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Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Abstract
This article described three heuristics that are employed in making judgements under uncertainty: (i) representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event A belongs to class or process B; (ii) availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development; and (iii) adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available. These heuristics are highly economical and usually effective, but they lead to systematic and predictable errors. A better understanding of these heuristics and of the biases to which they lead could improve judgements and decisions in situations of uncertainty.
... Studies by Tversky and Kahneman (1974) and Ariely et al. (2003) highlight how anchoring restricts rational decision-making in financial contexts. These cognitive tendencies reveal how psychological factors can overshadow analytical evaluation in investment practices. ...
... Anchoring bias occurs when investors rely too heavily on initial information or a specific reference point when making investment choices. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) ...
... Anchoring bias, another key factor, was also found to significantly influence investment decisions, echoing the findings of Tversky and Kahneman (1974) and Al Rahahleh (2024). ...
The study aims to examine the impact of behavioral biases, including overconfidence bias, anchoring bias, disposition effect, and herding behavior, on investment decision-making among Nepalese investors, with a specific focus on millennial investors. A purposive sampling method was used to collect primary data, with 200 active millennial investors in Pokhara participating in the study. The research employed descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis to analyze the data. The findings indicate that overconfidence bias was the most prominent factor influencing investment decisions, with a significant positive impact on investor behavior. Anchoring and disposition effects also showed notable positive impacts. However, herding behavior demonstrated no significant impact on investment decisions, suggesting that Nepalese investors, particularly millennials, tend to exhibit independent decision-making behaviors rather than blindly following market trends. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers, financial institutions, and stakeholders aiming to improve investment strategies and financial decision-making in Nepal. It emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing behavioral biases, especially in the context of an emerging market like Nepal.
... An Anchoring bias [8], also known as anchoring effect, occurs when an initial information (the anchor) strongly influences proceeding judgements. The effects of anchoring bias have been predominantly found in humans, and more recently studied on the effects of LLMs. ...
... Framing Effect [11], one of the largest know biases in decision making, describes how the way of framing a statement (usually positively or negatively), can impact values or judgements. Traditional theories have held that the framing bias may have stemmed from loss aversion [8] -a tendency to be more heavily impacted by losses than similar gains of the same scale. Suri et al. [9] conducted studies on GPT-3.5 on the impacts of framing biases. ...
Recent development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has led to an increasing integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) for real-world decision-making. While these models can enhance decision-making processes, they remain susceptible to the same cognitive biases found in humans. Our study examines two well-documented biases found in LLMsAnchoring and Framing effectand evaluates their presence in OpenAIs GPT-3.5 turbo, GPT-4o, and GPT-4o-mini. Using a structured framework, we assess the degree of these biases across different models and proposed four bias mitigation prompting strategies: Chain-of-Thought (CoT), Thoughts of Principles (ToP), ignoring anchor hints, and reflection. We evaluated the bias reduction effectiveness of each prompting strategy using both our proposed prompts and GPT-generated prompts. Our findings reveal significant differences in bias levels across models (p < 0.01), with stronger models exhibiting a greater susceptibility to bias. However, none of the tested prompting strategies indicated statistically significant effectiveness in bias reduction. Our results highlight the challenges of debiasing LLMs and underscore the need for caution when deploying them in real-world decision-making scenarios. Further research is necessary to explore broader cognitive biases and develop more effective mitigation strategies.
... The following Table 1 provides a succinct overview of the topics and their corresponding authors or citations, encapsulating the breadth of research across cognitive analysis, construction project management, and advances in neuroimaging and decisionmaking. Priming Effects and Cognitive Functions Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg, 1998;Fitzsimons, et al., 2008;Friedman & Förster, 2000;Kay, et al., 2004;Slepian et al., 2010;Slepian et al., 2015 Cognitive Theories in Decision-Making and Perception Epstein et al., 1996;Evans, 2008;Evans & Stanovich 2013;Keren & Schul, 2009;Todd & Gigerenzer, 2000;Tversky & Kahneman, 1974;Tversky et al., 1982;Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947;Vranas, 2000 The Role of Attention and Visualization in Cognition Castle & Buckler, 2009;Duval, 2011;Fabrikant et al., 2010;Hegarty et al., 2010;Hegarty et al., 2016;Padilla et al., 2017;Schmidt 1995;Schirillo & Stone, 2005;Stone et al., 2003;Stone et al., 1997Human Factors Analysis in Construction Chi et al., 2012Hinze et al., 2005;Shappel & Wiegmann, 2000 Cognitive Theories and Models in High-Risk Sectors Ashcraft, 1989;Barnes et al., 2002;Reason, 1990;Flower & Hayes, 1981;Farrow, 1991;Koda 1988 Human Information Processing and Cognitive Load in Construction Kines, 2003;Mohan & Duarte, 2006;Nakayasu et al., 2010;Wickens et al., 2021 Enhancing Construction Safety through Cognitive Systems Engineering Jackson & Harel, 2017;Vicente, 1999;Saurin et al., 2005 Stress and Mental Strain in the Construction Sector Alonso et al., 2015;Abbe et al., 2011;Jebelli, 2019;Campbell, 2006;Haynes & Love, 2004;Castaldo, 2015;Bernston & Cacioppo, 2004;Choi et al., 2015;Seo et al., 2010 Advances in Neuroimaging and Decision-Making Gold & Shadlen, 2007;Romo & Salinas, 2003;Sajda et al., 2009;Smith & Nichols, 2018 The Role of Brain Imaging in Cognitive Studies Bassett & Gazzaniga, 2011;Banville & Falk, 2016;Johnson & Haan, 2015;Sulbaran & Kisi, 2024;, Funahashi, 2017Koren et al., 2020;Williams et al., 2023 Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) Table 1 is created, the next step was to use a thematic analysis and reorganize them to realign with the study's objectives. For example, Table 2 shows a short version of how the contents of the literature were organized under specific themes, with each entry comprising a synthesized topic drawn from the literature review, followed by key references that support the topic. ...
... Chen et al., 2017;Clevenger et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2021;Zhu & Mostafavi, 2017 Role of Cognitive Analysis and Modeling Investigation into cognitive analysis and modeling techniques such as COGNET for understanding human-computer interaction and decision-making processes in construction. Kunz et al., 2004;Todd & Gigerenzer, 2000;Tversky et al., 1982;Tversky & Kahneman, 1974;Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947 Impact of Neuroimaging on Decision-Making Assessment of how neuroimaging technologies like fNIRS contribute to understanding the neural basis of decision-making processes. Gold & Shadlen, 2007;Heekeren et al., 2008;Romo & Salinas, 2003;Sajda et al., 2009;Smith & Nichols, 2018 Application of Cognitive Systems Engineering Application of Cognitive Systems Engineering principles to improve safety management and task allocation in construction, emphasizing a holistic view of worker-system interaction. ...
While substantial advances have been made in Cognitive Science and Neuroimaging, a notable gap remains in assessing cognitive status within the construction sector. This paper aims to demonstrate the considerable benefits of interdisciplinary approaches in enhancing project management effectiveness and outcomes by examining the complex interplay between cognitive processes, decision-making, and project management. Key findings indicate that cognitive status plays a critical role in the performance of construction workers, underscoring the necessity of prioritizing cognitive well-being in project strategies. Furthermore, the review highlights a deficiency in objective tools for evaluating cognitive status and proposes the adoption of neuroimaging technologies as a solution. By integrating neuroscientific insights with management practices, leaders can enhance training, team dynamics, and risk assessment, ultimately improving decision-making and productivity in construction project management.
... This is also what an MBA course on decision making would typically cover. Only occasionally we come across classes on heuristics and biases (Kahneman et al., 1982;Tversky & Kahneman, 1974), decision traps (Hammond et al., 1998), and perhaps of superficial mentions of intuition and emotions, usually limited to what Simon (1987) said on the topic. ...
How we see decisions has changed significantly over the past few decades. However, what has not changed is that any decision requires knowledge, and this knowledge needs to be validated. In a traditional view, choice is preceded by intelligence and design, more recently, it has been argued that choice is often the first step, followed by intelligence and design to provide an explanation to the stakeholders. We introduce a process of knowledge validation for decision making, useful in both types of decision situations. In this paper we suggest a process of knowledge validation for decision making that comprises three facets: consistency, relevance, and applicability. The increased transparency of the validation process, however, does not enable competitors to copy knowledge, as due to the personal nature of knowledge and decisions only the stakeholders will be able to make sense of the consistent, relevant and applicable knowledge.
... In the 1970s, social scientists tended to view humans as rational beings, and attributed deviations from rational behavior to the byproduct of emotions. Nobel Prize winner in Economics Daniel Kahneman and his colleague Amos Tversky (1974) challenged that notion by documenting normal peoples' systematic errors in thinking and traced these errors to "the design of the machinery of cognition rather than to the corruption of thought by emotion (Kahneman, 2011, pg. 8)." ...
Background: Mindfulness, giving our full attention to what we are doing in the present moment, is perhaps best understood as training for the brain. When we are mindful, we are actively engaged with our thoughts, feelings, and sensations. Purpose: The purpose of this article is to introduce the concept of “mindful evaluation” as a way to cultivate our reflexivity and self-awareness to improve our evaluation practice. Mindful evaluation is an invitation to be more intentional and reflexive about our ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions in general as well as for each evaluation we undertake. Setting: Mindfulness has been gaining popularity both with the general public and a variety of professional disciplines thanks in large part to the growing body of research on its efficacy. As disciplines such as healthcare, economics, and education are incorporating the benefits of mindfulness in their work, we explore how we too might use the principles of mindfulness in evaluation and evaluation practice. Intervention: This article did not require an intervention. Research Design: Not applicable Data Collection and Analysis: Not applicable Findings: We present simple steps for incorporating the principles of mindfulness to how we approach evaluation.
... A C C E P T E D countermeasure to limit potential anchoring and confirmation bias [19]. After the participants had completed both instruments, they were instructed to use the prepaid return envelope to post these back to the researcher. ...
Objectives
The assessment of the spatial characteristics of pain, such as location and extent, is essential in the clinical evaluation of pain syndromes, especially when managing patient’s with chronic musculoskeletal pain. This study evaluated the convergent validity of pain drawings (PDs) and anatomical checklists (ACLs) in measuring pain location (PL) and pain extent (PE) in individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain.
Methods
Twenty volunteers participated, each completing a PD and an ACL in a randomized order following standardized training. PDs were digitized and analyzed using a custom algorithm on a web platform. PL was categorized across 45 anatomical areas. PE was assessed using a region-weighted approach by means of the Margolis rating scale and a pixel-based method. Statistical analyses included Spearman’s rho and the Jaccard Index to compare the obtained PD metrics.
Results
A strong correlation was found between a PDs and ACLs for PE (Spearman’s rho=0.823), suggesting similar capabilities in quantifying the spatial distribution of pain. However, a significant discrepancy in PL measurements, with a mean Jaccard Index of 0.54, indicated poor agreement between methods.
Discussion
These results highlight the non-interchangeability of these instruments for PL identification and underscore the importance of each tool’s unique advantages and limitations. The study also highlighted the potential benefits of incorporating innovative pain metrics into current health questionnaires to enhance their clinimetric properties. These findings advocate for continued research with larger and more diverse patient cohorts to further validate PDs and ACLs and to explore additional psychometric properties for pain assessment.
... • Use of the availability heuristic (Blount and Larrick, 2000). (Tversky (1982) suggests that the probability of some type of event is in part judged based on the ability of the person to recall events of that type from memory, thus suggesting that factors like recency may incorrectly influence judgments of probability.) • Attribution errors. ...
... Incorporating foundational psychological research, the seminal work of Tversky et al. (1982) on heuristics and biases provides a strong theoretical underpinning for understanding how cognitive biases influence decision-making. Their studies on anchoring, availability, and representativeness heuristics laid the groundwork for contemporary discussions on bias detection in AI. ...
Cognitive biases, systematic deviations from rationality in judgment, pose significant challenges in generating objective content. This paper introduces a novel approach for real-time cognitive bias detection in user-generated text using large language models (LLMs) and advanced prompt engineering techniques. The proposed system analyzes textual data to identify common cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, circular reasoning, and hidden assumption. By designing tailored prompts, the system effectively leverages LLMs' capabilities to both recognize and mitigate these biases, improving the quality of human-generated content (e.g., news, media, reports). Experimental results demonstrate the high accuracy of our approach in identifying cognitive biases, offering a valuable tool for enhancing content objectivity and reducing the risks of biased decision-making.
... From an anchoring perspective, once a higher regular price on the left triggers the "price implies quality" heuristic, consumers adjust their subsequent willingness to pay and internal reference price upward, effectively reinforcing the influence of the first price seen (Epley and Gilovich, 2010). In other words, the initial perception of quality catalyzes a cascading effect on broader price evaluations, guiding how consumers judge the fairness and overall value of the offer (Kahneman et al., 1982;Xia et al., 2004). ...
This study examines the impact of display locations of regular and sale prices on reference price estimation, drawing on anchoring and adjustment theory and the left-to-right directionality in reading habits. It focuses on how the spatial positioning of the regular price relative to the discount price affects perceived quality and subsequently shapes reference price judgments. Conducted across both offline and online settings using varied product stimuli, three laboratory studies using comparative price advertisements that presented both prices on the same page consistently demonstrate that placing the regular price to the left of the discount price results in higher reference price estimations. The findings also confirmed that perceived product quality mediates the proposed effect. This research offers new insights into how the spatial placement of pricing information significantly affects consumer perception and decision-making, contributing to consumer psychology.
... Indeed, a focal organisation enjoy (or suffer) the legitimacy (or the illegitimacy) from other organisations with similar characteristics, classes and social categories (Durand and Vergne, 2015;Kostova and Zaheer, 1999;Shi et al., 2022). The spillover effect is caused by bounded rationality, cognitive limitations in information processing, and resource constraints of social actors (Kahneman et al., 1982). Perceiving legitimacy by social actors outside a focal firm is often an exhaustive social cognition process through which they need to comprehensively judge and assess a firm in various aspects discussed above (Choi and Shepherd, 2005). ...
This study uses the legitimacy theory as the theoretical lens to investigate how and under what circumstances home-country technological legitimacy affects the performance of crowdfunding campaigns in emerging markets. A dataset of 758 technology crowdfunding campaigns from Kickstarter was analysed. Our findings reveal that higher home-country technological legitimacy (measured by the Global Innovation Index) affects crowd-funding performance (measured by the ratio of funds raised to the pledged goal). We also find that positive psychological capital language (optimism, insistence, and tenacity) plays a crucial moderating role in strengthening this relationship. This study extends the legitimacy theory by demonstrating that country-level technological legitimacy is an external signal that shapes backer perceptions and funding decisions. Our results highlight the importance of campaign narratives in overcoming institutional voids and enhancing entrepre-neurial success in global crowdfunding initiatives. These insights offer practical implications for entrepreneurs, policymakers, and investors seeking to navigate the complex dynamics of crowdfunding in emerging economies.
... A mesma informação pode ser usada para construir perspectivas de duas ideias opostas que apelam para a subjetividade da interpretação individual desencadeando diferentes percepções e consequentes comportamentos ao julgar reivindicações, como indicado em [7][8][9]. Ao omitir o contexto original em que as imagens foram capturadas e ao omitir ou modificar detalhes sobre a pesquisa, o conteúdo tem o potencial de enganar o leitor, distorcendo ou ignorando o significado pretendido e o objetivo das imagens e das pesquisas. Esse tipo de ação coloca em xeque o potencial de democratização da mídia social, promovendo comportamentos de ceticismo e ultraje. ...
Este ensaio filosófico entrelaça as perspectivas de Feenberg e Heidegger com as de Engenharia de Software para argumentar a necessidade de uma visão transdisciplinar no desenvolvimento socialmente responsável de artefatos tecnológicos que promovem a comunicação social dentro das mídias sociais digitais. Apesar de argumentos que se contrapões, os dois pensadores investigam as ideias de técnica e tecnologia como fenômenos sociais com potencial transformador. Nesse sentido, argumentarei que os impactos negativos de um artefato tecnológico são inversamente proporcionais ao conhecimento "do mundo do usuário alvo" pelos projetistas. Conhecimento que reflete as variações de significado dos mesmos valores sociais entre usuário e projetista e que são considerados de modo transparente, subjetivo e inseparável em seus projetos. De uma maneira discuto a perspectiva de responsabilidade dos projetistas quanto ao uso, empregado pelos usuários, das mídias sociais como artefatos tecnológicos projetados. É possível lidar com as diferentes formas com que um usuário se apropria desses artefatos tecnológicos? Ao discutir esta questão, o ensaio reforça as perspectivas de Feenberg para desenvolvimento de uma "consciência de responsabilidade" nos projetos de artefatos tecnológicos de comunicação. Introdução A computação móvel, as mídias sociais e os aplicativos para comunicação conectaram pessoas e disponibilizaram todo tipo de informações como nunca antes. Ao impulsionar o acesso a informações e interações sociais, aplicativos como o Facebook e o WhatsApp tornaram-se fundamentais para promover a alfabetização e a educação digitais, inclusive em países onde as desigualdades sociais e econômicas ainda são proeminentes. No entanto, se, por um lado, as mídias sociais e os aplicativos (artefatos tecnológicos) contribuíram para democratizar o acesso à tecnologia da informação e comunicação (TIC), por outro, estão favorecendo a desinformação, catalisando mudanças sociais e culturais, às vezes com consequências difíceis e indesejáveis. Caracterizo desinformação como informação intencionalmente criada para desencadear, desencaminhar ou gerar erros de decisão, manipular os sistemas de crenças dos indivíduos e enganar os seres humanos [1]. A desinformação on-line é usada para manipulações cognitivas dos usuários, em esquemas de engenharia social e de exploração de fatores humanos pra golpes no ambiente virtual, para persuadir os indivíduos a cair em ataques direcionados como a instalação de vírus, e na criação e disseminação de "falsas notícias" e engodos [2]. Alguns eventos atuais demonstram as dimensões sinistras dos impactos reais da disseminação da desinformação em ambientes virtuais. Por exemplo, o movimento anti-vacinas que, propagando desinformações em mídias sociais online, reduziu os resultados dos programas de
... The first stream of research largely comprises psychological explanations identifying a pattern of overreaction thinking, which systematically deviates from concepts of rational choice. This research mainly centers on how systematic cognitive biases in human decision-making (Kahneman 2011;Kahneman et al. 1982) inform anomalies in individual and collective behavior (Tversky & Kahneman 1974;Lichtenstein et al. 1978;Slovic 2007;Kahneman & Tversky 1973;Sunstein 2002;Sunstein & Zeckhauser 2010;Lichtenstein et al. 1982;Moore & Healy 2008;Patt & Zeckhauser 2000;Jones & Baumgartner 2005;Baumgartner et al. 2009). Its conceptual structure consists of micro-foundations (e.g., bounded rationality)-key elements of human cognitive processes-which can thereafter be explicitly linked to collective activities in governments and other societal level systems. ...
... Relatedly, the intentional component in disproportionate policy was arguably the most critical innovation in this theorizing process. Initially, I steered the discussion away from unintentional psychological explanations, such as overconfidence (Tversky & Kahneman 1974;Kahneman 2011;Kahneman et al. 1982), and institutional explanations, such as inertia (Peters et al. 2017). Additionally, I diverged from non-intentional explanations, which focus on policies that political executives never meant to implement but are executed nonetheless-whether knowingly or unknowingly (Rhodes 2000;Hood & Peters 2004;Margetts et al. 2010). ...
... Allí aparecen cuestiones como las Heurísticas y Experiencia, los tomadores de decisiones utilizan atajos mentales, o heurísticas, basados en experiencias previas para tomar decisiones rápidas en contextos inciertos. Sin embargo, estas heurísticas a veces introducen sesgos, como el exceso de confianza o el anclaje 101 . La búsqueda del equilibrio entre "datos e intuición". ...
El Futuro de la Toma de Decisiones sigue planteando enormes desafíos. Algunas tendencias y desafíos que moldearán el panorama de la toma de decisiones siguen estado imprecisamente definidas unas se irán esclareciendo y otras nuevas surgirán, aunque por supuesto que queda lo impactarán los avances de las Inteligencia Artificial y otras innovaciones tecnológicas. Por más avances que se han logrado los desafíos de equilibrar el riesgo y la oportunidad, integrar perspectivas diversas y anticiparse a lo desconocido, forma parte de una asignatura pendiente. En el futuro, la capacidad de adaptar principios y procesos a nuevas realidades será el rasgo definitorio de los tomadores de decisiones efectivos.
Lo que muestra este trabajo de recopilación de que la toma de decisiones en un mundo cambiante que requiere adaptabilidad, innovación y conciencia ética. La integración de enfoques basados en datos, los instintos y la intuición humana permite adoptar decisiones robustas y sensibles al contexto, equilibrando las capacidades tecnológicas con los valores humanos. Mediante clases interactivas, estudios de caso y actividades grupales, la metodología propuesta garantiza una comprensión integral del panorama en evolución de la toma de decisiones.
Esa recopilación de aportes relacionados con la toma de decisiones explora desde aspectos conceptuales a aspectos instrumentales de la toma de decisiones. Hemos acudido a todas las fuentes de referencia a nuestra disposición pero hemos usado como orientación principal de las consultas realizadas a sistemas de Inteligencia Artificial, que hemos complementado con aportes de nuestros trabajos previos. Se trata de un nuevo estudio exploratorio, que complementa y expande lo que ya hemos estudiado.
... While the literature on social evaluations commonly assumes that evaluators draw on one particular judgment input (Bitektine, 2011;Tost, 2011), in practice evaluators typically utilize a diverse array of cognitively available judgment inputs to address their primary and secondary functional questions about the organization and enhance judgment robustness. However, the reliance on these different types of inputs can vary significantly depending on the context, as not all inputs may be available or they may vary in cognitive salience or recency (Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky, 1982). For instance, first-hand judgment inputs might be lacking if the evaluator has no personal experience or access to the organization, or lacks motivation to seek information. ...
... Supposition is a bridge between these realms, creating a conceptual space where potentialities and possibilities converge. A review of existing literature underscores the multifaceted nature of supposition: Kahneman & Tversky, (1982) explore how suppositional reasoning aids in assessing probabilities, though often influenced by cognitive biases. Roese & Olson, (1995) highlight counterfactual thinking, a process akin to supposition, which involves imagining alternative outcomes to past events and its adaptive value for learning and decision-making. ...
This article introduces Homo Putans, the “supposing human,” as a novel philosophical framework for understanding human existence. Supposing, distinct from mere thinking or imagination, involves hesitation, doubt, and a creative engagement with possibilities. It is characterized by its ability to confront ambiguity and construct meaning in the face of uncertainty. The proposed concept, “supposing,” is examined as both a cognitive and philosophical act that bridges the gap between uncertainty and understanding. Drawing on historical and contemporary philosophical traditions, including Hans Vaihinger’s Philosophy of As If and phenomenological insights from Husserl and Brentano, the study situates supposing as a significant process in human cognition and meaning-making. While rooted in philosophical inquiry, the article also considers conceptual alignments with cognitive science to explore how supposing shapes perception and decision-making. By thriving in ambiguity, supposing is framed as an act of constructing potential realities and engaging with the unknown.
... Potencialmente o mais famoso deles foi liderado por Amos Tversky e Daniel Kahneman, cujo trabalho conferiu a este o único prêmio Nobel já recebido por um(a) psicólogo(a). Seu programa de pesquisa, intitulado "Heurísticas e Vieses", parte da noção que os seres humanos falham em tomar decisões racionais devido às suas heurísticas e vieses (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Kahneman e Frederick (2002) desenvolveram uma teoria de processamento duplo na tentativa de explicar como se dá o raciocínio humano em relação às heurísticas, vieses e o raciocínio normativo esperado. ...
Lino, D., & Roazzi, A. (2025). Tomada de Decisão Investigativa e a Entrevista com Suspeitos. In P. I. C. Gomide, & A. G. C. Calixto (Eds.), Direito e Psicologia Forense: Tomada de Decisão baseada no Direito e na Psicologia (pp. 94-115). Curitiba: Presidência do TJPR. ISBN: 978-65-982510-8-6 Retrieved from: https://tinyurl.com/pakf8sm9 //
Resumo: No curso de uma investigação, os investigadores devem tomar diversas decisões, como qual linha investigativa ter prioridade, quais pessoas entrevistar, e quando indiciar um suspeito. Esse processo decisório é central para a celeridade e sucesso da investigação. Entretanto, existem pouquíssimos trabalhos empíricos no Brasil que estudaram esse fenômeno e como ele pode influenciar no resultado investigativo. Sabe-se também, através de casos reais e estudos empíricos, que falhas na tomada de decisão investigativa levam investigadores a realizarem interrogatórios de forma inadequada e prejudicial, podendo resultar em erros de justiça como a prisão de inocentes. O presente capítulo se dedica a apresentar o que é a tomada de decisão investigativa, quais são suas potenciais fontes de falha, com atenção especial ao viés de confirmação, como isto pode influenciar no interrogatório de suspeitos, assim como quais as soluções e saídas para evitar erros de justiças advindos de falhas nesse processo cognitivo dos investigadores.
Palavras-chave: Entrevista investigativa; Mentalidade investigativa; Viés de confirmação; Visão de túnel.
... Daniel Kahneman's work around cognitive biases is a good example to elucidate the modeling differences between CPT and QPT. His experiments and follow-on studies have repeatedly demonstrated the phenomenon of the anchoring effects of information [56,57]. Anchoring effects are introduced by decision makers taking into account an informational cue that can steer judgment towards an appropriate signal [58]. ...
Artificial intelligence is set to incorporate additional decision space that has traditionally been the purview of humans. However, AI systems that support decision making also entail the rationalization of AI outputs by humans. Yet, incongruencies between AI and human rationalization processes may introduce uncertainties in human decision making, which require new conceptualizations to improve the predictability of these interactions. The application of quantum probability theory (QPT) to human cognition is on the ascent and warrants potential consideration to human–AI decision making to improve these outcomes. This perspective paper explores how QPT may be applied to human–AI interactions and contributes by integrating these concepts into human-in-the-loop decision making. To capture this and offer a more comprehensive conceptualization, we use human-in-the-loop constructs to explicate how recent applications of QPT can ameliorate the models of interaction by providing a novel way to capture these behaviors. Followed by a summary of the challenges posed by human-in-the-loop systems, we discuss newer theories that advance models of the cognitive system by using quantum probability formalisms. We conclude by outlining areas of promising future research in human–AI decision making in which the proposed methods may apply.
... Indeed, there is a notable asymmetry in the information available, with much more data on past and present events than on future ones. As a result, voters tend to prioritize current issues over future concerns when communicating with policy-makers [109]. The second is the fragility of long-term political commitments. ...
Background
Problems such as climate change, environmental pollution, nuclear disposal and unsustainable production and consumption share a common feature: they pose long-term challenges because of their complex nature, potentially severe consequences, and the demanding problem-solving paths. These challenges may have long-lasting impacts on both present and future generations and, therefore, require to be addressed through a long-term governance perspective, i.e., coherent and consistent policy-making across sectors, institutions, and temporal scales. Dealing with these challenges is a core task of policy-making in modern societies, which requires problem-solving skills and capabilities. In this context, we identify long-term governance traces in the literature, illustrate the case of energy transition towards renewable energy systems as a long-term governance case, and elaborate on the scope and definition of long-term governance and its research.
Main text
We elaborate an analytical framework for long-term governance (LTG), based on five building blocks: the ‘environment’, which details the policy-making arena; the ‘policy issues’, which elaborates on the problems to be dealt with by LTG; the ‘key challenges and driving force’, revealing LTG mechanisms; the ‘key strategies’, in which promising approaches for LTG are identified; and the ‘policy cycle’, where governance impacts on different policy phases are discussed. In essence, we understand long-term governance at its core as a reflexive policy-making process to address significant enduring and persistent problems within a strategy-based decision-making arena to best prepare for, navigate through, and experiment with a changing environment.
Conclusions
The framework does not describe specific processes or individual cases in detail. Instead, it should be understood as an illustration of long-term governance characteristics at a more general level. Such a framework may help to structure the field of long-term policy-making, guide future research on conceptual, comparative, and empirical in-depth studies, and may provide orientation and action knowledge for making our governance system sustainable. Stimulating and broadening research on long-term issues seems indispensable, given the existence of several ‘grand challenges’ that require successful long-term governance.
This study addresses the persisting issue of restaurant reservation no‐shows by applying the availability heuristic principle to analyze booking behaviors. Three experiments identified cancellation policy features and factors influencing booking and no‐show behaviors. Findings confirmed that a cancellation barrier (i.e., strict policy and complex cancellation method) decreases no‐show intentions and negatively affects booking intentions. This research suggests that a lenient cancellation policy, an easy cancellation method, and an awareness campaign can encourage positive guest booking behavior and reduce no‐shows. Applying the availability heuristic principle to restaurant management, the current research enhances the understanding of psychological factors affecting guest decisions and identifies effective strategies to reduce no‐shows while supporting favorable booking behavior.
Bu çalışma, bireysel yatırımcıların yatırım kararları üzerindeki davranışsal finans eğilimlerini inceleyerek, finansal okuryazarlık ve risk algısının aracı rollerini değerlendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Klasik ekonomi ve finans teorileri, bireylerin rasyonel kararlar aldığını varsaymasına rağmen, yatırımcıların irrasyonel finansal davranışlar sergilediği gözlemlenmektedir. Davranışsal finans literatürü, yatırımcıların duygusal tepkiler, bilgi eksiklikleri ve risk algısı nedeniyle rasyonel olmayan kararlar verebileceğini öne sürmektedir. Çalışma kapsamında, İstanbul’da yaşayan 19 yaş ve üzeri 841 bireysel yatırımcıyla anket uygulanarak nicel bir analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir. Analiz sonuçlarına göre, kendine aşırı güven, kontrol yanılsaması, pişmanlıktan kaçınma, sürü davranışı ve kendini kontrol etme eğilimlerinin yatırım kararlarını olumlu etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, finansal okuryazarlık ve risk algısının, davranışsal finans eğilimleri ile yatırım kararları arasındaki ilişkide aracı değişken rolü oynadığı belirlenmiştir. Bu bulguların, bireysel yatırım kararlarının daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkı sağlayarak literatüre teorik ve ampirik düzeyde katkı sunması beklenmektedir.
INTRODUCTION
We explored patients’ and families’ interest in, predictors of, and considerations regarding genetic testing for monogenic causes of dementia in a diagnostic setting.
METHODS
This mixed‐methods study evaluated 519 consecutive Alzheimer Center Amsterdam patients for monogenic testing eligibility. Among those qualifying, differences between testers and non‐testers were analyzed. Thirty‐three patients completed questionnaires. Additionally, we conducted 21 semi‐structured interviews with 15 patients and 18 relatives. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed inductively.
RESULTS
Of 138 (27%) eligible patients (46% female, age 61 ± 8 years, Mini‐Mental State Examination [MMSE] 22 ± 6), 75 (54%) underwent genetic testing. Testers had better cognition, higher quality of life, and more often undetermined diagnoses than non‐testers (all p < 0.05). Decisions were guided by intuitive, value‐driven judgments: testers sought to provide heredity information to relatives, enhance actionability, and reduce uncertainty, while non‐testers worried about psychosocial impact on family, or unfavorable timing.
DISCUSSION
The substantial interest in genetic testing for monogenic causes of dementia underscores the need for further research into the implications of disclosing test results to memory clinic patients.
Highlights
Half of memory clinic patients’ who met eligibility criteria proceeded with genetic testing.
Those tested were more likely to have an undetermined diagnosis, better cognition, and higher quality of life.
Decisions were motivated less by deliberation of factual information, and more by quick, intuitive judgments.
Motivations pro included providing information, enhancing actionability, and resolving uncertainty.
Motivations con comprised concerns about the emotional burden and disruptive impact on their family.
We develop a simple nonlinear stock market model in which speculators switch between technical and fundamental trading rules depending on market conditions. Additionally, we assume that agents are unaware of the true current fundamental value and, thus, use a weighted average of the current price and the known long-run fundamental value as an estimate of the fundamental price. Using analytical and numerical methods, we demonstrate that an increase in the reaction parameter of technical traders may cause boom-bust dynamics. Moreover, we show that a heightened belief among agents that the fundamental value is more sensitive to deviations of the current price from its long-run fundamental value can cause the price to become trapped above or below this long-run value, oscillate within a higher price range, and prolong the duration of a bubble. In two model extensions, we assume that agents compute the current fundamental value based on the deviation between the average price and the known long-run fundamental value, using a moving average of the past k prices and an exponential moving average, respectively. These robustness checks show that, in these cases, price and perceived fundamental value fluctuate less statically around the long-run fundamental value.
We organized adversarial collaborations between subject‐matter experts and expert forecasters with opposing views on whether recent advances in Artificial Intelligence (AI) pose an existential threat to humanity in the 21st century. Two studies incentivized participants to engage in respectful perspective‐taking, to share their strongest arguments, and to propose early‐warning indicator questions (cruxes) for the probability of an AI‐related catastrophe by 2100. AI experts saw greater threats from AI than did expert forecasters, and neither group changed its long‐term risk estimates, but they did preregister cruxes whose resolution by 2030 would sway their views on long‐term risk. These persistent differences shrank as questioning moved across centuries, from 2100 to 2500 and beyond, by which time both groups put the risk of extreme negative outcomes from AI at 30%–40%. Future research should address the generalizability of these results beyond our sample to alternative samples of experts, and beyond the topic area of AI to other questions and time frames.
The desire to optimize organizational processes such as planning, control, communication, and collaboration is a significant driver for business enterprises, especially SMEs, to invest in Information Technology (IT). IT investments contribute to improved operational efficiency, financial management, flexibility, and agility, providing a competitive edge in the market. SMEs particularly invest in IT to facilitate new partnerships and collaborations through electronic linkages, enabling them to overcome barriers and enhance business performance. However, IT investments in SMEs face numerous challenges, including insufficient resources, lack of time for implementation, poor IT staff expertise, and inadequate management commitment. Inadequate IT investments often result in Information Security (IS) breaches, leading to significant financial and non-financial losses. Non-financial losses included damage to reputation, product piracy, and theft of critical business information. Effective Information Security Risk Management Investment (ISRMI) is essential for ensuring long-term competitiveness and survival, guiding the selection of security measures to protect IT assets while ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and availability. However, existing literature lacks guidance on effective ISRMI strategies, focusing primarily on the implementation of ISRM approaches rather than the economics of security investment. This research aimed to explore the ISRMI strategies adopted by SMEs within Nairobi’s Central Business District, based on SMEs that have implemented ISRM programs, through a review of literature and interviews with information security experts.
Our article explores a lender's trust in debt recovery actions under uncertain settings through an in vivo experimental approach. Participants faced two fictional debt recovery scenarios, where they had to determine the minimum and maximum commission, they were willing to pay a collector to recover a loaned amount. Results demonstrated that participants’ trust is conditioned on recovering an average of 60% of the debt and they are willing to give up approximately 30% of the recovered sums. These discoveries highlight the influence of psychological and social factors on financial behaviors, including cognitive biases (ambiguity effect, compromise effect, and simplicity effect) and social norms (popular culture). In conclusion, our research underscores the importance of trust in recovery processes and suggests that more lenient recovery strategies can foster durable and reliable financial relationships.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine and contribute to the understanding of the complexities surrounding green economy concept in South Sudan. The study relied much on Malthus theory. Methodology: The study used qualitative research methodology where an interview guide and focused group discussion were used to gather data which was then coded in themes. A sample of 150 respondents were selected using purposive sampling technique. These included the Members of Parliament, Technical staff from the Ministry of environment and forestry, local government and community members. Members of parliament were chosen because parliament’s role was to allocate funds to government projects and hence a political goodwill for green economy. The researcher further reviewed case studies and articles for a better understanding of the complexities of green economy. Findings: Key findings showed that although the Ministry of Environment and Forestry had a policy on green economy there was no framework regulation for operationalization of the policy implementation. The study further found out that due to lack of regulations, there was no budget allocation for green economy hence, left to donors and NGOs. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study therefore recommended for stringent regulations to be enhanced and budget allocations for green economy. The study further recommended for the involvement of private investment partners in green economy whose focus was on growing wealth that will support wellbeing. The wealth in this case is not merely financial but includes the full range of human, social, physical and natural capitals as it further promotes equitable distribution of opportunity outcomes, thus reduces disparities between people while giving sufficient space for wildlife and wilderness.
While consumers increasingly use food scanner apps as an alternative to front‐of‐pack labels, the effectiveness of these nutritional signals in promoting healthier food choices remains a topic of debate. This study examines when and under what conditions food scanner apps encourage healthier eating and outperform front‐of‐pack nutrition labels. It builds on four studies: a quantitative content analysis of over 16,000 online reviews and a survey of 86 respondents in an exploratory phase, along with two experiments that test the conceptual model. The findings identify three conditions where food scanner apps outperform front‐of‐pack labels: when the nutritional quality score of a product is poor, when consumers distrust the dominant players, and when mid‐range brands have average brand equity. These findings suggest that food scanner apps and front‐of‐pack labels complement rather than oppose each other, thus providing key insights for policymakers and food brand managers.
Project environments are increasingly characterized by uncertainty and, for this reason, require project managers to make frequent, quick decisions with poor and short-term information. In this context, project managers must shift from a rational and structured decision-making process to a simplified and less structured one leveraging heuristics. Heuristics are beliefs, experiences, mental models, frames, and other cognitive shortcuts for replacing parts of the rational and analytical process underpinning decisions. They are adequate support and very useful in many cases; nonetheless, they induce distortions in evaluations and estimates, with significant impacts, particularly in the context of projects. Heuristics are not free of the project manager’s influence (“bias”). The challenge for project managers in today’s uncertain project environments is to boost the use of heuristics while managing and controlling bias. Addressing and mitigating biases becomes crucial to improve decision-making effectiveness and outcomes. Artificial intelligence (AI) emerges, in such a context, as a potential support harbinger of tangible benefits for the project managers’ decisions.
This study investigated the vividness variable in legal decision-making. It was hypothesised that different verdicts regarding the same legal case can be obtained by simply varying the vividness of phrases, without changing any probative element. 53 participants read Original (26) or Vivid (27) versions of testimonies to a homicide case, then made a decision as to the defendant's guilt. Results support the hypothesis: participants' judgements significantly differ between the two conditions; that is, participants who read the Original version consider the homicide as unintentional while participants who read the Vivid one are not able to choose between intentional or unintentional homicide. Therefore we can infer that vividness influenced the process by which guilt is attributed.
Harnessing scientific research to address societal challenges requires careful alignment of expertise, resources, and research questions with real‐world needs, timelines, and constraints. In the case of place‐based research, studies can avoid misalignment when grounded in the realities of specific locations and conducted in collaboration with knowledgeable local partners. But literature on best practices for such research is underdeveloped on how to identify appropriate locations and partners. In practice, these research‐design choices are sometimes made based on convenience or prior experience—a strategy labeled opportunism. Here we examine a deliberative and exploratory approach in contrast to default opportunism. We introduce a general framework for scoping place‐based opportunities for research and engagement. We apply the framework to identify climate‐adaptation planning decisions, rooted in specific communities, around which to organize research and engagement in a large project addressing coastal climate risks in the Northeast US. The framework asks project personnel to negotiate explicit project goals, identify corresponding evaluation criteria, and assess opportunities against criteria within an iterative cycle of listening to needs, assessing options, prioritizing actions, and refining goals. In the application, we elicit a broad range of objectives from project personnel. We find that a structured process offers opportunities to collaboratively operationalize notions of equity and justice. We find some objectives in tension—including equity objectives—indicating trade‐offs that other projects may also need to navigate. We reflect on challenges encountered in the application and on near‐term costs and benefits of the exploratory process.
In practice, multiple policy instruments are often combined to achieve complex goals. However, predicting whether policy mixes will have complementary or conflicting effects remains a theoretical challenge, especially in those aimed at changing individuals' cognition and behavior. We provide novel theoretical and empirical insights into policy mix effectiveness by defining and differentiating the behavioral assumptions embedded in policy instruments, arguing that outcomes depend not only on the assumptions within each instrument but also on the consistency of assumptions across instruments. We conducted a survey experiment in a Chinese city preparing to build a nuclear power plant (NPP; n = 417). After testing participants' acceptance of NPP construction across different policy mix scenarios (combining egoistic and altruistic instruments), we found that mixes grounded in consistent behavioral assumptions more effectively increased public acceptance. Thus, consistent behavioral assumptions across policy instruments should be a core principle when designing policy mixes targeting behavioral change.
This article explores the presence of confirmation bias and specificity bias in three large language models (LLMs): ChatGPT, Claude, and Gemini. To investigate these biases, I adapted a test originally designed for human subjects to study confirmation bias. Using this test, I analyzed how each LLM responded to an identical prompt regarding a rule for a sequence of numbers. Like human subjects, the LLMs exhibited confirmation bias in their responses and generated solutions prone to “overfitting” the data, leading to specificity bias.
Over the last two decades the concepts of “human factors” and “nontechnical skills”, which describe the interaction of physical, psychological, cognitive and social characteristics of people with their environment and which have a significant influence on safe patient care, have become established in anesthesiology. Nevertheless, findings from the social sciences and safety research, particularly with respect to understanding human factors and the development and prevention of incidents, have so far only been partially accepted in medicine. In particular, the contribution of people is often problematized in the sense of a “risk factor”. In the first of two articles, the theoretical foundations of nontechnical skills are explained and an awareness of the fact that it is not human deficiencies but rather normal, evolutionarily sensible thought processes and social practices of the people involved that are responsible for adverse events is created.
This research paper aims to understand the factors influencing consumers' adoption of sustainable fashion like upcycled products using the Behavioural Reasoning Theory (BRT). The BRT was used to investigate the relationship between the value of openness to change, Attitude, and reasons for and against to buy upcycled fashion products. A total of 323 completed questionnaires were collected, and a response rate of 63.3% was recorded. The results of the CFA showed that the proposed measurement model appears to be satisfactory and provides an excellent fit. The structural equation modelling (SEM) was utilised in the research in order to prove the proposed hypothesis. The findings of this study that environment concern, pride and knowledge about sustainable option can positively contribute to the fashion industry's sustainability goals. Study will also assist in recognizing the reasons against upcycle buying in identify barriers to purchase, such as cost, accessibility, or lack of awareness.
ABSTRACT
This paper introduces a framework for football player valuations, integrating Damodaran's valuation typologies and providing a decision framework for selecting the typology.
Purpose/Rationale
It aims to refine Damodaran's valuation typologies of intrinsic, relative, real options and probabilistic methods to football valuations, highlighting current limitations of using proxies and addressing the conflation between price and value.
Design/Approach/Methodology
The paper employs a conceptual analysis of a literature review, aiming to determine valuation typologies in the literature and their limitations, aligning the literature to the established typologies of Damodaran and provides a framework for using different valuation types.
Findings
While intrinsic valuations are robust in theory, their practical application faces challenges. Relative valuations are more pragmatic and contingent on standardised metrics. Real options and probabilistic approaches present potential for future research.
Practical Implications
The framework guides researchers and practitioners when to apply different valuation typologies within sport finance, offering insights for conducting comprehensive player valuations.
Research Contribution
This paper unifies existing valuation methods into a cohesive framework, filling methodological gaps and suggesting areas for further research in football player valuations.
Originality/Value
The paper's originality lies in integrating Damodaran's approaches with sports finance, offering valuable insights for both academic research and practical applications.
Despite the ecological and socio‐economic benefits of nature‐based solutions (NbS), the application of ecological principles to the design of seawalls (termed ‘seawall eco‐engineering’) to mitigate their impacts remains low.
We investigated stakeholder perspectives of, support for and willingness to pay (WTP) for seawall eco‐engineering in one of the most diverse and urbanised harbours in the world, Sydney Harbour, in Australia.
Using a series of workshops and surveys targeting the general public, Local Government, built environment and natural environment professionals, we identified and ranked perceived risks and benefits of eco‐engineering seawalls, the most common infrastructure in the Harbour. Additionally, WTP for seawall eco‐engineering was investigated using an existing, large‐scale eco‐engineering project.
Overall, workshop participants rated benefits of seawall eco‐engineering to be almost double the risks. The key perceived benefits were increased habitat/biodiversity, improved water quality and enhanced environmental stewardship/awareness. Key perceived risks were potential damage to infrastructure and use of greenwashing to facilitate new development.
Across all stakeholder groups, participants were very supportive of statements regarding the benefits of eco‐engineered seawalls and the need for eco‐engineering principles to be included in the design of new seawalls. Despite strong support for seawall eco‐engineering, WTP was estimated at one third of the actual cost and was, in part, attributable to a lack of a shared evidence base from successful projects, and unclear guidance and policy around implementation.
Synthesis and applications: Our results showed that establishing rigorous monitoring and evaluation programs that facilitate cost–benefit analyses are critical to enhancing WTP for and uptake of eco‐engineering projects. Furthermore, more cost‐effective technologies and shared funding models may overcome existing financial impediments. We also found integrative legislation may be key to increased implementation of such NbS, given that existing policies were viewed as unsupportive.
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In the study by Chen et al. (2023) [01], the large language model GPT demonstrated economic rationality comparable to or exceeding the average human level in tasks such as budget allocation and risk preference. Building on this finding, this paper further incorporates specialized agents, such as biotechnology experts and economists, for a horizontal comparison to explore whether specialization can enhance or maintain economic rationality equivalent to that of GPT in similar decision-making scenarios. The results indicate that when agents invest more effort in specialized fields, their decision-making behavior is more prone to 'rationality shift,' specifically manifested as increased violations of GARP (Generalized Axiom of Revealed Preference), decreased CCEI (Critical Cost Efficiency Index), and more significant decision deviations under high-risk conditions. In contrast, GPT and more generalized basic agents maintain a more stable and consistent level of rationality across multiple tasks. This study reveals the inherent conflict between specialization and economic rationality, providing new insights for constructing AI decision-making systems that balance specialization and generalization across various scenarios.
This essential reference work explores the role of finance in delivering sustainability within and outside the European Union. With sustainability affecting core elements of company, banking and capital markets law, this handbook investigates the latest regulatory strategies for protecting the environment, delivering a fairer society and improving governance. Each chapter is written by a leading scholar who provides a solid theoretical approach to the topic while focussing on recent developments. Looking beyond the European Union, the book also covers relevant developments in the United States, the United Kingdom and other major jurisdictions. Thorough and comprehensive, this volume is a crucial resource for scholars, policymakers and practitioners who aim for a greener world, a more equitable society and better-managed corporations.
Objective
This study explored if the patient-experience and the affect heuristic influenced improvements in painful symptoms, in response to open label placebo injections in patients with knee OA. It furthermore explored if other cognitive biases or heuristics were involved in the response to open-label placebo.
Method
A mixed method study in a pre-specified knee OA cohort. The influence of patient-experience, and the affect heuristic, on change in painful symptoms in response to an open-label placebo injection, were assessed using a questionnaire and multivariate linear regression. The group concept mapping method was used to characterise the expectations and hopes regarding the effect of an open-label placebo injection in non-responders and responders, defined as the lower- and upper quartile of the ΔVAS pain scores.
Results
103 participants received the questionnaire, and 60 finalised questionnaires were included in the analysis showing that the reduction in pain was associated with the patient-experience and that the affect heuristic acted as an effect modifier. Three workshops were held for non-responders (n = 13) and responders (n = 15) each generating respectively 113 and 119 statements. It was found that the two groups reported different expectations and hopes for the open label placebo injections.
Conclusions
The patient-experience influenced the response to an open label placebo injection in patients with knee OA, and this influence was moderated by the strength of the affect heuristic. Furthermore, non-responders and responders reported different hopes and expectation towards the open label placebo injection indicating the presence of the optimism bias in the responder group.
Large group collaborative teaching approaches are rapidly gaining popularity in undergraduate medical education. The case-based collaborative Learning (CBCL) pedagogy was instituted for pre-clerkship teaching at Harvard Medical School in 2015 with subsequent implementation at other medical schools. CBCL emphasizes inductive reasoning, integrates basic and clinical sciences, stimulates curiosity, and fosters teamwork. Given the ongoing educational evolution, guidance on designing and facilitating collaborative learning sessions, such as CBCL may benefit faculty in their instructional design efforts. This perspective article describes strategies to create effective collaborative sessions using CBCL as an example. We reviewed the literature and summarized ten years of experience in CBCL teaching through the lens of contemporary theories of teaching and learning. The recommendations are organized into three main domains: Instructional Design, Facilitation, and Professional Transformation, each aligned with the theoretical principles of CBCL. The recommendations provide a conceptual model to assist faculty in designing engaging and effective class materials and support students’ professional transformation during collaborative learning sessions.
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