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An investigation of school psychology training pertaining to bilingual psycho-educational assessment of primarily Hispanic students: Twenty-five years after Diana v. California
Abstract
This study, a survey of 1,507 school psychologists from eight states, found that school psychologists who conduct bilingual psycho-educational assessment do not believe that they have received adequate training. Nearly 70% of the respondents described their training with respect to knowledge of cross-cultural issues involved in bilingual psycho-educational assessment as less than adequate. At least 80% stated their level of training was less than adequate on the following three competencies: (a) knowledge of second language acquisition factors and their relationship to assessment; (b) knowledge of methods to conduct bilingual psycho-educational assessment; and (c) ability to interpret the results of bilingual psycho-educational assessments. The data indicate that school psychologists who do conduct bilingual psycho-educational assessment are providing service in an area in which they have not received adequate training. In evaluating the school psychology programs from which they received their training, respondents identified only one program that provided adequate training in all four competencies, two that provided adequate training in three competencies, and four programs that provided adequate training in two competencies. The regression analyses indicated that the amount of training provided by school psychology programs did not differ greatly across the 24 years examined in any of the four competencies.
... Yet, since the 1980s, school psychologists have reported that they are inadequately trained in culturally appropriate assessment practices, knowledge of second-and native-language development, and how to work with interpreters (Figueroa et al., 1984). These and other competencies identified as essential for supporting school-age EB students have been examined in subsequent investigations (O'Bryon & Rogers, 2010;Ochoa et al., 1997;Rogers et al., 1992;Styck, 2012), with similar self-reported survey outcomes (e.g., inadequate preparation in understanding the second-language acquisition process and interpreting psycho-educational assessment results). Overall, school psychology training has been primarily examined through national training director surveys. ...
... Students' lived experiences suggest a need for additional preparation and opportunities to face complex school challenges that may not be easily resolved. As such, their experiences (e.g., more preparation needed in providing academic interventions, engaging with EB students and families) were similar to those of student interns in a previous survey investigation (Aldridge et al., 2015) and reminiscent of concerns about inadequate assessment preparation (Aldridge et al., 2015;Figueroa et al., 1984;O'Bryon & Rogers, 2010;Ochoa et al., 1997;Styck, 2012) published in the last 35 years, in which approximately 50% of the EB-related school psychology studies focused on eligibility and assessment concerns (Styck, 2012). The deeper qualitative thematic analyses in the current study, however, allowed a more nuanced understanding of the broader context (e.g., working to disrupt culturally perpetuated mental health stigmas, differentiating instruction to address the curricular language demands for recent arrival immigrants, providing ongoing crisis counseling) that shaped internship challenges. ...
School psychologists are increasingly placed in advocacy roles to support a growing diverse population of emergent bilinguals (EBs). The pre-training practices of school psychology programs that prepare graduate students to specifically engage with EBs and their families are largely unknown. The purpose of the current study was to better understand the perceptions of graduate school psychology student interns and their respective group of field supervisors around a school psychology program that incorporated experiences and content knowledge to prepare students to respond to the multi-dimensional needs (academic, socio-emotional, assessment) of EB PK-12 students. Findings indicated that students benefited from the school psychology training but the internship experience included challenges that suggested gaps in students’ preparation. These findings are reminiscent of 35 years of investigations and outcomes about school psychology trainings to support culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students. Implications for practice include requiring more comprehensive and diverse program experiences that are contextualized within a social justice and critical race framework.
... Although this study does not directly focus on the issue of the training levels given to test administrators, this issue is also of concern. Ochoa, Rivera and Ford (1997) found that "83% of school psychologists […] conducting bilingual assessments described their training in this area as less than adequate" (p. 341), which makes the results obtained and the conclusions drawn by these psychologists, at best, questionable. ...
... This was done by testing children in a dynamically bilingual fashion, that is, in a way where there was an opportunity to switch as needed between languages. Bainter and Tollefson (2003) have identified concerns with the testing of cognitive abilities in bilingual individuals, some of which are associated to test translation (AERA et al., 1999), psychologist's training (Ochoa et al., 1997) and use of English language instruments. In the current study, testing allowed for responses in two languages and was conducted by a bilingual examiner who used adapted versions of widely accepted measures. ...
In this study the role that language plays in the expression of intelligence, bilingualism, and the process of assessing selected cognitive abilities was explored. The primary purpose of the study was to determine if individuals who are allowed to move from one language to another when they provide responses to test items produce results that are different than those obtained by bilingual examinees assessed in one language only. The results indicate that the Experimental Group obtained significantly higher results than the Control Group on all the tests and subtests used. The Experimental Group code-switched more frequently and the examiners only code-switched with that group. The frequency of the code-switching behaviours explains, in great part, all the differences noted in the results as very few other sources of differences were identified, even when groups were compared on sex, first language and relative proficiency in French and in English.
... Much bilingual research has focused on the cognitive and linguistic aspects of bilingualism, especially the ongoing debate of whether a bilingual advantage exists with respect to executive functioning and metalinguistic ability (Bialystok 2001a(Bialystok , 2001bBialystok, Majumder, and Martin 2003;Ware, Kirkovski, and Lum 2020). However, the psychological aspects of bilingualism and the related issues relevant for bilinguals have been largely ignored (Ochoa, Rivera, and Ford 1997). Recently, bilingualism has gained the attention of researchers in related fields and a growing body of research has explored different psychological aspects of bilingualism and bilingual education (e.g. ...
Using a positive psychological framework, Broaden-and-Build Theory, we investigated whether and how positive and negative emotions (affective factors) and cognitive flexibility are related to flourishing. Participants are 151 bilingual adults from diverse backgrounds enrolled in a local community college. Results showed that both positive and negative emotions and cognitive flexibility were significantly related to flourishing. More importantly, mediation effects from emotions to flourishing through cognitive flexibility occurred only from positive emotions. These findings are the first to explore how affective factors are related to flourishing in a sample of bilingual adults residing in a predominantly monolingual country. Practical implications are discussed with regards to the cultivation of positive emotions and fostering cognitive flexibility among bilinguals in and out of school.
... Only two published instruments have been found at this time. One is the Bilingual Psychoeducational Assessment Survey (Ochoa et al., 1997), which gauges a school psychologist's assessment practices with ELs. Another is the School Counselor Self-Efficacy with English Language Learners instrument (Johnson et al., 2016;Paredes, 2009). ...
... Only two published instruments have been found at this time. One is the Bilingual Psychoeducational Assessment Survey (Ochoa et al., 1997), which gauges a school psychologist's assessment practices with ELs. Another is the School Counselor Self-Efficacy with English Language Learners instrument (Johnson et al., 2016;Paredes, 2009). ...
... Much bilingual research has focused on the cognitive and linguistic aspects of bilingualism, especially the ongoing debate of whether a bilingual advantage exists with respect to executive functioning and metalinguistic ability (Bialystok 2001a(Bialystok , 2001bBialystok, Majumder, and Martin 2003;Ware, Kirkovski, and Lum 2020). However, the psychological aspects of bilingualism and the related issues relevant for bilinguals have been largely ignored (Ochoa, Rivera, and Ford 1997). Recently, bilingualism has gained the attention of researchers in related fields and a growing body of research has explored different psychological aspects of bilingualism and bilingual education (e.g. ...
This study aimed to examine a positive-oriented model of two types of motivational constructs (i.e., harmonious passion and obsessive passion) for learning a second language (L2) and their relationship to self-growth indicators. The dualistic model of passion was used to explore whether and how the two types of passion play different roles in positive outcomes both within and outside L2. This study was conducted with 260 Chinese high school students learning English as a L2. Results of path analyses supported the model and showed that harmonious passion, and to a lesser degree obsessive passion, for L2 learning predicted learners’ positive experiences in L2 activity (i.e., L2 flow experiences and L2 mastery goals). In turn, flow experiences and mastery goals both predicted willingness to communicate in L2, whereas only mastery goals led to self-growth in other life areas (i.e., flourishing in life). This study is the first to explore the role of passion for L2 and associated processes in contributing to the field of L2 learning and life outcomes. Findings highlighted that being passionate about L2 learning can provide benefits in both willingness to communicate in L2 and personal well-being, especially if the passion is harmonious in nature.
... School psychologists, generally trained in typical and atypical child development, instructional models, multi-tiered systems of support, and consultation models, have a strong skill set to collaborate with early childhood educators and administrators at the program level to improve instruction and supports for Latinx DLLs. While most school psychologists may not currently receive sufficient training in dual language development (Aldridge 2013;Newell et al. 2010;Ochoa et al. 1997) and have conventionally played roles as gatekeepers for special education (Braden et al. 2001), their numerous other, often unused skills related to child development and systems of support may be helpful in the context of a collaborative early learning team. Further, as they are bound by the ethical codes of both the National Association of School Psychologists (2010) and American Psychological Association (2011) to respect the dignity and rights of all people, they should help address language-based disparities in education whenever possible. ...
Latinx dual language learners (DLLs) are a large and growing student body that continues to face educational adversities that contribute to the maintenance of a longstanding academic achievement gap. Previous research has documented that preschool attendance and development of home language skills in early childhood support the long-term academic and linguistic growth of DLLs; yet, relatively, little is known about how early childhood educators support bilingual language development in preschool and how such efforts impact bilingual proficiency. These are particularly salient questions, as emerging best practices to support DLLs identified in research may not be reaching educators with sufficient speed. The present mixed methods study examined the role of instructional and contextual factors in promoting English and Spanish language development among (N = 46) Latinx preschoolers. Qualitative phenomenological analyses were conducted to explore the nature of language instruction practices in Central California preschools. Analysis of covariance was used to determine if classroom characteristics, including culturally and linguistically responsive instruction practices and overall classroom quality, predict English and Spanish language proficiency at the end of the preschool year. Results suggest that language instruction practices may tend to be more reactive than systematic, and support findings that high overall instructional quality and application of targeted instructional supports for bilingual acquisition support the development of home language skills throughout the school year. The results reinforce the call for increased attention to bilingual language development in early childhood settings, especially through assessment, instruction models, and multi-tiered systems of support. School psychologists, who are trained on these topics, have a significant opportunity to collaborate with early childhood administrators and teachers to educate themselves further on DLLs’ early language development needs, help improve culturally and linguistically responsive instruction and assessment in early learning settings, and work to bridge the early childhood and K-12 systems to support DLLs’ ongoing development.
Multicultural school psychology provides a foundation for the preparation of graduate students and practitioners in our field. This foundation has evolved over time with recent literature and research focusing on the competencies needed by school psychologists to provide services and support to students from diverse backgrounds. In an effort to provide directions for future training, the chapter argues that school psychology as a profession, must forge ahead from (a) insular to interdisciplinary viewpoints, (b) discrete to intersectional cultural perspectives, (c) narrow to broadened equity and social justice standpoints, and (d) a national/local to transnational outlooks. These lenses provide opportunities for school psychology trainers and researchers to expand the competencies of future school psychologists, and challenge future school psychologists and current practitioners to expand their repertoires as agents of change in schools.
The preparation of special education practitioners is a field that is ever-evolving. To that end, this paper aims to demonstrate the utility and increased opportunity of embedding artificial intelligence (AI) tools within the preparation programs of special educators, particularly as it is contextualize within the community college space. Additionally, this paper attempts to establish an abbreviated research base for AI within education-centered literature, particularly as this piece illustrates the impact of community college and specific coursework that is used to provide learning opportunities for students studying the fundamentals of special education. Last, this document illustrates how AI may be used as an engaging component to special education coursework to improve the ways in which special education teacher-educators, i.e., research-practitioners who train and provide academic and professional development for special educators, design and develop coursework within settings of teaching and learning.
Because of immigration pressures, the classrooms of many teachers include students from language-minority groups; these teachers often turn to special education for assistance. This article examines key issues and tensions in the areas of referral and special education instruction for these students. Potential solutions derive from two sources: first, the increasing consensus regarding effective approaches to bilingual education; second, the growing belief that these students need both systematic instruction in academic skills and a more “natural” approach to language to promote comprehension and use of English. The article discusses the collaborations needed in the fields of learning disabilities, bilingual education, and special education.
The purpose of this study was to explore how past students of the Fordham University Bilingual School Psychology Program perceived that program regarding acquired psycholinguistic skills, cross-cultural expertise, and assessment/intervention competencies. A thorough assessment of additional areas, such as field work/internship, support system, financial aid, and training approaches was discussed. Analyses suggest that proficiency in all competencies developed as expected. Using this evaluation model appears useful in assessing the effectiveness of training programs.
The question is better phrased: what are the problems? Essentially they divide into three — the child’s, the therapist’s and the community’s. The problems centred on the child include his primary handicapping condition — mental retardation, specific learning disorder, hearing impairment, etc. — and their associated difficulties. These may be classified as medical, social, emotional, motor and cognitive, including language. The central concern of this book has been defining a language handicap in a bilingual setting, and this chapter on management is directed chiefly at this, though naturally considering it in its social-emotional context.
Jim Cummins presents a theoretical framework for analyzing minority students' school failure and the relative lack of success of previous attempts at educational reform, such as compensatory education and bilingual education. The author suggests that these attempts have been unsuccessful because they have not altered significantly the relationships between educators and minority students and between schools and minority communities. He offers ways in which educators can change these relationships, thereby promoting the empowerment of students which can lead them to succeed in school.
The author discusses topics related to the evaluation of bilingual education programs. He surveys the results of seven major bilingual education evaluations and presents their diverse findings. He argues that such research cannot answer the question of whether bilingual education necessarily or even probably works. To demonstrate the potentials and possibilities for bilingual education, he describes a "bilingual immersion" program in which both language-majority and language-minority students learn each others’ language while continuing to develop their own.
A random sample of members of the National Association of School Psychologists was surveyed to examine the assessment activity of practicing school psychologists. Test-usage estimates and importance ratings for well-established standardized instruments, newly revised or released instruments, and informal procedures such as interview and curriculum-based assessment were examined. Estimates of time involved in various service delivery activities also were obtained. Results indicated that assessment activities still account for about 50% of the practice hours of school psychologists, followed by consultation (20%) and treatment (19%). School psychologists reported frequent use of intellectual, behavior-social-emotional, achievement, and perceptual assessment methods, but were less likely to be involved in vocational or preschool assessment. Familiar instruments, such as the Wechsler scales, the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-educational Battery-Revised, the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, the Bender-Visual Motor Gestalt, the Beery Developmental Test of Motor Integration, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, were the most used tests. However, in the social-emotional domain, direct assessment methods, such as interview and observation, were more frequently used and rated as more important than standardized measures. These results, and the limitations of the study, are discussed.