Article

Bread properties and crumb structure

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Abstract

The relationship between bread-crumb cellular structure and many aspects of quality in a loaf of white bread justifies investigations of how the structure arises during processing of the dough. Following a brief overview of the development of bread cellular structure in the dough, three parts of the literature pertaining to crumb appearance (visual texture) and bread quality are reviewed, with emphasis on the mechanical properties (physical texture) of the crumb. The importance of an objective segmentation of the two macroscopic phases (crumb cells and cell walls solids) is emphasised in digital image analysis studies of bread-crumb structure. A review of studies where mechanical properties have been measured in fundamental units has sections on the mechanical properties of the composite structure and on recent analyses of the mechanical properties of the solid phase. Finally, models which have been used to relate structure to mechanical properties will be reviewed with emphasis on the work of Gibson and Ashby [Gibson, L.J., & Ashby, M.F., 1988. Cellular solids: structure & properties. Oxford: Pergamon Press; Gibson, L.J., & Ashby, M.F., 1997. Cellular solids: structure and properties (2nd ed.). Cambridge: University Press]. It is shown that experimental values of Young's modulus of bread crumb reside within the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds. Compared with the rule of mixtures, these bounds represent a good (52%) improvement in the ability to predict values for bread crumb moduli (crumb firmness). Using information provided by digital image analysis, Gibson and Ashby's relationships between structure (relative density) and mechanical properties can be modified to incorporate dough processing effects such as dough strain hardening and the effect of gas cell coalescence.

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... The first bread was produced around 10,000 years BC or over 12,000 years ago and was a result of the deliberate test with water and grain (wild wheat and wild barley) and plant roots flours [1,2]. The ability to control the production of bread and its distribution is described as a way of exerting political power for about 2000 years and its scarcity has been likened to difficult times [3]. Bread is a light porous solid material which is traditionally produced from wheat flour. ...
... These ingredients are properly mixed to form a dough. The mixing operation is carefully carried out such that the dough possesses the required mechanical properties that allow it to hold gas and a well-developed bread loaf with a uniform crumb structure is produced [3,[5][6][7]. With the right ingredients and baking process, products with excellent quality and sensory characteristics are produced. ...
... This property has been demonstrated to have a positive correlation with the sensory attributes of the baked product. Tensile test on the other hand is hardly used to measure the mechanical properties of bread and other spongy foods because it is challenging to grip the food sample, inability to meet compliance at the grips and inability to obtain the size, shape and stiffness stipulated for the test in those food materials [3]. It has been established that the texture and density of baked goods for instance bread and cakes are influenced by variations in their rheology and vapour content during baking [2]. ...
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Bread is one of the most widely consumed foods in all regions of the world. Wheat flour being its principal ingredient is a cereal crop low in protein. The protein content of a whole grain of wheat is about 12–15% and is deficit in some essential amino acids, for example, lysine. Conversely, the protein and fibre contents of legume crops are between 20 and 35% and 15 and 35%, respectively, depending on the type and cultivar of the legume. The importance of protein-rich diets for the growth and development of body organs and tissues as well as the overall functionality of the body is significant. Thus, in the last two decades, there has been a greater interest in the studies on the utilization of legumes in bread production and how the incorporation impacts the quality characteristics of the bread and the breadmaking process. The addition of plant-based protein flours has been shown to produce an improved quality characteristic, especially the nutritional quality aspect of bread. The objective of this review is to synthesize and critically investigate the body of research on the impact of adding legume flours on the rheological attributes of dough and the quality and baking characteristics of bread.
... Sucrose is the main component of flour accounting for more than 50% of total soluble sugars [23]. The final gas volume of bread reached over 70% of the loaf volume [24]. The new bubbles are formed in dough during the agitation of dough ingredients. ...
... The gas cells present in the dough were expanded by the accumulation of carbon dioxide produced by baker's yeast. Carbon dioxide present in dough can be found as gas trapped inside the gas cells and dissolved in the aqueous phase leading the weight of fermented bread dough to be increased [24]. ...
... Также Пертеном было установлено, что хлеб, приготовленный из муки с высоким значением числа падения (свыше 300 секунд), имеет сухой, неэластичный, крошковатый мякиш. По другим данным, мякиш хлебобулочных изделий получается липким и заминающимся при использовании муки с показателем числа падения ниже 150 секунд, потому что крахмал в такой муке сильно гидролизуется α-амилазой и не может сформировать непрерывный крахмально-белковый каркас для обеспечения нужной структуры теста [36,37]. ...
... Таким образом, установленное нами оптимальное значение числа падения, равное 235 ± 15 секундам, соотносится с результатами других зарубежных ученых [35][36][37][38][39][40]. ...
Article
This work is dedicated to the study of the structural-mechanical properties of wheat bread crumb 12 hours after baking and then every 24 hours during 108 hours of storage. The basis of this investigation was the study of the starch retrogradation process, which is a transfer of the amorphous structure of starch grains into the crystalline state, which predetermines an increase in the values of the hardness parameters and hardness index. The aim of the work was investigation of an effect of the state of carbohydrate-amylase and protein-proteinase complex of wheat flour by introduction of wheat malt and dry gluten on the structural-mechanical properties of crumb of bakery products and their staling rate during storage. In this study, the authors used baker’s wheat flour of the highest grade, wheat malt, dry gluten, bread from baker’s wheat flour of the highest grade that was made using the straight dough method by the experimental laboratory baking. The authors established an effect of dosing wheat malt and dry wheat gluten on changes in the water absorption of wheat dough in the process of mixing, on its rheological properties, on the structural-mechanical properties of crumb of wheat bread made by the experimental laboratory baking as well as on the rate of its staling during storage. The optimal dosage of wheat malt was 5%, which ensured the falling number equal to 235 s. The dose of dry gluten of 3% ensured the total gluten content in dough of 31.3%, dough moisture of 43.1% and dough consistency equal to 640 FU. Simultaneous introduction of wheat malt and dry wheat gluten ensured a decrease in the hardness index of wheat bread crumb by 55% and the rate of its staling by 3.3 times.
... In order to link relationships of nitrogen fertilization-protein content and nitrogen fertilization-protein composition to dough rheology, changes in wheat protein content and composition must be considered in the context of the dough formation process. Dough formation requires three main outcomes: the hydration and homogenization of ingredients; the development of the dough; and, the occlusion of air in the dough (Cauvain, 2015;Scanlon & Zghal, 2001;Sluimer, 2005). ...
... Wheat flour dough is a composite material. Two phases are distinguishable: a viscoelastic dough matrix phase and a dispersed gas phase (Campbell & Martin, 2012;Scanlon & Page, 2015;Scanlon & Zghal, 2001;Sluimer, 2005). Air entrapment occurs during mixing, mainly after full hydration of the flour particles (Cauvain, 2015). ...
Article
Nitrogen supplied to wheat crops to increase grain productivity is being scrutinized because of its role in greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrogen affects food quality as well as food security because it increases grain protein content and can change wheat protein composition, both of which affect the rheological properties of dough made from the grain. This review explores the relationship between nitrogen functionality, wheat protein content and the ratio of gliadins to glutenins through critical assessment of recent studies on nitrogen fertilization of wheat. Moreover, by studying how variations in protein content and the gliadins/glutenins ratio affect the shear and extensional rheological properties of the dough, this review elucidates the direct role of nitrogen on wheat flour dough behavior during processing because process operations primarily employ extensional and shear forces. Nitrogen uptake by wheat plants leads to an increase in wheat protein content and changes in the gliadins/glutenins ratio. Confounding factors associated with wheat plant growth and dough preparation make it difficult to definitively separate effects of wheat protein content from effects of wheat protein composition on dough rheology. Nevertheless, in general, higher protein content is associated with larger gliadins/glutenins ratios, resulting in wheat flour doughs that are more extensible.
... The energy value was related to the sum of the macronutrients composed of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, with PC having the highest energy value due to the ingredients used in its preparation, such as wholemeal flour, eggs, vegetable shortening, soya lecithin, raisins, chestnuts, pecans and cane honey, as evidenced by its low moisture content. Regarding the structural aspect, panettone consists of a porous structure (alveoli) and a solid portion, whose sum will influence the total volume of the product since both the specific volume and the density indicate the relationship between the solids and the air fraction [26]. According to the results, no significant values were observed for the specific volume and density due to the similarity in the formulations and elaboration of the three types of preferment (PB, PMM and PE) and the commercial sample (PC). ...
... Quality panettone usually has a structured crumb with high porosity and regular cells (Figure 1). However, each type of product has its own configuration of cells or alveoli, which are the holes in the crumb, which originate when air is trapped between the gluten networks, and therefore, there is no single standard applicable to all products [25] whose level and thickness characterize bakery products that undergo volumetric expansion during baking [26,27]. All the panettone samples showed a very porous crumb structure (Figure 1). ...
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In Peru, panettones are consumed in July and December. The main ingredient of panettones is wheat flour, which can be replaced with substitute flours to improve their nutritional, textural and sensory properties. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical, textural and sensory characteristics of panettones produced with three preferments, namely, biga (PB), sourdough (PMM) and sponge (PE), with the substitution of red quinoa flour and amaranth compared with a commercial product (PC). A completely randomized design with four experimental treatments was used to evaluate the total carbohydrate content, ash, total energy, fat, moisture, protein, color and texture profile. In addition, sensory characteristics were evaluated by 80 consumers using the CATA method; the purchase intention and preference ranking were also investigated. The results showed better sensory characteristics of panettones produced with preferments compared with a commercial product with similar characteristics. The sponge preferment presented better sensory characteristics with a profile of sweet, spongy, vanilla odor and moist texture, along with greater acceptability, preference and purchase intention, followed closely by the biga. It was concluded that the sponge preferment presented better sensory properties, which were correlated with its texture profile as manifested by an intermediate hardness, good elasticity and cohesiveness, which translated into greater acceptability, preference and purchase intention.
... When a leavened baked product is sliced, a two-phase soft cellular solid structure can be seen. This includes a solid phase made out of the cell wall structure along with a fluid phase that consists of air (35,36). Recently, image analysis has become an important quantitative tool to reliably assess the microstructural features of crumb samples and the relationship of crumb cellular structure properties with the mechanical and organoleptic properties of the product (35,37). ...
... This includes a solid phase made out of the cell wall structure along with a fluid phase that consists of air (35,36). Recently, image analysis has become an important quantitative tool to reliably assess the microstructural features of crumb samples and the relationship of crumb cellular structure properties with the mechanical and organoleptic properties of the product (35,37). Fig. 3 shows scanned images (300 dpi) of the crumb samples of rice flour obtained after eight different treatments. ...
Article
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Research background. Various processing techniques significantly affect physicochemical and functional properties of rice flour and the quality of the final products. This study aims to modify rice flour with different treatments and to select the best one to develop rice and wheat-based leavened food products. Experimental approach. Eight treatment combinations were applied on rice flour according to 23 factorial design considering three variables at two levels, namely, pretreatment of rice grain (heat-moisture treatment, dual modification treatment: soaking of rice grains in NaHCO3 solution followed by heat treatment), grinding method (dry or wet grinding), and flour particle size (75−180 and
... Gluten-free doughs, which cannot develop a protein network structure due to lack of gluten proteins are less viscoelastic, stickier and have poor handling properties as compared to gluten-containing dough (Ronda et al., 2017). The final quality characteristics of GFB is greatly influenced by selection and combination of structural ingredients that are able to provide stability to the system as well as prevent an excessive weakening of the protein/starch/hydrocolloids coherent matrix (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). In order to obtain doughs with acceptable consistency and better behaviour during the mixing phase, gluten-free flours and starches require higher level of water content than wheat flour. ...
... Due unique properties of the wheat protein gluten, formed when flour is hydrated and resulting in the formation of cohesive visco-elastic mass on account of mechanical work input. The gluten has the ability to form visco-elastic dough capable of entrapping gas during proofing and the early stage of baking and is responsible for structure formation in bread (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001;Gallagher et al., 2004). The visco-elastic dough led to formation of bread with a good loaf volume, a typical crumb structure and sponge-like texture, which is highly desirable. ...
Chapter
Gluten-free bread making is a challenging task as the ingredients used could not mimic wheat gluten functionality. Gluten protein complex is considered vital for successful bread making. Commercially available gluten-free breads face both social and scientific challenges in comparison to conventional gluten-containing counterparts in terms of quality and acceptability. Doughs derived from gluten-free flours exhibit poor rheological properties and the resultant breads are characterized by sensory and nutritional defects. Addition of starches, hydrocolloids, proteins, enzymes, and emulsifiers to gluten-free flours are encouraged in order to counter the technological problems by enhancing dough rheological characteristics. Gluten-free bread (GFB) from nutritional point of view, lacks protein, vitamins and minerals and effective ways are required to be explored to enhance the fibre, protein, vitamin and mineral content of GFB while maintaining low glycaemic index. Fortification of GFB with alternate flours such as flours from pulses, gluten-free cereals like millet, rice, sunflour etc., bran or dietary fibre, nuts, pseudocereals or any oil seed is therefore recommended.
... Gluten-free doughs, which cannot develop a protein network structure due to lack of gluten proteins are less viscoelastic, stickier and have poor handling properties as compared to gluten-containing dough (Ronda et al., 2017). The final quality characteristics of GFB is greatly influenced by selection and combination of structural ingredients that are able to provide stability to the system as well as prevent an excessive weakening of the protein/starch/hydrocolloids coherent matrix (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). In order to obtain doughs with acceptable consistency and better behaviour during the mixing phase, gluten-free flours and starches require higher level of water content than wheat flour. ...
... Due unique properties of the wheat protein gluten, formed when flour is hydrated and resulting in the formation of cohesive visco-elastic mass on account of mechanical work input. The gluten has the ability to form visco-elastic dough capable of entrapping gas during proofing and the early stage of baking and is responsible for structure formation in bread (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001;Gallagher et al., 2004). The visco-elastic dough led to formation of bread with a good loaf volume, a typical crumb structure and sponge-like texture, which is highly desirable. ...
Chapter
For successful bread making process gluten has an important role to play. But many of the individuals are susceptible to gluten and are associated with the development of gluten related disorders even on ingestion of small amount of gluten. The increasing incidence of gluten related disorders promotes worldwide interests for development of gluten free bread. However the exclusion of gluten from bread formulation has unfavourable effects on the bread making process and sensory attributes, and raises technological challenges in terms of making good quality bread. Gluten-free bread has poor visual, textural characteristics, low nutritional value, decreased mouth feel and flavour, as well as a shorter shelf-life. The low quality of gluten-free bread still remains a challenge in gluten-free bread making. In response to this, the use of novel alternative flours, functional and nutritional ingredients, processing aids, additives, innovative techniques, and their combinations are being used to improve the quality characteristics of gluten-free bread. This book chapter will present the main problems related to gluten-free bread making technology and to summarise the approaches which can be used to improve the technological, nutritional, and sensory properties of gluten-free bread.
... Rapid-visco analyser measures pasting properties of a our-water suspension, which are largely in uenced by the starch properties of the examined our 34 . With increased amount and activity of α-amylase, starch is degraded to smaller sugar components impacting pasting properties, which is indirectly measured by falling number test 35,36 . Consequently, the clustering of these traits in our network analyses is logical and expected. ...
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Wheat is one of the most important staple crops playing a pivotal role to sustainably feed the growing world population. Wheat breeding mainly focused on improving agronomy and techno-functionality for bread or pasta production, but nutrient content is becoming increasingly more important to fight malnutrition. We therefore investigated 282 bread wheat cultivars from seven decades of wheat breeding in Central Europe on 63 different traits related to agronomy, quality and nutrients under multiple field trials. Wheat breeding has tremendously increased grain yield, resistance against diseases and lodging as well as baking quality across last decades. Whereas, mineral content slightly decreased without selection on it, probably due to its negative correlation with grain yield. The significant genetic variances determined for almost all traits show the potential for further improvement but significant negative correlations among grain yield and baking quality as well as grain yield and mineral content complicate their combined improvement. Thus, compromises in improvement of these traits are necessary to feed a growing global population.
... The introduction of Black Carrot Powder (BCP) into the formulation of black carrot bread resulted in changes to the gluten content, which subsequently impacted the overall texture of the bread. These modifications in texture were found to be consistent with the observations made by Ref. [37] about the influence of ingredient modifications on sensory qualities, specifically firmness. Our research is consistent with the findings of [26,38]; and [10]; which suggest that the replacement of wheat flour with non-wheat elements in bread formulations leads to an increase in hardness. ...
Article
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Black carrot is a prominent source of polyphenols and the cheapest source of anthocyanins in India. In this study, an attempt has been made to examine the feasibility of black carrot powder as an ingredient in bread. Black carrot bread was prepared by incorporating different concentrations of black carrot powder (BCP) at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 %. The developed bread samples were analyzed for physical and textural quality, proximate composition, bioactive compounds, antioxidant properties, sensory characteristics, mineral content and storage quality. The results revealed that loaf volume and specific volume decreased (1995–1254 mL, 5.25–3.28 mL/g) with the incorporation of BCP into bread. Textural analysis revealed that the addition of BCP led to increased hardness in the bread (0.110–12 0.151 N), whereas the resilience (43.64–35.10 %), cohesion and springiness (89.930–13 82.146 %) decreased significantly. The content of bioactive compounds such as total phenols, anthocyanins (29.63–112.68 mg/100 g) and flavonoids increased to exceptionally high levels in BCP-incorporated bread and showed high antioxidant activity. Incorporation of BCP up to 7.5 % showed the most acceptable sensory analysis score (7.85) with a significant increase in dietary fiber (40 %) and total mineral content (50 %), which revealed that black carrot powder could be used up to 7.5 % as an ingredient into bread with high acceptability. The present study revealed significant enhancement in bioactive compounds and mineral content of bread after the incorporation of black carrot powder, which supports its immense potential in preventing hunger and oxidative stress-induced disorders in developing countries.
... This result appears to be related to the specific volume findings observed with the 5% hazelnut skin bread. Weight to volume ratio in bread has been reported as the most important factor in the development of bread's physical properties (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). Lebesi and Tzia (2011) (Table 3). ...
Article
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The objective of this study was to explore the use of hazelnut skin and modified starches as functional additives in sourdough bread to valorize food byproducts and maintain product quality. We examined the incorporation of 5% and 10% hazelnut skin in tandem with 3% and 5% cross‐linked and oxidized starches into the bread matrix. Our methods included quantitative analysis of nutritional composition changes, and end product quality. Adding 5% hazelnut skin enhanced loaf volume and resulted in a softer crumb structure. Hazelnut skin at 5% significantly (p < 0.05) increased bread volume. Hardness values ranged from 2.21 to 11.3 N. In conclusion, sourdough bread formulated with 5% hazelnut skin optimizes quality in terms of volume and softness. Modified starches can be strategically employed to adjust textural challenges presented by the inclusion of dietary fibers. This study demonstrates that strategic ingredient additions can lead to improved utilization of food byproducts while enhancing bread characteristics. Practical applications This study presents a novel approach to enhancing sourdough bread quality by incorporating hazelnut skin, a sustainable and underutilized byproduct of the nut industry. The successful addition of 5% hazelnut skin improves loaf volume and softness, which could significantly benefit the bakery sector by providing a means to produce a superior product with added nutritional value. Moreover, the use of modified starches helps mitigate the textural challenges often associated with fiber enrichment in bread, thus allowing bakeries to offer products that cater to health‐conscious consumers without compromising on sensory qualities. The industrial adoption of this method can lead to reduced food waste, as hazelnut byproducts are valorized, and may resonate with eco‐friendly branding strategies. Our findings support the potential for food industries to create breads with enhanced consumer appeal while contributing to environmental sustainability.
... Regulation of the rate of heat transfer and level of humidity level of the baking chamber can be beneficial in the following ways: · Products can be heated with greater efficacy · Reduction in the production cost · Greater yield of bakery products · Reduction of baking time since the required temperature is attained quicker · Improved consistency and increased rate reproducibility of products · Humidity influences the product performance during baking and the quality of the final product, including crust thickness, colour and formation of crumb During baking, there are many changes in the dough's physical and chemical attributes. The atmospheric humidity in the oven during the process of baking is known to have a more significant impact on the oven rise, i.e. expanding the fermented dough in the initial stages of baking; however, few researchers have reported the impact of the amount of injected steam on bread and the structure of the crust (Scanlon &Zghal, 2001;Le-bail et al., 2011a). Sommier et al. (2005) have reported the effect of baking conditions, including vault and hearth temperatures, water vapour injection on dough expansion, scar opening, and crust formation in French bread baking. ...
Chapter
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During baking, heat gets transferred through radiation and convection modes. Baking is a method of cooking using dry heat in which the dough is changed into nutritionally improved food (nutritional improvements). At the same time, microbes resulting in spoilage are destroyed, extending the shelf life of the food product (food preservation). Baking does not significantly affect the nutritive value. In baking, heating is carried out by infra-red energy, which is radiated from the walls of the oven, by hot air circulation and by the process of conduction through the baking pan/tray. The effectiveness of the baking method depends on the appropriate usage of the walls, tray and ventilation system. Dry heat involved in baking alters the starch structure of the food item. It imparts the outer layer brown colour (owing to sugar caramelization and Maillard reaction), thus, making it more appealing in appearance and taste while locking the free water of the food product to some extent. Although free water does not get locked entirely in, during the baking time, the product becomes dry. Bakery comprises conventional products and is significant in the food processing segment. Consumption of bakery food items has become familiar to all sections of society. In India, the bakery category used to be divided into three major classes, including bread, biscuits and cakes but currently, Indian bakery is not limited to only these. It is now categorized in terms of state and art technology. Bakery precognition items include pastries, danish pastries, croissants, rusk, pizzas, pancakes, crisp bread, bread sticks, kulchas, crackers, garlic bread, fruit bread, focaccia, buns and pav, ciabatta, French baguette, rye Bread etc.
... Compared with whole wheat bread (WB), the specific volume of bread supplemented with β-glucan (WB + β) was increased, which may be due to the fact that β-glucan of highland barley belongs to soluble fibre. The addition of soluble fibre reportedly allowed more gas to enter the dough during kneading and maintained the uniformity of bubbles, and the dough was more stable and had the potential to ferment into larger dough during fermentation (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001;Martıńez et al., 2014). The influence degree of β-glucan on the specific volume of bread was proved to be related to its molecular weight and the concentration added to the bread (Ronda et al., 2015). ...
Article
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Whole wheat bread is rich in nutrition, but its starch digestibility is unsatisfactory. Thus, how to reduce its digestibility has attracted much attention. This study investigated the effects of highland barley protein and β‐glucan on the pasting properties, and thermal properties of whole wheat flour to reveal the mechanism of highland barley protein and β‐glucan regulating the in vitro digestibility. The digestibility results showed that β‐glucan and protein could slow down starch digestion to some degree. The cross‐section structure determination results indicated that β‐glucan and protein decreased the porosity. The differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis results showed that β‐glucan and protein increased the onset of pasting, decreased the peak temperature and enthalpy of pasting and decreased the thermal stability. The Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy results revealed a blue‐shift in the ‐OH position of the bread added with protein and β‐glucan (from 995.59 to 996.07 cm⁻¹), indicating that the hydrogen bonding might form intramolecularly. In this study, the addition of highland barley protein and β‐glucan was proved to be helpful in decreasing the in vitro digestibility and showed modification in the texture quality of bread, which might be suitable for diabetic patients.
... The sugars that were consumed during fermentation were generated by the enzymatic hydrolysis of damaged starch [26]. The size and density of the bubbles can change the texture and sensory properties of the finished product [27]. It is worth noting that in the early stage of leavening, a change in the shape of the dough ball was observed, which was more flattened by gravity and enlarged at the base, but the overall volume remained constant ( Figure 1B, images at 4 and 8 h). ...
Article
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The research objective was to investigate the morpho-rheological, chemical, and structural changes of dough and Neapolitan pizza TSG as the leavening time varies and to evaluate their effects on the digestibility of starch and on the formation of acrylamide during baking. Pizza dough leavening was monitored for 48 h at 22 °C/80% RH, and the analyses were conducted at selected leavening times (0, 4, 8, 16, 24, and 48 h). It was observed that in 30 h the volume tripled and the viscoelastic dough relaxed in the first 4 h, as evidenced by the lower value of the relaxation percentage “a” and the higher rate of decay “b”, associated with a high value of the compression work, indicating the presence of a very strong gluten mesh. In the following hours, the dough lost elasticity, and in fact, the G’ modulus decreased due to the weakening of the weak interactions between the gluten proteins and the starch. This suggests that a long leavening improved the extensibility of the pizza disc, facilitating the action of the pizza maker. Thermal (TGA and DSC) and morphological (SEM) analyses evidenced the highest water removal rate from the dough, a wider starch gelatinization temperature range, a ∆H of 0.975 ± 0.013 J/g, and a more open and weak gluten structure in dough balls leavened for 16 h. As the leavening time increased, both dough and pizza base samples showed an increase in reducing sugars and free amino groups, while the rapidly digestible starch decreased in the dough following the metabolism of the yeasts and increased in the pizza base due to the starch gelatinization that occurs during baking, which makes it much more susceptible to α-amylase. Finally, the levels of acrylamide remained at the same values despite the higher availability of reducing sugars and its precursors during leavening.
... Hence, it is necessary to understand the macroscopic behavior and complexity of bread crumb during storage and to relate them to the biopolymer building blocks of bread (13). Evaluation of the mechanical properties of crumb is of particular importance as they determine the consumer's perception of bread quality (16). A number of techniques have been used to measure the mechanical properties of bread crumb, including indentation (17,18), compression (18)(19)(20), tension (5,21), and shear measurements (22). ...
Article
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Background and Objectives: The quality of flat breads depends in part on their textural and structural properties during storage. These properties are largely affected by flour quality. This research aimed at evaluating the textural and structural properties of Lavash bread types during storage by different techniques, comparing these methods, and determining the possible correlation between the obtained results. Materials and Methods: Three Lavash flours (named strong, medium and weak flours) with different physical, chemical and rheological properties were used. Determination of texture firmness of Lavash breads (Lavash A, Lavash B and Lavash C made of strong, medium and weak flours, respectively) during storage was carried out by Texture analyzer, evaluation of breads porosity and their changes process during storage was performed by ultrasonic nondestructive technique, assessment of the breads' microstructure was made by SEM, evaluation of starch gelatinization and retro-gradation was performed by DSC, and the sensory evaluation of breads was made by a trained panelist. All determinations were made in triplicate, except the sensory test that was performed in ten repeats, and mean values were presented. Results: Lavash B made from medium flour had less firmnness, lower transition of ultrasonic wave velocity, less value of elastic modulus, reduced value of enthalpy, lower average temperature, more pore diameter and area of images, and higher points of sensory evaluation than Lavash A and Lavash C breads during the storage time. The results of mentioned tests (devices and sensory tests) had significant correlation to each other. Conclusions: Desirable quality characterization and higher shelf life of Lavash B were due to flour qualitative characteristics of this type of bread to obtain dough with appropriate elasticity and excellent sheeting capability. Ultrasonic non-destructive method is recommended to use instead of other methods for assessing texture, cell structure and elastic properties of bread after baking and during the storage time. This method is fast, non-destructive and cheaper than other methods, and can be used during production.
... The size as well as the number of these expanded gas bubbles is crucial for the achievable crumb and product appearance. The crumb itself, at a macroscopic level, is comprised of a fluid (gas) and a solid (gas cell wall material) phase (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). During the expansion of the bubbles in the dough, the walls of the gas cells (dough matrix) are stretched tangentially in two directions and compressed uniaxially in the radial direction, forming lamellae around the enclosed gas cells (Alpers et al., 2020). ...
Article
Leavening agents play a pivotal role in the production of baked goods. Through gas production the inner structure of the product gets its typical foam structure and textural appearance. Baking trials are thereby a common way to determine the achievable loaf volume, crumb structure and other product specific properties. The required material input for these classic baking trials is high, as well as specific baking skills are required to obtain comparable and reliable results. To minimize the previously mentioned challenges, an in-line kneading, proofing, and baking process in a conventional rheometer was used and a microscale method was developed to determine both flour-specific baking performance and leavening-dependent volume increase without sample transfer. The results show a direct comparability of standard baking tests and the microscale method with yeast. In a second step the influence of the commercial used acidifying agent in baking powder D-(+)-Glucono-1,5-lactone (GDL) was compared to l-galactono-1,4-lactone (GGL), an alternative that has the potential to be biotechnologically produced from pectin-rich plant biomass residues. The results showed that GGL produced carbon dioxide slower then GDL and could therefore be interesting for frozen or slow rising products especially for protein rich flours.
... For this, however, it is necessary that the mechanical action exerted on the dough is sufficiently intense. An insufficient or excessively intense mechanical action leads to obtaining products of lower quality; in the first case the dough reaches the maximum potential of its rheological properties, and in the second case the gluten skeleton is destroyed (Belderok 2000, Scanlon andZghal 2001). As well as the duration of fermentation, leavening as well as the duration and method of baking are the parameters that can influence the quality of the finished product (Rosell et al. 2007, Mais et al. 2008. ...
Article
Knowing the behavior of the dough is useful and necessary in the industry for the evaluation of the technological and functional parameters of the equipment that processes the dough as well as the establishment of the technological parameters of the bread manufacturing process. Starting from these specifications, the theme addressed in this study refers to the formation and qualitative behavior of the assortment of bread with potatoes compared to an assortment of white bread on the market. In this sense, qualitative aspects encountered during the process of obtaining and preserving the varieties of bread under study are followed: industrial white bread and industrial white bread with potatoes, made according to a traditional method. After obtaining, the samples of bread formed in the laboratory are analyzed chemically (determination of acidity and ash).
... Özellikle ekmek ve diğer unlu mamullerin günlük olarak insanlar tarafından sürekli tüketilmesi insan sağlığına doğrudan etki etmesine neden olmaktadır. Bu nedenle unlu mamullerin sağlıklı ve besleyici olması gerekmekte ve kenevir ununun bu noktada pozitif etkileri görülmektedir (31,32). ...
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K enevir birçok farklı alanda kullanılan önemli bir bitkidir. Hem erkek hem de dişi yapısı olan, yıllık dioik bir türdür. Hint keneviri (Cannabis indica) ve endüstriyel kenevir olarak adlandırılan (Cannabis sativa L.) iki türü öne çıkmaktadır. Narko-tik maddeler için üretilen ve dişi çiçek salkımlarının reçinesi olan tür indica'dır. Sativa ise güçlü lifler için üretilen ve çok az reçine oluşturan en yaygın türdür. Günümüzde yaşanan kuraklıklar ve savaşlar nedeni ile buğday stoklarında ve üretiminde sıkıntılar baş göstermeye başlamıştır. Bu nedenle buğday unu yerine unlu mamullerin yapımında kullanılmak üzere alternatif ürünlerin arayışına gidilmektedir. Bu alan da ihtiyacı gidermek için kenevirin kullanımı da araştırılmaktadır. Kenevir denilince ilk akla gelen uyuşturucu olarak tüketil-mesi nedeni ile kuşku ile bakılmaktadır. "Acaba böyle bir etkiye sahip olan kenevir ile biz uyuşturucu bağımlısı mı yapılmak isteniyoruz?" sorusu zihinleri meşgul etmektedir. Bu soru doğal olarak herkesin merak ettiği bir konudur. Fakat kenevirin uyuşturucu olarak kullanıldığı tür, tıbbi kenevir olarak bilinen türüdür. Kenevirin, endüstriyel kenevir olarak adlandırılan türü birçok farklı sanayi alanında da kullanıldığı için endüstriyel kenevir olarak isimlendirilmekte ve unlu mamullerin yapımında bu tür kullanılmaktadır. Bu ne-denle endüstriyel kenevirden elde edilen un ile üretilen mamullerde uyuşturucu etkisinin oluşmadığını bilimsel çalışmaların sonuçları ve gönül rahatlığı ile söyleyebiliriz. Haşhaş da uyuşturucu olarak etkisi bilinen ama aynı zamanda birçok unlu mamullerde kullanılan bir bitki türü olduğu için bu yönü ile kenevirde haşhaş gibi kullanılabilmektedir. Böylece gelecekte ön görülen gıda stoklarındaki azalmada kenevirin alternatif bir ürün olabileceği görülmektedir. Bu alanda özellikle ekmek, kurabiye ve pasta gibi unlu mamullerde kullanıl-ması hem ekonomik hem de sosyal yönden topluma önemli derecede katkı sağlayacaktır (1). Kenevir, uyuşturucu özelliğinden dolayı uzun yıllar yasaklanmasına rağmen dünya genelinde birçok ülkede son zamanlarda yapılan düzenlemeler ile üretimi teşvik edilmektedir. Ülkemizde de geçmişte yapılan yasaklamalar yerini kontrollü üretime bırakmış ve 2016 yılında yapılan düzenleme ile üretimi daha da teşvik edilmiştir. Bu amaçla kenevir ile ilgili bir yönetmelik hazırlanmıştır. Bu çıkarılan yönetmelik ile kenevirin uyuşturucu olarak kullanılması engellenmekte ve endüstriyel kenevirin ise belirli alanlarda kullanılması için üretimi teşvik edilmekte, üretimin yapılacağı usul ve esaslar temel hatları ile ortaya konmaktadır (2). Kenevirin gıda kaynağı olarak kullanımı yüzyıllar öncesine dayanmaktadır. Özellikle Avrupa'da besleyici gıda olarak kullanılmaktadır. Gıda sektöründe doğrudan ve dolaylı
... Additionally, the mixed gels with the highest speed contain a greater number of bubbles. Many studies [43,44] show that the increase in mixing rate generates a larger number of bubbles with smaller size, which is also observed for our study. The mean diameter of bubble and oil droplets decreases from 19 to 14 µm with an increase in the mixing rate from 10,000 to 11, 000 rpm. ...
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This study aimed to determine the effect of different mixing rates and the addition of lecithin on the rheological mechanical, and acoustic properties of agar gels with the addition of canola oil. The mixing rate of the agar–oil mixture was changed from 10,000 to 13,000 rpm. Additionally, agar gels with the addition of lecithin from 1 to 5% were prepared. The frequency sweep test was used (at 4 and 50 °C) within the linear viscoelastic region (LVR) in oscillatory measurement. The agar–oil mixture was cooled from 80 to 10 °C, enabling the obtainment of the gelling temperature. Texture profile analysis (TPA) and compression tests, as well as the acoustic emission method, were applied to analyse the texture of the gels. The syneresis and stability of gels during storage were also measure. The increase in mixing rate in the case of agar gel with canola oil causes an increase in the elastic component of materials as well hardness and gumminess. Also, samples prepared with the higher mixing rate have more uniform and stable structures, with small bubbles. The increase in the concentration of lecithin is ineffective due to the formation of gels with a weak matrix and low hardness, gumminess, and stability during storage.
... Improvement in loaf volume is even attributed to high fiber content and AX properties. The high water-holding capacity of AX and their associated functional groups such as ferulic acid help to make dough bulkier which positively affects the final characteristics of the bread (Scanlon and Zghal, 2001). Also, the lower A/X ratio of WB-AX causes the aggregation of molecules which affects the rheological properties of dough (Pavlovich-Abril et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2020). ...
Article
Over the past decades, adding dietary fibers (DF) to the human diet has gained interest due to their evident health effects. It led to more extensive studies for finding their purpose and exploring the utilization of some specific agro-processing wastes as their sustainable sources. Wheat bran (WB) is one of the popular sources available in huge quantity, generated during the wheat milling process as a co-product. It contains a good proportion of healthy DF, as claimed, and so several researchers are working to explore its potential as a prospective food ingredient. However, despite being a rich source of DF, its food applications are limited owing to poor textural and functional properties. Lower bioavailability, instability, and losses of available nutrients and bioactives during different processing conditions are severe points of concern. However, there are some technical developments to limit these negative effects and increase the usability of WB as an important ingredient in different food products. This review explores and highlights the dietary role of fiber, opportunities and challenges in valorizing WB as a sustainable DF source, health benefits, including gut health, and their food applications. Moreover, physical, chemical, and biological modifications, including novel treatments, have been critically discussed. The future scope for developing functional food products based on modified WB-DF using current technologies and processes has been compiled in this review.
... Bread physical structure was identified as one of the most important factors determining the GI, implying that the higher porous structure, the higher the GI. Crumb structure can be defined as a two-phase soft cellular solid, formed by a solid phase consisting of the cell wall structure and a liquid phase made up of air (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). Such sponge-like crumb structure (Dahiya, Bajaj, Kumar, Tiwari, & Singh, 2020) is developed during the phase of mixing, leavening and thermal setting (baking) (Zhou & Hui, 2014). ...
Article
The effects of three leavening times (60, 105 and 150 minutes) on structure and some physico-chemical and nutritional properties of bread added with 20% of green lentil flour were investigated. Leavening time largely affected bread physico-chemical properties, leading to a significant reduction in moisture content, an increase in weight loss and a darker appearance of bread crumb as leavening time increased. Besides, crumb of bread leavened for the longest time (B150) showed a compact structure and the highest resistance to the compression, while the Young’s modulus increased linearly with the rising of leavening time. By contrast, breads leavened for shorter times (B60 and B105) had a more porous structure with more circular bubbles compared to B150, exhibiting lower deformation resistance. Different bread macrostructure had a significant impact on the in vitro protein and starch digestibility. The α amino nitrogen release and the estimated Glycemic Index (eGI) at the end of digestion reached the lowest values in bread leavened for the longest time (B150). In particular, eGI showed a linear correlation both with the Young’s modulus (R²= -0.926) and macrostructural properties (R² = 0.902), suggesting that modelling bread structure by acting on leavening time can be a novel approach to develop healthier products.
... C-CELL is an instrument that can collect information such as the sample's size, structure, and shape. At present, it is mostly used to analyze the appearance of bread or steamed bread (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). ...
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Excessive deformation destroys the structure of wheat flour-based noodles. Wheat starch/gluten extruded noodles with various starch contents were made by an extruder and dried under various relative humidities to control noodle deformation. The difference between water activity (aw) and relative humidity (RH) includes three models: decrease model [(aw-RH) 33%→6%], constant model [(aw-RH) 22%→23%], and increase model [(aw-RH) 22%→40%]. The water migration rate was high when the difference increased, or the starch content was relatively high. When the extruded noodles are in the glass state, the relatively high water loss rate, induced by the model of [(aw-RH) 22%→40%], causes a high change ratio of slice area, rough area ratio, and concavity percentage of extruded noodles. Therefore, the water loss rate and deformation degree of wheat starch/gluten extruded noodles can be controlled by the difference between the water activity of noodles and the relative humidity of the environment.
... It should break easily without crumbling (Shevkani et al., 2015). It is a highly porous baked food, and the quality of its crumb (appearance, texture and flavor) significantly influences consumer preference (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). Consumers are now inclined toward foods that impart additional health benefits along with convenience. ...
Article
The study aimed to effectively utilize soy (okara) and citrus juice (citrus peel) industry waste for developing functionalized bakery product. Muffins were prepared using composite flours having okara along with candied citrus peel. Flours were evaluated for the change in techno‐functional properties with increasing level of okara addition. Muffins were analyzed for their physical, chemical, functional and sensory characteristics. Muffins with 15% okara with 2% candied citrus peel were found to be highly acceptable with improved protein (12.70%), dietary fiber (8.26%), total mineral (1.86%), phenols (88.12mg 100g‐1) and flavonoid content (96.31μmole Trolox100g‐1) with insignificant changes in mouthfeel and total calorific value. Majorly, citrus peel contributed to the antioxidants (phenols and flavonoids) of functionalized muffins. Okara addition resulted in ~22% increase in protein and ~45% increase in dietary fiber content of the muffins. Performance of polypropylene was superior over cling film in terms of muffin quality during 9 days ambient storage.
... Based on Table 2, it can be stated that specific volume was inversely proportional with density of all the whole meal bread sample. Density was the inverse of specific volume and it gave extensive effect on bread crumb, which means that when density increased, the specific volume been decreased (Scanlon & Zghal, 2001). ...
Article
Whole meal bread made up from whole grains mostly consumed due to health purpose. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of processing technique on physical (colour, moisture content, pore size, texture and specific volume) and organoleptic properties of whole meal bread. Three treatments which B1, B2 and B3 of whole meal bread were prepared which represent the processing technique straight dough, sponge and dough, and sourdough, respectively. Whole meal bread between B1 and B2 with B3 showed significant (p < 0.05) increased in density (276.58, 270.35, 647.84 g/cmᶾ), hardness (747.16, 747.16, 2425.75 g/cmᶾ) and chewiness (495.71, 519.98, 2843.73 g) respectively. Variations were observed for crumb (internal) and crust (external) colour from 33.77 to 39.63 (L-value), 3.08 to 9.80 (a-value) and 25.38 to 10.82 (b-value), 23.65 to 27.94 (L-value), 2.27 to 2.95 (a-value), 9.26 to 13.11 (b-value) respectively. Hence, straight dough method produced whole meal bread with higher value of specific volume (3.58 cmᶾ/g), moisture content (24.66 %), lightness of crumb (23.65) and chewiness (495.71 g). Thus, results showed that straight dough method was the most efficient and acceptable method for bread baking process in order to get the good physical and organoleptic properties of whole meal bread.
... La fermen tation d'une pâte ne peut être caractérisée qu'après que ses pores ont été mesurés. Cette méthodologie a été développée à l'origine pour la céramique (Hall, Bracchini 1997), ensuite utilisée pour contrôler la qualité du pain moderne (Scanlon, Zghal 2001), et finalement adaptée aux pains archéologiques (Heiss et al. 2015). Quand la mie n'est pas directement observable, il faut avoir recours à des techniques d'imagerie appropriées, telles que la microtomographie CT-scan (Cafarelli et al. 2014). ...
Article
Parmi les mobiliers archéologiques figurent régulièrement des fragments de matière organique carbonisée (MOC), fréquemment assimilables à des produits végétaux transformés. Les plus grands d’entre eux laissent encore deviner leur forme d’origine, et ils peuvent être identifiés comme des artéfacts. Dans les cas où l’analyse les désigne comme des mets élaborés, le potentiel informatif de ces éléments paniformes (EPF) – potentiellement des pâtes, pains, pains plats, galettes, gâteaux, biscuits, etc. – est considérable, même si leurs composantes ne sont plus visibles macroscopiquement. Ils sont en effet le reflet direct de pratiques alimentaires en contexte domestique, ou ils participent de rites en contexte cultuel. Encore sous-exploités dans la démarche archéologique, ces EPF représentent en réalité des produits complexes, témoignant de savoir-faire culinaires dans un environnement culturel précis. Plusieurs démarches analytiques permettent d’identifier la composition de ces préparations alimentaires et de préciser certaines étapes de leur apprêt. Les grains moulus de céréales sont identifiés par l’histologie du son, en observant notamment la morphologie de certaines couches de cellules. Les pratiques boulangères sont approchées par microtomographie aux rayons X, de manière non intrusive, en observant l’aspect des pâtes, révélateur de leur façonnage (pétrissage, levée, pliage, formation d’une croûte, cuisson dans un moule, etc.). Par observation au microscope électronique à balayage, on relève aussi la présence d’impuretés ou l’adjonction d’ingrédients. L’étude des farines et des modes de préparation permet de voir en quoi les standards de qualité évoluent sur le temps long, en relation avec les caractéristiques des céréales. À titre d’illustration, les résultats des analyses de six préparations alimentaires à base de céréales, datées entre le iie s. av. J.-C. et le vie s. apr. J.-C., sont présentés dans cet article.
... Wheat flour with a falling number between 200 s and 250 s can produce a good bread crumb with the ideal texture, colour and a good volume of bread can be obtained (Perten, 1964). Bread sticks become sticky when using flour with a falling number less than 150 s because the starch in question is strongly hydrolysed by αamylase and cannot form a continuous starch-protein matrix of bread (Hug-Iten et al., 1999;Scanlon and Zghal, 2001). Although a low Falling number is associated with the unwanted texture, using a high falling number flour does not guarantee excellent baking quality. ...
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The quality of wheat is essential for the processing of flour in the bakery industry, this can be determined by several methods, one of which is alveographic properties. The problem of sprouting from a batch of stored wheat can lead to a sufficiently high enzymatic activity that compromises the functionality of the flour and the quality of the bread. The phenomenon is usually analysed using the Hagberg falling number method. Maintaining the quality of cereals and preventing large product losses is achieved with the help of efficient storage systems. This paper evaluates the link between the effects of long-term, more accurate wheat storage and alveographic properties, along with falling number (FN). The wheat from which the flour is obtained is stored for a period of at least three years, the purpose of this study being to observe the quality of the wheat over time. To obtain high quality doughs, the wheat must be conditioned 24 hours before being analysed. In this respect 12 samples of common wheat were analysed, from the area of the Curtea de Argeș, Romania provided by the deposits of the National Administration of State Reserves and Special Issues. From the values obtained for FN and Alveograph, it could be observed that analysed samples storage suffered quality loss after several years of storage compared to the moment they were collected. Factors leading to deterioration of these properties could be improper storage, humidity, and temperature of the product as well as the microclimate not being controlled or monitored daily, ventilation not provided by mechanical means, especially during the summertime, appropriate measures were not taken to keep these parameters within limits allowed, treatments against live pest infestation.
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Refined wheat breads are consumed throughout the world as an energy‐dense staple food. The consumption of refined wheat bread has raised concerns among health‐conscious consumers. This has partly stimulated research interest in the inclusion of functional ingredients such as germinated/fermented legume flour in the development of nutritious and healthy breads to drive innovations in the bakery industry and overcome sustainability problems. Nevertheless, the inclusion of germinated/fermented legume flours cannot be a direct replacement of refined wheat, because processing requirements must be met. This critical review analyzes the impact of germinated/fermented legume flour on the rheological characteristics, nutritional quality, health‐promoting, and technological properties of wheat‐based bread for improved nutrition and health, identifying current challenges. The macroconstituent changes and the increasing enzyme activity produced during germination/fermentation influence the functionality of wheat dough and the resultant bread quality. Substitution of up to 20% germinated legume flour caused detrimental effects on technological properties of the bread, whereas better technological properties were recorded with up to 20% fermented legume flour. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to provide detailed insight on this observation. Germinated/fermented legume flour could serve as a functional ingredient for the development of nutritious and healthy breads. In fact, breads containing germinated/legume flour are rich in quality protein, dietary fiber, micronutrients, phytochemicals, and bioactive constituents and low in glycemic index with improved sensory properties compared to 100% wheat bread. Nonetheless, information on the bioavailability of nutrients in breads containing germinated/fermented legumes using in vivo studies and profiling the metabolites therein are scarce in the literature.
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Flour is a raw powdery product obtained from grinding of cereals, legumes, and other agricultural crops and is a base material in making different foods. Flour-based baked products are the main human foods produced using flour and other ingredients making it an important industry around the world. Different kinds of flour-based baked goods such as bread, biscuit, cake, confectionery, and noodles are produced in bakeries or baking factories. The quality of flour-based products strongly depends on the quality of flour and processing steps in bakery units. Machine vision is an inexpensive, fast, objective, reliable, and nondestructive technology that has been widely applied to assess the quality of flour and flour-based baked products. The applications of machine vision and digital image processing based on visible, thermal, hyperspectral, X-ray, and magnetic resonance imaging in the flour and flour-based products sector have been reviwed in this chapter. These applications include determining chemical compositions, estimating physical properties, detecting contaminations and adulterations, and estimating the staling and shelf life of the products.
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Bread structure is a determinant of loaf volume and resilience, as well as the sensation perceived during eating, and its analysis comprises the study of the fluid phase (air), also named as void, cells or pores, and the solid phase of bread crumb (cell wall material). Acquisition of two-dimensional images by flatbed scanning is the most commonly employed method to perform image analysis of bread as it is fast, easy to use, economical, robust, independent of the external light conditions, and accurate. To enhance the contrast between the two phases, once acquired, the image is subjected to cell segmentation, a process that separates or classifies objects of interest from its background, typically yielding a binary image, set at a specific threshold. Thresholding is a critical step in ensuring a successful partition of crumb cells from the background and assumes that the object and background pixels can be distinguished by selection of an optimal gray level value. Hundreds of segmentation techniques are described in the literature, yet the Otsu method, based on an algorithm that minimizes the intraclass variance of the segmented region, or manual thresholding, is those most reported. Once the binary image is obtained, the software processes it, and crumb grain properties such as number of cells, number of cells/cm2, mean cell area, cell-total area ratio, and cell wall thickness can be calculated.
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This study explored the potential of a novel gas-assisted high-moisture extrusion cooking technique to improve the physical quality of meat analogues. Extrusion was performed as a full factorial design at three long cooling die temperatures (DT) (35, 50 and 65 °C) and three nitrogen gas injection pressures (GP) (0, 1 and 2.5 bar). The lowest meat analogue density was observed for the meat analogues produced at the lowest DT and highest GP combination. At the lowest DT, gas injection substantially decreased meat analogue hardness, chewiness and gumminess. X-ray microtomography analyses for meat analogues produced at 2.5 bar gas injection pressure revealed that DT significantly affected bubble sizes with larger and more diverse bubbles in the meat analogues produced at the lowest DT. These microstructural variations indicate that gas-assisted high-moisture extrusion cooking can be fine-tuned to improve the texture and, thus, sensory properties of meat analogues.
Chapter
Bread, pastry, biscuits and cake, though very different in their textures, have common ingredients, namely cereal flour. In this chapter, we explore the factors that control the texture of these four categories of bakery product, considering some of the variants and differences in processing conditions.
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To overcome the existing artificial experience evaluation approaches of wheat dough crumb (DC), image processing technique combined migration learning technique has been developed as the precise quantitative on-line evaluation methodology, the core indicator with stacked shaded area (SSA) for DC image evaluation can be used for DC quality evaluation. This study used image characteristics of DC to explore the correlation between noodle qualities at different mixing stages and uniformity of particles. The results showed that the changing regularities of noodle qualities were generally consistent at different mixing stages and finally reached stability. The mean value of SSA of DC showed a highly significant positive correlation with cooking loss (r = 0.93) and a highly significant negative correlation with elasticity and hardness (r = −0.90, r = −0.71) of noodles, indicating that DC can be used to predict noodle qualities. This study is instructive for achieving automatic control of mixing process during noodles production.
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Background and Objective For control of bread quality to achieve high loaf volume and uniform crumb structure, gas bubble dynamics in dough needs to be better understood throughout different breadmaking processes. The objective of this review was to establish a solid theoretical basis on how flour type, water and salt content, and mixing conditions affected the incorporation, evolution, and stabilization of gas bubbles in a dough. Findings Bubble dynamics including entrainment, disentrainment, break‐up, disproportionation, growth, and coalescence were outlined and their effects on the gas phase of the dough were assessed. The application, advantages, and disadvantages of microscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and X‐ray microtomography techniques for qualitatively or quantitatively characterizing the void fraction and bubble size distribution (BSD) in the dough at various stages of the breadmaking process have been discussed. Conclusions Since the BSD evolution in bread dough is associated with the quality of the resultant products, to devise strategies for improving the product quality, dough formulation, and mixing conditions need to be considered. Significance and Novelty Due to the obvious challenges of monitoring the fast evolution of BSD in yeasted dough, future research needs to focus on the effects of yeast activity on dough's BSD.
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Purpose: The enrichment of microbial growth in prepackaged, frozen food goods from the day of manufacturing to the day of expiration has been the subject of recurrent concerns. These fortified foods are widely consumed by individuals of all ages in poor nations due to their ability to satisfy even the smallest of appetites. People often disregard the expiration dates printed on food packaging despite the fact that manufacturers are required by law to do so. This research looked into whether or not it was safe to consume packaged foods that were getting close to their expiration date. Finding out if people are exposed to hazardous microorganisms and how much bacteria is created daily on them. Materials and methods: We collected six prepackaged backed food products samples of three types separately, where three were collected around manufacturing days and three were nearly expired days from different companies. We have assayed and identified the foodborne microbial communities among the samples by morphological study and different types of biochemical tests. After that, we tested how well various popular antibiotics worked against those isolates. Results: It showed that there are more bacterial communities that grow gradually day by day on prepackaged backed food products and nearly expired products that contain a large number of food-borne disease-causing bacteria that show mostly resistance against commonly used antibiotics. Conclusion: Although nowadays the demand for prepackaged backed food products is increasing as ready-to-eat processed foods, mostly in developing countries, there's a serious health risk if we take the products that were produced a long time ago.
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Bread is one of the oldest foods of mankind, and among them, the sandwich bread is worldwide known and used. In this study we used the non‐destructive computed microtomography technique (microCT) to evaluate the behavior of bread structure over weeks after the production. In addition, the influence of the storage location of the sandwich bread, we performed a comparative analysis between storage at ambient temperature and refrigerated conditions. The analysis of the reconstructed images shows that the bread suffers loss of structure over the weeks. We also have found that keeping the bread refrigerated loses liquid, drying the bread, and thus increasing the loss of its structure. In addition, the porous structure of the bread was evaluated, and a complete characterization of the microstructural changes was performed over time.
Chapter
The most useful properties of food, i.e. the ones that are detected through look, touch and taste, are a manifestation of the food’s structure. Studies about how this structure develops or can be manipulated during food production and processing are a vital part of research in food science. This book provides the status of research on food structure and how it develops through the interplay between processing routes and formulation elements. It covers food structure development across a range of food settings and consider how this alters in order to design food with specific functionalities and performance. Food structure has to be considered across a range of length scales and the book includes a section focusing on analytical and theoretical approaches that can be taken to analyse/characterise food structure from the nano- to the macro-scale. The book concludes by outlining the main challenges arising within the field and the opportunities that these create in terms of establishing or growing future research activities. Edited and written by world class contributors, this book brings the literature up-to-date by detailing how the technology and applications have moved on over the past 10 years. It serves as a reference for researchers in food science and chemistry, food processing and food texture and structure.
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Whole wheat flour dough (WWFD) has a high content of dietary fibres that causes a negative influence on the dough rheology, resulting in undesirable quality for whole wheat bread (WWB). Therefore, to devise the processing strategies for overcoming the quality issues for WWB is of remarkable significance. The cooperative fermentation by yeast and lactic acid bacteria (CFYL) has been proposed as a powerful processing technology to modify the dough rheology, retention and stabilization of gas cells for a WWFD. The breadmaking performance of WWFD has been modified due to the CFYL-induced changes in the structure of wheat bran, gluten proteins and wheat starch. CFYL mitigated the negative influence of wheat bran on gluten network. CFYL also strengthened the intermolecular interactions between proteins and starch. During CFYL, exopolysaccharides (EPSs), enzymes and organic acids were produced which modified the dough rheology and led to an improvement in the bread quality. Moreover, CFYL contributed to an increase in the water-extractable arabinoxylans and soluble wheat proteins but a decrease in the starch granule sizes. This results in a higher strain hardening and a stronger liquid film of the dough for improving the retention and stabilization of gas cells in a WWFD during breadmaking. As such, CFYL has a good potential use for WWB manufacturing to achieve the products with desirable overall quality and satisfactory consumer acceptability.
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Lychee juice by-product dietary fiber is a good source of dietary fiber, with a fine texture and easy acceptance by consumers. This study explored the effects of adding 5%–25% lychee pulp dietary fiber (LPDF) on bread quality characteristics and microstructure. The results showed that bread volume with 5%–15% LPDF was significantly higher than that of bread with 20% and 25% LPDF. A denser structure was formed in the bread after adding excessive LPDF, as observed by scanning electron microscopy images, with increased hardness and decreased bread elasticity. Adding LPDF enriched the cellulose I of dietary fiber and reduced the V-type amylose lipid complex, weakening the gluten network. Notably, the appropriate addition of LPDF gradually changed the starch particles into flake starch, which increased the gumminess and improved the chewiness of the bread. Our results indicate that bread samples with 15% specific-particle-size LPDF were rich in dietary fiber. Our results provide a scientific basis for the formulation of a healthy bread rich in lychee dietary fiber.
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The aim of this research study was to describe and classify French bread from neighbourhood bakeries and grocery stores in the Lima Metropolitan Area (Peru) by cluster and discriminant analyses. Mass, volume, specific volume, moisture, acidity, and salt content of 198 French bread samples were collected from 66 bakeries selected by convenience sampling. Samples were classified into three groups by using multivariate analyses. The highest mass and volume averages per bread unit were found in grocery store French breads. Specific volume ranged from 3.59 to 14.67 cm3/g. Grocery store breads were within humidity parameters set by Peruvian national regulations. However, neighbourhood bakery breads showed low humidity and high specific volume. It is concluded that French bread from the Lima Metropolitan Area can be classified into three groups according to their physicochemical characteristics.
Thesis
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Possibility to use Durum End Product to make bread with similar quality than Bread Wheat
Chapter
This is the first book for some years that provides a comprehensive overview of food oral processing. It includes fundamental chapters at the beginning of each section to aid the understanding of the later more specific oral processing chapters. The field is rapidly developing, and the systems researched in the context of food oral processing become increasingly complex and therefore the fundamental sections include information on how to build complex food systems. The main coverage includes the biomechanics of swallowing, the biophysics of mouthfeel and texture as well as the biochemistry of flavours and how food microstructures can be manipulated. It contains up-to-date research findings, looking at consumer preferences and the response to these preferences by food process technologists and those developing new foods. The book will be of interest to postgraduate students and researchers in academia and industry who may be from very diverse backgrounds ranging from food process engineers to functional food developers and professionals concerned with swallowing and taste disorders.
Article
Full-text available
The study investigated the effects of acidic water (sodium bisulfate, SBS /lactic acid, LA) tempering (alone) and in combination with heat treatment on Shiga toxin‐ producing E. coli (STEC) O121 and O26 load of wheat and its impact on wheat flour quality. The results of the study showed that tempering wheat with acidic water (5 and 10% w/v) alone reduced its STEC load by 2.0 and 2.6 log CFU/ g respectively (P ≤ 0.05) after 24 h of treatment. Heat treatment (55°C) significantly reduced the STEC load below detection limit (< 1.6 log CFU/g) after 12 h of treatment. The hurdle approach (5% acidic water + heat, 55°C) reduced the STEC load below detection limit within 6 h of treatment. Finally, the wheat flours produced using the hurdle approach had lower pH (5.77 ‐ 5.97) compared to the control without negatively affecting the baking and milling characteristics.
Article
The detection and quantification of soy protein is important for food allergen management and identifying the presence of undeclared soy proteins. Heat processing and matrix interactions can affect the accuracy of allergen detection methods. The sensitivity of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods can be compromised if protein epitopes are modified during processing. Therefore, a mass spectrometry (MS)-based method was evaluated for the recovery of total soy protein in incurred matrices. MS-based quantification of total soy protein was assessed by using a combination of external and internal standards. The reproducibility of the standard curves was investigated by comparing within-day and among-day variation. Incurred samples were prepared using bread and frankfurters as model food matrices. Several soy-derived ingredients were used to prepare the matrices with varying levels of soy protein (1, 10, 50, or 100 ppm of total soy protein). A pooled standard curve was used to estimate the total soy protein concentration of the incurred food matrices and the percent total protein recovery. The variation of replicate standard curves between days and among all days was not significant. The differences in slopes obtained from replicate standards run on different days were minimal. The most influential factor on the quantitative protein recovery in incurred samples was the effect of the physical matrix structure on protein extraction. The lowest percent protein recoveries, less than 50%, were calculated for uncooked matrices. The cooked matrices had percentage recoveries between 50 and 150% for all total soy protein levels. Other factors, such as type of ingredient, were determined to be not as impactful on recovery. The MS method described in this study was able to provide sensitive detection and accurate quantification of total soy protein from various soy-derived ingredients present in processed food matrices. Highlights:
Article
The mechanisms which control the formation and the final configuration of the cellular structure of a flexible foam are not completely understood. This also applies to the relationship between this structure and foam properties. An indepth investigation of these two aspects has been initiated with a specific interest for MDI-based cold cure foams. It is aimed in a first instance at building up a good understanding of the phenomena mentioned above. This will then be used in the development of new PU formulations more fitted to market needs by considering the optimisation of the cellular structure to meet the required properties. In this respect, an automated method for quantifying the cellular structure of flexible foams has been defined. The quantification is made by reconstructing cut cells of a foam cross-section by using recent developments of image analysis techniques. The method allows fast measurement and has been optimised to be suitable for a wide range of flexible foams. Using selected parameters from the measurements representative of the cell size and cell size distribution, it willbe shown that this method gives a statistical description of the structure and that reproducible results are obtained. It willbe shown that the measurements can be applied to practical situations. The effect of the mixing conditions of the reactants on the foam structure will be quantified and different mixing technologies will be compared. Achievements in controlling the cellsize of polyurethane flexiblefoams willbe presented and some correlations with foam properties willbe discussed. Finally it willbe shown how the defined method can be used as a classification of foam by its cellular structure and a scale will be proposed.
Book
This comprehensive study of farming methods and agrarian organization in Russia before the time of Peter the Great shifts the emphasis from the great estates to the basic production unit, the peasant family farms, and uses archaeological and enthnographic materials to supplement the documentary evidence. The methods of production and the farm implements used are described in detail and Professor Smith argues that features inherent in peasant farming account for Russian backwardness during this period. Part I classifies and describes the range of agrarian activities carried on in Muscovy - arable farming, hayfields, livestock, and gathering from the forest - and presents a model of a hypothetical farm unit; Part II examines three regions -Moscow, Toropets and Kazan - which stretch across central European Russia; and Part III provides a chapter on the relationship between peasant farming and the state.
Chapter
Bread staling is a general term that describes a time-dependent loss in quality of flavor and texture. The latter aspect is the focus of this article. From a molecular perspective, the main structural components of a processed cereal product such as bread are macromolecular, including starch, cell wall polysaccharides, and cereal proteins. The contribution of these components to the mechanical properties of the product may be modified by the presence of low molecular weight species, the most important of which is probably water but also includes salts, low molecular weight carbohydrates, and lipids. The molecular changes which occur during staling have been characterized and reviewed. ¹ The baked product consists of a complex, multiphase biopolymer mixture and various low molecular weight species. The mechanical properties of such materials will be influenced by the phase behavior of the mixture and the dynamics of the molecules in each phase. It is this underlying physical chemistry of cereal biopolymers which we wish to examine to gain insight into the staling phenomenon. General principles are described for the behavior of related model systems, and their relevance to the bread staling problem is discussed. To develop this theme we first need to consider some molecular characteristics of the main biopolymers, starch and gluten.
Article
The volume of air accompanying flour particles was determined through the measurement of the apparent density and compared with the volume of micropores, smaller than 30 nm in diameter, of the flour particles, which was measured by the Cranston-Inkley method. Weak wheat flour had the largest amount of accompanying air, strong wheat flour an intermediate amount, and rice flour the least. Most of the air accompanying the wheat flours was held in pores larger than 30 nm in diameter, while most of the air accompanying the rice flour was held in pores smaller than 30 nm in diameter. From the viewpoint of the expansion of dough, the condition of the wheat flours was much better than that of the rice flour. © 1987, Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry. All rights reserved.
Article
The volume of air accompanying flour particles was determined through the measurement of the apparent density and compared with the volume of micropores, smaller than 30 nm in diameter, of the flour particles, which was measured by the Cranston-Inkley method. Weak wheat flour had the largest amount of accompanying air, strong wheat flour an intermediate amount, and rice flour the least. Most of the air accompanying the wheat flours was held in pores larger than 30 nm in diameter, while most of the air accompanying the rice flour was held in pores smaller than 30 nm in diameter. From the viewpoint of the expansion of dough, the condition of the wheat flours was much better than that of the rice flour.
Chapter
As pointed out in §43, drainage is one of the three processes occurring in every liquid foam. In principle, foam drainage and foam collapse (discussed in Chapter 4) are independent of each other; thus the numerous attempts to estimate the stability of a foam from the rate of its drainage are fundamentally incorrect. As long as the films surrounding gas volumes exist, the foam also exists; drainage renders the films thinner but does not cause their rupture.
Article
Thirty-six branded ready-to-eat breakfast cereals from various manufacturers were purchased at a local grocery store. Expansion ratio, bulk density, pore volumes, and water solubility and absorption properties were analyzed. The expansion ratios varied from 1.0 to 17.3 units. The densities of the products ranged from 0.08 to 1.44 g/cm3. The density values were inversely proportional to the expansion ratio. In general, higher sugar contents enhanced expansion, whereas higher protein and fiber contents reduced expansion. Increasing fiber content correlated with increasing product density, while increasing sugar content generally correlated negatively with density. The percentage of pore volume attributed to open pores varied from 68.2 to 99.5%. Higher starch, protein, and fiber contents tended to reduce the open pore volume, whereas sugar tended to increase it. The water solubility and water absorption values ranged from 6.3 to 86.4% and from 2.5 to 6.3 g/g, respectively. Higher starch and protein contents in the products generally correlated with reduced water solubility, while higher sugar contents correlated with increased water solubility. Conversely, sugar content reduced the water absorption indexes while starch generally enhanced it.
Article
This chapter is written with the approach of a practical bakery technologist. It gives sound technical and practical reasons and explanations for changes that have taken place in breadmaking technology but does not explain the changes in scientific terms. Many such explanations will be contained in other chapters of this book. Where appropriate, references will be made to differences in techniques, ingredients or products in European countries and in the USA.
Article
Rapid advances in the automation of production methods have increased inspection requirements for three main reasons. First, higher production speeds require higher inspection speeds. Secondly, the implicit inspection involved in manual production and assembly is no longer present and must be accommodated elsewhere and lastly, there is an ever increasing demand by the customer for higher quality. Machines that can ‘see’ have been developed for a variety of tasks that involve inspecting and manipulating industrial artefacts. This chapter discusses some of the problems faced by the food industry and possible solutions using machine vision systems. Machine vision is defined by the Machine Vision Association of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers as, ‘The use of devices for optical non-contact sensing to automatically receive and interpret an image of a real scene in order to obtain information and/or control machines or processes.’
Article
The compressive stress-strain relationships of most cellular materials and solid foams have a characteristic sigmoid shape that reflects three deformation mechanisms: primarily elastic distortion under small strains; collapse and/or fracture of cell walls; and densification. The exact shape of the relationship is mainly determined by the materials' composition including: moisture contents; the cells and cell wall size and geometry; and whether the cells are open or closed. Upon repeated compression the nature of the relationship may change as a result of irreversible changes in the solid matrix (especially rupture). When the cell wall material is very brittle the force-displacement curve can be extremely irregular and jagged, often concealing its underlying sigmoid shape. Characterization of such brittle products requires methods of jaggedness evaluation and smoothing procedures. These are now readily available and have been successfully applied to extruded puffed foods. Food particulates tested in bulk can show similar compressibility patterns even if they themselves do not have a cellular structure. Although tensile properties of spongy baked foods, like bread crumbs, can be determined experimentally they have not yet been proven useful as indicators of textural quality, primarily as it appears, because of structural non-uniformity.
Chapter
This chapter provides an introduction to the occurrence, properties, and importance of foams as they relate to the petroleum industry. The fundamental principles of colloid science may be applied in different ways to stabilize or destabilize foams. This application has practical importance because a desirable foam that must be stabilized at one stage of an oil production process, may be undesirable in another stage and necessitate a defoaming strategy. By emphasizing the definition of important terms, the importance of interfacial properties of foam making and stability is demonstrated.