics are associated with informants’ ratings has not been sufficiently explored. In this study, caregivers of 396 Singaporean two-year-olds from a birth cohort study completed the Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. Children’s gender, cognitive functioning and birth order, maternal age, and ethnic group membership were not significant predictors of caregiver-reported autistic traits. Poorer child language development and higher maternal depressive symptoms significantly predicted more social-communicative autistic traits, while lower maternal education predicted more behavioural autistic traits. Children’s language and informants’ educational level and depressive symptomatology may need to be considered in caregiver-reports of autistic traits.
... A growing body of research indicates that the risk for externalizing problems (conduct difficulties, hyperactivity, and impulsivity; Campbell, 1995;Kovacs & Devlin, 1998) is greatest for highly reactive children with pronounced negative emotionality and/or surgency, coupled with deficits in attention and regulatory functioning Gartstein & Fagot, 2003;Martel, Gremillion, & Roberts, 2012;Muris & Ollendick, 2005). Internalizing difficulties that involve personal distress and are affective in nature (e.g., depression/ anxiety) can occur as a function of high negative emotionality and low surgency (Fowles, 1994;Lonigan et al., 2003;Murray & Kochanska, 2002), with nontemperament pathways also relevant for depressive symptoms (Hammen, 2005). ...
This review summarizes current knowledge and outlines future directions relevant to questions concerning environmental epigenetics and the processes that contribute to temperament development. Links between prenatal adversity, epigenetic programming, and early manifestations of temperament are important in their own right, also informing our understanding of biological foundations for social–emotional development. In addition, infant temperament attributes represent key etiological factors in the onset of developmental psychopathology, and studies elucidating their prenatal foundations expand our understanding of developmental origins of health and disease. Prenatal adversity can take many forms, and this overview is focused on the environmental effects of stress, toxicants, substance use/psychotropic medication, and nutrition. Dysregulation associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity–disruptive disorders was noted in the context of maternal substance use and toxicant exposures during gestation, as well as stress. Although these links can be made based on the existing literature, currently few studies directly connect environmental influences, epigenetic programming, and changes in brain development/behavior. The chain of events starting with environmental inputs and resulting in alterations to gene expression, physiology, and behavior of the organism is driven by epigenetics. Epigenetics provides the molecular mechanism of how environmental factors impact development and subsequent health and disease, including early brain and temperament development.
... In addition, we used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) in Mplus to thoroughly evaluate the theoretical model of associations between the constructs measured by PAFAS and CAPES as illustrated in Fig. 1. Research has shown that family adjustment, such as parenting stress, marital conflict, and parental teamwork, influence child adjustment directly or indirectly through parenting (Anthony et al. 2005;Gartstein and Fagot 2003;Schoppe Mangelsdorf and Frosch 2001). Similarly, parental self-efficacy has been found to affect child adjustment either directly or indirectly via parenting practices (Jones and Prinz 2005;Sanders and Woolley 2005). ...
Understanding parenting risk and protective factors can help clinicians and researchers to develop effective family interventions. To have knowledge of these risk and protective factors, validated assessment tools are required. Validation studies for parenting measures with Indonesian parents are lacking, despite the need for access to parenting interventions among Indonesian families. This study aimed to validate the Parenting and Family Adjustment Scales (PAFAS), a brief parenting and family adjustment measure developed in Australia that has been validated with Panamanian and Chinese parents. A sample of 210 Indonesian parents with children aged 2–12 years old completed the Indonesian version of the PAFAS and Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale (CAPES). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) were used for analyses. CFA resulted a four-factor PAFAS Parenting scale (15 items) and three-factor PAFAS Family adjustment scale (8 items). SEM analyses with PAFAS and CAPES revealed a good fit of the model of relationships between parent, family and child constructs to the data. The internal consistencies of PAFAS were good or acceptable, with the exception of Parental consistency. Overall, PAFAS had satisfactory psychometric properties. It is a promising measure that can potentially be used to study parenting risk and protective factors among Indonesian families. Item improvement and further validation with more diverse samples are suggested.
Temperament is widely defined as constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, informed by biology, maturation, and experience. Temperament remains relatively stable yet develops over time. Moreover, its expression can be shaped by multiple factors, including biological processes, socialization/parenting practices, and cultural values, to name a few. Understanding these connections provides insight into adaptive and maladaptive temperament trajectories. Temperament is strongly related to personality and its development, also boding risk or protection with respect to clinical symptoms/disorders.
Temperamental risk, such as surgency, negative affect, and poor effortful control, has been posited as a predictor of externalizing symptom development. However, autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity underlying processes of reactivity and regulation may moderate associations between early temperament and later externalizing behaviors during early childhood. The aim of the present study was to examine how interactions between resting sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) activity at age 5 may moderate associations between temperamental risk at age 3 and externalizing behavior at age 6 (n = 87). Results demonstrate different interactions between resting ANS activity and temperamental risk to predict externalizing behaviors. For children with lower SNS activation at rest, surgency was positively associated with externalizing behaviors. Negative affect was positively associated with externalizing behaviors except when there were either high levels of SNS and PNS activity or low levels of SNS and PNS activity. Effortful control was not associated with externalizing behaviors, though SNS and PNS activity interacted to predict externalizing behaviors after accounting for effortful control. Taken together, the results highlight the importance to examine multisystem resting physiological activity as a moderator of associations between temperamental risk and the development of externalizing behaviors.
In this study, it was aimed to develop a reliable and valid measurement tool to determine the temperament characteristics of preschool children (3-6 years old). For this reason, data were collected from parents with preschool children. In order to reveal the structure of the scale, a total of 433 people (267 females and 166 males) were reached. At the end of the exploratory factor analysis, it was seen that the scale is a measurement tool consisting of a total of 25 items with three sub-dimensions: impulsivity, shyness and positivity. In order to determine whether the scale structure was confirmed, data were collected from a total of 471, 294 females and 177 males. According to the confirmatory factor analysis, the values were found to be in good fit. For the validity study of the scale, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and criterion validity were performed. Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficient and test-retest method were used for the reliability study of the scale. The internal consistency coefficient was found to be α= 0.81 for the impulsivity sub-dimension, α= 0.79 for the positivity sub-dimension, and α= 0.70 for the shyness sub-dimension. Test-retest reliability scores were 0.81 for impulsivity, 0.84 for positivity, and 0.72 for shyness. As a result, a reliable and valid measurement tool was obtained to determine the temperament characteristics of preschool children
This chapter provides an overview of research on the effects of wartime deployment on children and families, highlighting results from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and prevention/intervention studies. A growing body of literature has shown how parental absence due to deployment and the reintegration process might affect children’s adjustment via detrimental impacts to parenting practices of both mothers and fathers. We present an overview of the After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) studies, which examined a mindfulness-informed parenting program for military families with school-aged children. ADAPT is the first evidence-based parenting intervention for military families with school-aged children tested via randomized trials. The program is described, and implementation and outcome data are reported from three randomized prevention trials of the ADAPT intervention with reserve component and active-duty families in communities and installations around the USA. The intervention strengthened parenting, child adjustment, and parental mental health for families over 1–2 years, and improved additional outcomes for subpopulations. Results will inform refinement of existing prevention programs as well as development of new programs to strengthen military families. There is an urgent need for research on the impact of the deployment of mothers on the psychological consequences for their children.
One of the biggest determinants of preschool children's behavior is the behaviors
of parents. All verbal and non-verbal behaviors of parents towards their children are
defined as parental behaviors. The purpose of this study is to test a hypothetical model
developed based on the literature to determine parenting behaviors that affect children's
development.
Parenting Behavior Scale and Child Temperament Scale were developed within
the scope of the study. The study group of the research consists of 448 parents who have
children in kindergartens affiliated to Ministry of National Education (MNE) in various
districts of Ankara in the 2019-2020 Academic Year. Temperament Scale in Children,
Adjective Based Personality Test, Marital Life Scale, The Parenting Sense of
Competence (PSOC) Scale, Parenting Stress Tool and Parenting Behavior Scale were
used to collect data in the study. The research was carried out with the correlational
model. MANOVA and Structural Equation Modeling were used for data analysis. In the
analysis of demographic variables, it was observed that parenting behaviors differ
according to gender and employment status, but no significant difference was observed
according to age.
In the model in which the predicted variable is negative parenting behavior and
parental stress is mediator variable, parental stress, marital satisfaction and personality
traits were negatively correlated, while parental stress and temperament traits were
positively correlated. Parental stress also showed a positive relationship with negative
parenting. In the model in which the predicted variable is negative parental behavior and the mediator variable is parental self-efficacy, parental self-efficacy, marital satisfaction
and personality traits were positively correlated, while parental self-efficacy and
temperament traits were negatively correlated. Parental self-efficacy also showed a
negative correlation with negative parenting.
In the model in which the predicted variable is positive parenting behavior and the
mediator variable is parental stress, parental stress, marital satisfaction and personality
traits were negatively correlated while parental stress and temperament traits were
positively correlated. Parental stress also showed a negative relationship with negative
parenting. In the model in which the predicted variable is positive parenting behavior and
the mediator variable is parental self-efficacy, parental self-efficacy, marital satisfaction
and personality traits were positively correlated while parental self-efficacy and
temperament traits were negatively correlated. Parental self-efficacy also showed a
positive relationship with positive parenting.
One of the biggest determinants of preschool children's behavior is the behaviors
of parents. All verbal and non-verbal behaviors of parents towards their children are
defined as parental behaviors. The purpose of this study is to test a hypothetical model
developed based on the literature to determine parenting behaviors that affect children's
development.
Parenting Behavior Scale and Child Temperament Scale were developed within
the scope of the study. The study group of the research consists of 448 parents who have
children in kindergartens affiliated to Ministry of National Education (MNE) in various
districts of Ankara in the 2019-2020 Academic Year. Temperament Scale in Children,
Adjective Based Personality Test, Marital Life Scale, The Parenting Sense of
Competence (PSOC) Scale, Parenting Stress Tool and Parenting Behavior Scale were
used to collect data in the study. The research was carried out with the correlational
model. MANOVA and Structural Equation Modeling were used for data analysis. In the
analysis of demographic variables, it was observed that parenting behaviors differ
according to gender and employment status, but no significant difference was observed
according to age.
In the model in which the predicted variable is negative parenting behavior and
parental stress is mediator variable, parental stress, marital satisfaction and personality
traits were negatively correlated, while parental stress and temperament traits were
positively correlated. Parental stress also showed a positive relationship with negative
parenting. In the model in which the predicted variable is negative parental behavior and the mediator variable is parental self-efficacy, parental self-efficacy, marital satisfaction
and personality traits were positively correlated, while parental self-efficacy and
temperament traits were negatively correlated. Parental self-efficacy also showed a
negative correlation with negative parenting.
In the model in which the predicted variable is positive parenting behavior and the
mediator variable is parental stress, parental stress, marital satisfaction and personality
traits were negatively correlated while parental stress and temperament traits were
positively correlated. Parental stress also showed a negative relationship with negative
parenting. In the model in which the predicted variable is positive parenting behavior and
the mediator variable is parental self-efficacy, parental self-efficacy, marital satisfaction
and personality traits were positively correlated while parental self-efficacy and
temperament traits were negatively correlated. Parental self-efficacy also showed a
positive relationship with positive parenting.
The chapter provides an overview of the challenges facing military families and, in particular, the impact of wartime deployment of a parent for the family. We review the literature on the impact of deployment and its sequelae (e.g., posttraumatic stress symptoms) on children, couples, parent–child relationships/parenting, and the family as a whole. Conceptual models including military family stress models, social interaction learning theory, and ecological models provide explanations for how and why deployment and related stressors disrupt family and child functioning. Approaches to working with military families are reviewed, with a focus on programs that are theoretically informed and evidence based and that target parenting, children, and the couple relationship. Future directions and implications for research and practice are discussed.
This report provides an overview of the internal scientific evidence on violence prevention. A broad definition of violence is used, which includes legally punishable as well as nonpunishable and (early) risk factors for violence. A total of 26 prevention approaches were identified in the areas of the individual, the family, the school and victim assistance - the effectiveness of which are underpinned by international research results. Each chapter gives practitioners and decision-makers an idea of the objectives, program features and performance of the approaches. The purpose of this report is to strengthen the emerging momentum towards more evidence-based violence prevention around the world and provide a preliminary compass for prevention practitioners.
The chapter provides an overview of the challenges facing military families and, in particular, the impact of wartime deployment of a parent for the family. We review the literature on the impact of deployment and its sequelae (e.g., posttraumatic stress symptoms) on children, couples, parent–child relationships/parenting, and the family as a whole. Conceptual models including military family stress models, social interaction learning theory, and ecological models provide explanations for how and why deployment and related stressors disrupt family and child functioning. Approaches to working with military families are reviewed, with a focus on programs that are theoretically informed and evidence based and that target parenting, children, and the couple relationship. Future directions and implications for research and practice are discussed.
Objective
Examine whether the relationship between ethnicity and parental discipline practices is consistent across contexts.
Background
Harsh discipline has been linked to negative child behaviors and adolescent outcomes. In examining harsh discipline, scholars have observed ethnic differences.
Methods
We use the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study‐Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS‐K) for the United States and the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) for the United Kingdom. The samples include parents of children aged 7–11 years old (ECLS‐K N = 13,008, MCS N = 11,113). Using logistic regression, we model the associations between parental ethnicity and five disciplinary strategies (spanking, yelling, sending to timeout, discussing, and withdrawing privileges).
Results
Black parents in the United States were more likely to use harsh physical discipline, whereas all ethnic minorities in the United Kingdom exhibited higher odds of using harsh physical discipline than did White parents. By contrast, Hispanic parents and parents from a general Other ethnic category were less likely to use harsh verbal discipline in the United States than White parents are, and Black and Asian parents were less likely than White parents to use harsh verbal discipline in the United Kingdom. White parents were more likely than other ethnic groups to use timeout across countries. Black and Asian parents were less likely to discuss with children in the United Kingdom; compared to White and Asian parents in the United States had lower odds of using discussion as discipline, but Hispanic parents had higher odds.
Conclusions
Ethnic minority parents are likely resorting to harsh physical parenting practices to socialize their children into conforming to social norms that may protect them from negative repercussions in society.
The present study examined the interactions of adolescents' temperamental effortful control and parental psychological control on adolescents' depressive symptoms in China. A total of 440 adolescents between the ages of 14 and 20 years (Mage = 15.7) participated in this study. Data on parental psychological control, adolescents' depressive symptoms and effortful control were collected from self‐reports. Results showed that adolescents' effortful control moderated the link between paternal psychological control and adolescents' depressive symptoms. Specifically, for adolescents with low levels of effortful control, paternal psychological control was positively associated with increased depressive symptoms whereas for adolescents with a high level of effortful control, this association was not significant. In addition, maternal psychological control was associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms. These findings confirmed and extended previous findings on the associations between parental psychological control, children's temperament effortful control, and depressive symptoms in adolescence.
In this study we explored the relation between maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and toddler adjustment in a community sample, testing direct, additive, and interactive models of parental depressive symptoms and child adjustment. Participants were 49 families with 30-month-old children. Data were collected on maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and marital quality, as well as on toddler internalizing and externalizing behavior. The data supported an additive, but not interactive, model of prediction to externalizing behavior, such that maternal and paternal symptoms each accounted for unique variance in the prediction of toddler externalizing. Models predicting toddler internalizing were not significant. Maternal reports of marital quality, but not paternal reports of marital quality, reduced the magnitude of the relation between symptoms and child externalizing when entered as a covariate. Implications for depression screening of parents are discussed.
Il presente rapporto fornisce una panoramica a livello internazionale delle conoscenze scientifiche sulla prevenzione della violenza. Viene utilizzata una definizione ampia del temine «violenza», che comprende sia le forme di violenza penalmente perseguibili sia quelle non perseguibili e i fattori di rischio precoci. Il rapporto si basa su disamine di studi internazionali sull’efficacia della prevenzione della violenza nonché su una ricerca relativa alla struttura dell’offerta esistente e alle valutazioni svolte in Svizzera. Nel complesso, sono stati individuati 26 approcci preventivi incentrati sull’individuo, sulla famiglia, sulla scuola e sull’aiuto alle vittime, la cui efficacia è suffragata dai risultati di ricerche internazionali. In ogni capitolo del rapporto gli operatori del settore e i responsabili politici possono farsi un’idea degli obiettivi, delle caratteristiche dei programmi e dell’efficacia degli approcci in questione. È inoltre fornita una panoramica sulla prassi svizzera e vengono formulate conclusioni e raccomandazioni per possibili strategie e ricerche ulteriori. Sebbene negli ultimi anni in Svizzera siano stati compiuti notevoli progressi nell’ambito della prevenzione della violenza, le conoscenze di base in materia restano comunque troppo esigue per poter fornire raccomandazioni precise per programmi efficaci a livello nazionale. La maggior parte dei programmi proposti in Svizzera non è stata valutata scientificamente in termini di efficacia. Il presente rapporto intende rafforzare ulteriormente il riorientamento in corso verso una prevenzione della violenza maggiormente basata su prove scientifiche e funge da punto di riferimento provvisorio per il lavoro preventivo.
Le présent rapport donne un aperçu des résultats de la recherche en matière de prévention de la violence sur le plan international. La notion de violence est prise ici dans une acception large et englobe aussi bien les formes de violence qui tombent sous le coup de la loi que celles qui ne sont pas punissables, ainsi que les facteurs de risque (précoces) de violence. Le rapport se fonde, d’une part, sur une présentation d’études de synthèse internationales portant sur l’efficacité de la prévention de la violence et, d’autre part, sur une recherche consacrée à la structure actuelle de l’offre et aux évaluations déjà menées en Suisse. Ce sont, au total, 26 stratégies de prévention et d’intervention aux niveaux de l’individu, de la famille, de l’école et de l’aide aux victimes qui ont été identifiées; leur efficacité est avérée par de nombreuses études internationales. Chaque chapitre fournit aux acteurs de terrain et aux décideurs un aperçu des objectifs, des caractéristiques et de l’efficacité des différentes approches. Le rapport donne également une vue d’ensemble de la pratique en Suisse et émet des conclusions et des recommandations pour des stratégies d’approfondissement de la prévention ainsi que pour la recherche. Bien que des progrès considérables aient été réalisés ces dernières années en Suisse, la base de connaissances est encore trop mince pour émettre des recommandations précises quant à l’efficacité des programmes. En effet, la plupart de ceux qui sont proposés n’ont pas fait l’objet d’une évaluation scientifique sur ce point. Le présent rapport, telle une boussole provisoire pour les mesures à prendre, pourra servir à renforcer la dynamique amorcée vers une prévention de la violence davantage axée sur les résultats de la recherche.
The Parental Stress and Coping Inventory was developed for mental health professionals serving low-income and low-resource parents. A sample of 1,567 parents completed a revised Family Adjustment Measure for the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses conducted in this study. Findings resulted in three scales that explained 53% of the variance.
Child temperament and parental control were studied as interacting predictors of behavior outcomes in 2 longitudinal samples. In Sample 1, data were ratings of resistant temperament and observed restrictive control in infancy–toddlerhood and ratings of externalizing behavior at ages 7 to 10 years; in Sample 2, data were retrospective ratings of temperament in infancy–toddlerhood, observed restrictive control at age 5 years, and ratings of externalizing behavior at ages 7 to 11 years. Resistance more strongly related to externalizing in low-restriction groups than in high-restriction groups. This was true in both samples and for both teacher- and mother-rated outcomes. Several Temperament × Environment interaction effects have been reported previously, but this is one of very few replicated effects.
Rarely have researchers elucidated early childhood precursors of externalizing behaviors for boys and girls from a normative sample. Toddlers (N = 104; 52 girls) were observed interacting with a same-sex peer and their mothers, and indices of conflict-aggression, emotion and behavior dysregulation, parenting, and child externalizing problems were obtained. Results indicated that boys initiated more conflictual-aggressive interactions as toddlers and had more externalizing difficulties 2 years later, yet girls' (not boys') conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 were related to subsequent externalizing problems. When such initiations were controlled for, emotional-behavioral undercontrol at age 2 also independently predicted externalizing problems at age 4. Moreover, the relation between conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 and externalizing problems at age 4 was strongest for dysregulated toddlers. Finally, the relation between age 2 conflict-aggressive initiations and age 4 externalizing problems was strongest for those toddlers who incurred high levels of maternal negativity. These findings illustrate temperament by parenting connections in the development of externalizing problems.
The author aims to help make low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers more visible by reviewing the emerging literature base on this population and, addressing important conceptual, methodological, and policy issues. Recent evidence is reviewed concerning patterns of fatherhood, factors that support or prohibit fathers' active involvement with their children, and the impact of paternal involvement on children's development. To move the field forward, advances are needed in methodology (increased use of father reports, multiple methods, and longitudinal studies), measurement (greater diversity and depth, multiple reporters), and theoretical and conceptual definitions (family systems perspectives, new and inclusive definitions of fatherhood). In particular, a multidisciplinary and contextualized perspective is an imperative aid to significantly increase understanding of the lives and impact of low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Parental responses following children's answers to parental questions (Parent Question → Child Answer → Parent Response) were examined during play between Mexican-descent children and their parents. Nineteen boys and 18 girls were videotaped playing separately with each of their parents with a toy zoo set. Patterns of parental responses following children's answers to parental questions indicated that mothers provided more scaffolding responses than did fathers. Furthermore, mothers were more scaffolding in their responses even when sequences were analysed separately for child gender. The results support past research with European-American families which has found that mothers may be more aware of children's cognitive capabilities than are fathers. Suggestions for future research that investigate scaffolding versus cognitive demand strategies are included.
A multifactorial model was used to identify child, sociodemographic, paternal, and maternal characteristics associated with 2 aspects of fathers' parenting. Fathers were interviewed about their caregiving responsibilities at 6, 15, 24, and 36 months, and a subset was videotaped during father-child play at 6 and 36 months. Caregiving activities and sensitivity during play interactions were predicted by different factors. Fathers were more involved in caregiving when fathers worked fewer hours and mothers worked more hours, when fathers and mothers were younger, when fathers had more positive personalities, when mothers reported greater marital intimacy, and when children were boys. Fathers who had less traditional child-rearing beliefs, were older, and reported more marital intimacy were more sensitive during play. These findings are consistent with a multifactorial and multidimensional view of fathering.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Associations between parents’ poor marital adjustment, parent–child discord, affectionless control, low family cohesion, and parental divorce and DSM-III diagnoses were explored in a study of 220 offspring of parents with and without major depression. Family risk factors were more prevalent among offspring of depressed parents. Risk factors were associated with major depression and any diagnosis for children of nondepressed parents; they were associated with conduct disorder for both groups. Parental depression was more important than family risk factors in models predicting major depression, anxiety disorders, and any diagnosis. Both parental depression and family risk factors were significant predictors of conduct disorder. Implications for the etiology of psychopathology and for analytic strategies are discussed.
Generalizability Theory (GT) provides a flexible, practical framework for examining the dependability of behavioral measurements. GT extends classical theory by (a) estimating the magnitude of multiple sources of measurement error, (b) modeling the use of a measurement for both norm-referenced and domain-referenced decisions, (c) providing reliability (
generalizability) coefficients tailored to the proposed uses of the measurement, and (d) isolating major sources of error so that a cost-efficient measurement design can be built. Unfortunately, GT has not been readily accessible to psychological researchers. G theory's inaccessibility may explain why classical theory remains the preferred method for estimating reliability. The purpose of this article is to present GT and its wide applicability to a broad audience. Our intent is to demystify GT and provide a useful tool to psychological researchers and test developers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Variations of the self-imposed delay-of-gratification situation in preschool were compared to determine when individual differences in this situation may predict aspects of cognitive and self-regulatory competence and coping in adolescence. Preschool children from a university community participated in experiments that varied features of the self-imposed delay situation. Experimental analyses of the cognitive–attentional processes that affect waiting in this situation helped identify conditions in which delay behavior would be most likely to reflect relevant cognitive and attentional competencies. As hypothesized, in those conditions, coherent patterns of statistically significant correlations were found between seconds of delay time in such conditions in preschool and cognitive and academic competence and ability to cope with frustration and stress in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the cross-sectional association between conflict in families and child psychological adjustment in 72 4th–5th graders. Multiple informants (parents, children, and teachers) assessed conflict and anger in the social climate of the home, marital discord, negative emotional tone in the parent–child relationship, and child adjustment. As predicted, child adjustment was more strongly related to family conflict and maladjustment in girls. Moreover, the association between a general climate of conflict at home and child maladjustment was independent of anger and discord in the marital or parent–child relationships. During the study of the effects of interpersonal conflict at home, it appears to be important to identify the locus of anger and aggression. Findings suggest that researchers should distinguish between a general climate of conflict in the family and interparental discord. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This technical volume is intended to serve as a reference book for researchers who are using constructs or indicators to describe family interaction. In these analyses, each concept {latent construct} is defined by a minimum of 3 {and up to 10} indicators. The volume details the psychometric analyses of each indicator {itemetric study, reliability, distribution, skewness, and kurtosis}. The fit of the indicators to the construct is examined with factor analysis constrained to a single solution. The results of the analyses constitute the preliminary definition of a construct. The process of construct definition is set forth in the papers by Patterson and Bank {1986; in press}. This manual can also serve as a source of further information to researchers who read published articles or books from the Oregon Youth Study {OYS} and need more detailed information on the analyses conducted than can be provided in the space of a book or journal article on theory and results. One of the costs of working with a data set of this magnitude is that the analyses conducted cannot be reported fully in anyone publication, with the result that the interested reader finds it insufficient to replicate the studies. It is hoped that this volume will provide a solid foundation for all who have than a passing interest in the OYS, or in analyses for this type of data more set.
38 couples maries avec un premier ne de trois mois sont etudies pour analyser l'impact de la qualite des liens maritaux (niveau de communication du couple) sur la qualite parentale (plaisir, acceptation, sensibilite et perception)
The relations between mothers' expressed positive and negative emotion and 55-79-month-olds' (76% European American) regulation, social competence, and adjustment were examined. Structural equation modeling was used to test the plausibility of the hypothesis that the effects of maternal expression of emotion on children's adjustment and social competence are mediated through children's dispositional regulation. Mothers' expressed emotions were assessed during interactions with their children and with maternal reports of emotions expressed in the family. Children's regulation, externalizing and internalizing problems, and social competence were rated by parents and teachers, and children's persistence was surreptitiously observed. There were unique effects of positive and negative maternal expressed emotion on children's regulation, and the relations of maternal expressed emotion to children's externalizing problem behaviors and social competence were mediated through children's regulation. Alternative models of causation were tested; a child-directed model in which maternal expressivity mediated the effects of child regulation on child outcomes did not fit the data as well.
Building upon Wood & Middleton's (1975) concept of parental scaffolding, the influence of parent-child interactions on children's competence within several tasks was investigated. Thirty-two 2-year-old children visited our lab twice, once with their mothers and once with their fathers. During each session dyads participated in problem-solving and literacy tasks, followed by independent child performance tasks. Although subtle differences were found between mothers' and fathers' contingent behaviours displayed during the interactions, at a global level, parents were equally effective in their ability to scaffold their children's emerging skills. Specifically, parental scaffolding behaviours were associated with children's success measured both during the interaction and independently (i.e. following the interactions). These results have implications for the interpretation of research comparing mothers and fathers, and lend support to the claim that scaffolding can be an effective instructional strategy.
We examined the cross-sectional association between conflict in families and child psychological adjustment in 72 4th-5th graders. Multiple informants (parents, children, and teachers) assessed conflict and anger in the social climate of the home, marital discord, negative emotional tone in the parent-child relationship, and child adjustment. As predicted, child adjustment was more strongly related to family conflict than to marital discord. There was a stronger association between family conflict and maladjustment in girls. Moreover, the association between a general climate of conflict at home and child maladjustment was independent of anger and discord in the marital or parent-child relationships. During the study of the effects of interpersonal conflict at home, it appears to be important to identify the locus of anger and aggression. Findings suggest that researchers should distinguish between a general climate of conflict in the family and interparental discord.
Two studies examined the relationship of depressive symptoms to perceptions of child behavior. Study 1 reports the perceptions of 95 female undergraduates and Study 2 reports the perceptions of 31 mothers of children with externalizing disorders. Videotapes of child actors portraying prosocial, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors were used to standardize the child behaviors being rated. In both studies, adult females rated the behavior of the boys in the videotapes and completed measures of depressive symptoms. In Study 1, female students with higher scores on a composite measure of depressive symptoms had less positive perceptions of the prosocial child behaviors, gave more negative global ratings for the externalizing behaviors, and showed a trend toward more negative global ratings of the internalizing behaviors
This study examines family stress across normative, moderate risk, and high-risk samples. A 3-factor model of family stress--including interpersonal tension, financial problems, and child-related difficulties--was developed using confirmatory factor analysis. Factor scores were computed across four samples considered to be at varying degrees of risk for family stress. Analyses of these scores revealed consistent differences across samples in levels of family stress, with higher stress in higher-risk samples. Results are discussed and implications for intervention and prevention are considered.
The dyadic adjustment scale is critically evaluated by reconsidering the factor structure of the scale and its subscales using a maximum likelihood, confirmatory factor-analysis procedure. A new sample is studied three years later from the same geographical area. High reliability was confirmed for the overall scale. The four subscale factors appear robust and account for 94% of the covariance among the items, although subscale affiliations were not perfectly replicated in the confirmatory factor solution. The findings of the re-evaluation are encouraging, suggesting that confidence in the scale is warranted for subsequent users.
The role of the mother was viewed from the perspective of coercion theory. Within that context, it was assumed that mothers of normal preschool children are exposed to high densities of aversive events. Existing research literature supported these hypotheses and showed that the younger the child the higher the rates. Data were also summarized which showed that mothers' satisfaction with their role may vary as a function of these inputs. Observation data showed that mothers of aggressive children encountered higher rates than mothers of normal children. In normal families the fathers function as social facilitators and resident "guest." Mothers serve as caretakers; and both parents share in child management problems. In distressed families the same roles occur; however, the mother's role is expanded to include that of crisis manager. The culture defines which attack behaviors a child may direct to his mother. Her mere presence is associated with increased likelihood for the occurrence of these responses. Mothers were shown to be more involved in extended coercive interchanges with the problem child. During extended interchanges, the problem child escalated to a maximum intensity very early in a sequence of coercive behaviors. Mothers escalated slowly to a mild aversive level and then withdrew at the earliest possible juncture. With siblings, the problem child's chains were in response to a noxious intrusion; when the problem child escalated in intensity, they quickly followed suit. However, with the mother the problem child's chains seem to constitute an attack rather than a reprisal. It was hypothesized that prolonged experience in aversive systems produces low self-esteem. In that regard, mothers of socially aggressive children would be exposed to higher rates of aversive events than would mothers of stealers. Comparisons were made on the baseline self-reports from the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory. Mothers of socially aggressive children were significantly higher on the depression scale, with borderline elevations on hysteria and social introversion and lower scores on hypomania. Mothers of children who steal had MMPI profiles which were similar to the classic profiles for adolescent delinquents, that is, elevated scores on psychopathic deviate and hypomanic. Following training and supervision in child management skills, there was a significant decrease in the depression and social introversion scores and an increase in the hypomania scale. These changes were particularly marked for mothers of socially aggressive children.
In order to assess marital change in response to the birth of a first-born or later-born infant, 72 volunteer couples were studied longitudinally from the last trimester of pregnancy through the ninth postpartum month. Joint couple interviews; individual spousal questionnaires; and naturalistic, in-home, behavioral observations were used. Analyses of mean scores revealed modest yet highly reliable changes in marital adjustment (as assessed by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale), marital functioning (joint leisure activities, perception of relationship as a romance, friendship, and partnership), and observed marital interaction. Cross-time correlational analyses revealed that, despite these changes in central tendencies, spouses and couples that initially scored high on various measures tended to do so across the period studied. Considered together, a dual developmental focus upon both individual and group change indicates that in some respects the addition of a first-born or later-born infant has a negative impact on the marital relationship, whereas in other respects (i.e., individual differences) it exerts relatively little impact.
• We report on the impact of specific indexes of the severity and chronicity of parental depression, measures of familial discord, and demographic variables as predictors of impaired adaptive functioning and psychopathology in children. Seventy-two children and their mothers from 37 families were interviewed in person. At least one biological parent in each family had a depressive disorder but neither parent had a history of mania, schizophrenia, or schizoaffective disorder. Almost every measure of severity and chronicity of depression in the biological parents has a statistically significant association with currently impaired adaptation and the presence of a DSM-III-diagnosed disorder in the children, as do the measures of increased discord among married or separated parents. Depression in the mother is more strongly associated with increased psychopathology in the children than is depression in the father.
A meta-analysis was performed of concurrent and longitudinal studies on the relation of family factors to juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. Analyses of longitudinal data show that socialization variables, such as lack of parental supervision, parental rejection, and parent-child involvement, are among the most powerful predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. Medium-strength predictors include background variables such as parents' marital relations and parental criminality. Weaker predictors are lack of parental discipline, parental health, and parental absence. The effect of these factors seems to be about the same for boys and for girls. Analyses of concurrent studies comparing delinquents with nondelinquents, and aggressive children with nonaggressive children, largely parallel these findings. Data from concurrent normal samples, however, show less importance for parental child socialization practices and relatively more importance for the child's rejection of the parent and the parent's rejection of the child. A small proportion of families produces a disproportionate number of delinquents. The presence of one child with delinquency, aggression, or covert conduct problems increases the probability that other children in the family will exhibit those behaviors. Deficiencies in parenting skills are associated with the seriousness of the child's delinquency. Treatment studies demonstrate that systematic changes in parenting behaviors can lessen the frequency of a child's conduct problems and that of siblings and, to a lesser extent, reduce involvement in delinquent activities.
Examined the relation between mother-child interactions behaviors, disruptive child behavior, and maternal characteristics within the context of maternal facilitation of children's problem solving. In a group comparison analysis, mothers of disruptive children took over the task more and provided fewer closed-ended questions than mothers of nondisruptive children. Subsequent regression analyses found higher levels of mothers' taking-over behavior predicted children's off-task behavior in the analogue tasks; lower frequency of mothers' closed-ended question behavior predicted higher teacher and parent ratings of disruptive behavior at school and home; and higher maternal depression predicted fewer mothers' closed-ended questions during the analogue.
It was the purpose of this study to structure a laboratory interaction in order to clarify the relationship between mother reports of child temperament and independent observations of mother‐child interactions. Thirty‐five 3–4 year old, middle‐class children were videotaped while playing with their mothers in a laboratory setting. Subsequently, mother and child behavioral interactions were analyzed by independent observers according to the Interpersonal Behavior Construct Scale. Mothers also were asked to complete the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory and the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory. Correlations between the temperament of the child, child behavior problems and the behaviors of each mother‐child dyad interacting together indicated that child temperament was significantly related to behavior problems and quality of mother‐child interactions. Children who were perceived by their mothers as more active with a low attention span, tended to have more behavior problems and to be independently described by observers as more nonaccepting or noncompliant in their interactions with their mothers. Mothers of active children, in turn, were described as more negative and non‐accepting in their responses to their children. Mothers of behavior problem children tended to be highly submissive in their observed responses. This study provides evidence as to the validity of parent report measures to accurately predict observable child behaviors. The implications of these results for the clinician are discussed.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Depressed mood and child conduct problems as predictors of mothers' attributions for their own and their children's negative experiences were examined. Eighty-two mothers of children aged 5 to 12 rated dimensions of causal attributions for hypothetical situations involving either themselves or their children. Mothers who reported higher levels of depressed mood were more likely to attribute their own negative experiences to internal, controllable, global, and stable factors. Maternal depressed mood was also associated with attributing children's negative experiences to causes within the child, and within the child's control. Mothers' perceptions of conduct problems in their children were related to attributions of globality and stability for child negative experiences. Mothers who perceived their children's negative experiences as due to internal and controllable child causes indicated more negative anticipated behavioral responses to the child concerned.
One hundred and eight married couples and 68 cohabiting individuals completed the 32-item Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale as part of an omnibus survey concerning the interactions between couples in ongoing relationships. The items of the scale were factor-analysed separately for the three samples—married females, married males and cohabitors. Although in each case there emerged a strong single factor, four factors were rotated to assess the similarity to Spanier's solution. Generally his Dyadic Consensus, Dyadic Satisfaction and Dyadic Cohesion factors were identifiable but the items from the Affectional Expression scale were dispersed. COSAN analyses provided overall support for Spanier's four-factor solution. Further confirmatory data are reported in the form of high co-efficient alpha values for the overall scale and three of the four subscales (except Affectional Expression). High correlations between husbands' and wives' scores support the scales' validities. Use of the scales with Australian samples is supported.