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Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and Design to Inspire and Create Sustainable Systems

Authors:
27
Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and
Design to Inspire and Create
Sustainable Systems
J.R.J. French1 and B.M. Ahmed (Shiday)2
1University of the Sunshine Coast, Faculty of Science,
Health and Education, Maroochydore,
2The University of Melbourne, Department of Forest and
Ecosystem Science, Richmond,
Australia
1. Introduction
Biomimicry (from bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning to imitate) is a new discipline
that studies nature's best ideas and then imitates these designs and processes to solve
human problems. The core idea of biomimicry as enunciated by the Biomimicry Institute
(Anon 2008) is that nature, imaginative by necessity, has already solved many of the
problems we are grappling with. Margulis (1998) considers that the major kinds of life on
Earth are bacteria, protoctists, fungi, animals and plants. All have become the consummate
survivors. They have found what works, what is appropriate, and most important, what
lasts here on Earth. This is the real news of biomimicry: After 4 billion years of research and
development, failures are fossils, and what surrounds us is the secret to survival. Termites
have been experimenting for over 300 million years on our symbiotic planet and their
current abundance and distribution attests to their co-evolutionary success.
If we want to consciously emulate nature's genius, we need to look at nature differently. In
biomimicry, we look at nature as model, measure, and mentor (Anon 2008; & 2011). Nature
as model: Biomimicry is a new science that studies nature’s models and then emulates these
forms, process, systems, and strategies to solve human problems – sustainably.
Nature as measure: Biomimicry uses an ecological standard to judge the sustainability of
our innovations. After nearly 4 billion years of evolution, nature has learned what works
and what lasts. Nature as mentor: Biomimicry is a new way of viewing and valuing nature.
It introduces an era based not on what we can extract from the natural world, but what we
can learn from it.
Capra (1997) takes the view that we need to become ecologically literate. Being ‘ecoliterate’
means understanding the principles of organisation of ecological communities (i.e.,
ecosystems) and using those principles for creating sustainable human communities. We
need to revitalise our communities – including our educational communities, business
communities, and political communities – so the principles of ecology become manifest in
them as principles of education, management, and politics.
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This theme is also expressed by Capra (2002) who has broadened his understanding of
‘growth mania’ to include the problem of world terrorism, and how we might address it by
moving towards a sustainable value-system of eco-design. There is no simple defence
against terrorism, as we live in a complex, globally interconnected world in which linear
chains of cause and effect do not exist. Capra (2003) considers that to understand this world
we need to think systemically – in terms of relationships, connections and context. He feels
that we might address this by moving towards a sustainable value system of eco-design.
Thinking systemically means realising that energy, agriculture, economics, security, and
climate change are not separate issues but different facets of one global system. It leads us to
understand that the root causes of our vulnerability are both social and technological, and
that they are the consequences of our resource-extractive, wasteful and consumption-
oriented economic system.
1.1 Co-evolution of termite communities
Termite communities have co-evolved for millions of years into ‘super-organisms’. The word
superorganism was coined in the 19th century by Herbert Spencer to apply to social
organizations. Strictly speaking a superorganism is an organism that is composed of other
organisms. A superorganism is any aggregate of individual organisms that behaves like a
unified organism. Members of a superorganism have highly specialized social cooperative
instincts, divisions of labor, and are unable to survive away from their superorganism for very
long. The standard example of a superorganism is an ant colony, but there are many others --
termite mounds, bee hives, wasp nests, coral reefs, bacterial and fungal colonies, groves of
genetically identical trees, etc. In the human context that would mean social organizations, but
the concept has a broader application. Two organisms that exist is a symbiotic arrangement
and perhaps could not survive without the partner would be a superorganism.
More recently, at an international conference at Arizona State University, USA, (18-20
February 2010), entitled ‘Social biomimicry: Insect societies and human design’, explored
how the collective behaviour and nest architecture of social insects can inspire innovative
and effective solutions to human design challenges (Figure 1).
Fig. 1. Coptotermes termite constructing a bridge to reach food source in a laboratory set-up
test Jars.
Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and Design to Inspire and Create Sustainable Systems
573
It brought together biologists, designers, engineers, computer scientists, architects and
business people, with the dual aims of enriching biology and advancing biomimetic design
(Holbrook et al., 2010).
We know that termites are masters of constructing ‘buildings’ that meet all the needs of their
colony members. From their ability to regulate their gaseous environment (French et al.,
1997), temperature and moisture in their buildings (=nest colonies) all year round (French &
Ahmed 2010), store adequate nutritional resources within the walls of their buildings for
their energy usage, but also to control waste disposal needs, shelter, and food sources for
many other animals and insects. We need to emulate the symbiotic abilities of termites to
survive over time, for as Margulis (1998) pointed out, “we all live on this symbiotic planet,
and symbiosis is natural and common”.
1.2 Termite modification of soil water availability
Termites improve soil biochemical and physical characteristics, in a symbiotic relationship
with soil micro-organisms. Both play a pivotal role in rehabilitating degraded ecosystems
and widening soil and plant microbial diversity. The role of invertebrate macropores,
particularly termites are essential and dynamic in enhancing soil water infiltration (Colloff
et al., 2010). The major environmental themes of Australian and other deserts are soil
infertility and highly variable rainfall. Yet, termites are abundant in Australia’s desert
ecosystems, due to abundant carbohydrate, fire-proneness, abundance of invertebrate
consumers of sap and other C-rich plant products, and striking aquatic systems (Morton et
al., 2010).
The role of termites and their symbiotic microbes in organic matter decomposition and
water conservation is well recognized. However, few studies have examined using the
behavioural and ecological approach of termites in relation to water and soil conservation in
order to manage soil and water. Sustainable water and soil management is a key to every
society’s survival and development. Degraded soil structure and surface sealing of soils
impede water infiltration and plant root growth, limiting the usefulness of local lands for
crop and animal production. It is likely that we can learn much from termites in addressing
these issues.
Termite modifications have a great impact, in terms of time and space, on the vegetation
even after their structures have been abandoned or eroded or their colonies have been
disturbed or died (Dangerfield et al. 1998) or flooded (Osbrink et al., 2008). The capacity of
some termite species to survive under high levels of disturbance may have positive
implications for initiating the recovery of soil function and productivity (Dawes, 2010;
Colloff et al., 2010). The ease with which a termite colony and activity can be activated with
the use of locally available organic matter or mulch in a relatively short period of time
(Mando et al., 1999; Stroosnijder, 1984) makes them one of the primary candidates for the
fight against global warming and desertification.
Termites use their saliva and other body wastes to cement soil particles together when
constructing their mounds with preferably finer soil particle sizes. When compared to the
mounds, however, the construction of feeding galleries and burrowing galleries improves
the soil porosity and water transmission characteristics in which the macropores would
otherwise be significantly reduced or eliminated during the packing and remoulding
process in the mounds. The network of short dead-end tunnels found in the irregular
sponge-like outer walls of Coptotermes lacteus mounds that serve to ‘trap’ excessive moisture
On Biomimetics
574
from within the mound, and so avoid moisture dripping down into the core of the mound.
Furthermore, we hypothesize that this mound architecture allows rapid access to moisture
for the colony members in times of prolonged drought and in order to carry out repairs and
extensions to the mound. But, equally important, we suggest that this water source sustains
their symbiotic micro-organisms (particularly actinobacteria, Kurtboke & French 2007, 2008)
within the mound materials and within themselves (French & Ahmed 2010).
The resulting high bulk density associated with the mound’s massive structure and low
total porosity, even in abandoned ones, inhibits plant growth due to its poor physical
condition, higher compaction and impermeability (Rogers et al., 1993). In contrast the
feeding galleries and burrowing channels formed, the resulting soil structure and structural
stability, porosity coupled with changes in the decomposition processes and chemical
fertility improve the amount and rate of water infiltration into the soil and its storage for
plant use (Stroosnijde and Hoogmoedr, 1984).
Termites create numerous voids on the sealed surface of the soil by their extensive
subterranean excavation and construction of feeding galleries and channels as well as
foraging holes, thereby significantly increasing infiltration by a average factor of two to
three (Mando et al., 1999) or even as much as tenfold (Leonard & Rajot 2001). Not only
would these macropores help increase the infiltration rate depending on their stability and
connectivity to the surface and to each other, but also help in intercepting the runoff water
with the help of some roughness created on the surface (Whitford & Elkins, 1986). In fact the
ability of the macropores to intercept the running water is one of the critical factors in the
infiltration process (Leonard & Rajot 2001). In other words termite activity increases the time
until ponding or surface storage is formed and therefore delays the formation of runoff.
Their interconnectivity also helps in the continuity of infiltration even after the soil has
become saturated and thus increases water availability (Mando et al., 1999).
Termites transport finer particles to the soil surface enriching the nest surroundings with
fine particles as well as constructing the mound (Konate et al., 1999). The relative
compactness and higher clay content of the termite mound increases its water holding
capacity by decreasing its porosity, or increasing the proportion of macropores. The same
structure, therefore, discharges as runoff most of the rainwater to the surrounding soil
(Whitford & Elkins, 1986). It is also responsible for the shrinking/swelling capacity of the
mounds that in dry areas help increase the infiltration of water into the mound and its deep
percolation (Konate et al., 1999). Infiltrated water is readily available to plants when it is
stored in the macropores. As the water stored in the soil is related to the amount of water
input by infiltration, termite modified soil structure ultimately increased soil water stored
(Mando et al., 1999). Medina (1996) reported that termite modification resulted in an
increase in soil water content of up to 50mm (from an average 150mm in non termite plots to
200mm in plots without termites in the top soil) in the driest year during an experiment to
improve the soil water balance in crusted Sahelian soils.
Response of natural vegetation or crops to the improved water availability due to termite
effects is a relevant field to explore when considering the effectiveness of oil and water
management techniques (Medina, 1996). The analysis of termite activities with respect to
their role in the restoration of degraded ecosystems or mitigating effects of climate change,
global warming and desertification becomes imperative if we are maximise the ecological
benefit we get from them or at least adopt some of the complex mechanisms they use in
Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and Design to Inspire and Create Sustainable Systems
575
their efficient micro-systems, and that maintain sustainability in impoverished
environments, such as deserts and semi-arid regions (Waugham et al., 1981).
1.3 Termite thermoregulation and moisture control in their mounds
In the most comprehensive Australian studies in recent times of how termites regulate
temperature, water, and gaseous emissions (Ewart & French, 1986; Bristow & Holt, 1986;
Ewart, 1988; Khalil et al., 1990; French et al., 1997) the following conclusions were made.
Regardless of site, either clear or shaded, Coptotermes lacteus maintained the core
temperatures in the nursery area much higher than that of the soil and well above that of the
enveloping air (French et al., 1997). Termites maintained this difference within fine limits on
a daily scale, while the seasonal change was more marked. Spring and summer are the most
active periods for the termite colony, as reflected in the high methane and carbon dioxide
emission measurements.
We have described the network of short dead-end tunnels found in the irregular sponge-like
outer walls of C. lacteus mounds that serve totrap excessive moisture from within the
mound, and so avoid moisture dripping down into the core of the mound. Furthermore, we
hypothesize that this mound architecture allows rapid access to moisture for the colony
members in times of prolonged drought and in order to carry out repairs and extensions to
the mound. But, equally important, we suggest that this water source sustains their
symbiotic micro-organisms (particularly actinobacteria) within the mound materials and
within themselves (French & Ahmed 2010).
Fig. 2. Coptotermes acinaciformis mound displaying outer structure (7cm thick of 50% soil and
50% organic matter) with internal structure of ventilation space 1.5 cm and moist nest
material with live termites.
On Biomimetics
576
Heat conduction out from the mound area during periods of high air temperatures is
another aspect of ‘moisture control’ within the mound (Ewart & French, 1986). As moist soil
and wood conduct heat better than does dry soil or wood, there is an advantage in having a
moist outer wall to assist in heat transfer. It seems that the concentric thin-walled structure
of the nursery is a region of low thermal conductivity, in which major changes of
temperature takes place relatively slowly. Holdaway & Gay (1948) observed that there was
little evidence that the termites are capable of lowering temperature when environmental
temperatures are high, other than by departure from the mound. It may be that termites can
effect internal temperatures by transporting water to the dead-end galleries just below the
hard outer wall material and above the nursery. Bristow & Holt (1986) studied the harvester
termite, Tumulitermes pastinator, and have suggested that termites create energy sinks when
regulating mound temperatures. They may achieve this by introducing water to the nursery
environment, thereby increasing heat capacity of this part of the mound and dissipating
energy through vapourisation. However, they did not mention the presence of any dead-
end galleries that we have hypothesized as active (Figure 2).
Termites, together with their microbial symbionts, have a highly significant impact on
biodegradation and biorecycling as well as shaping soil functions and properties in the
tropics and subtropics (Bignell, 2006). The precise role of actinobacteria and other microbes
in the life-cycle of a termite colony is still an area of research that is wide open for study
(Kurtboke & French 2007).
Fig. 3. Amitermes meridionalis (grass feeding) cathedral mound in Northern territory,
Australia
However, we know that such symbiogenesis is a hallmark of the termite–actinobacteria
interrelationship, an aspect of termite ecology that has not been exposed to intensive
ecosystem level experimentation (French, 1988). The presence of dead-end galleries may be
Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and Design to Inspire and Create Sustainable Systems
577
a site for ‘culturing’ actinomycetes that have properties ranging from thermophilic abilities
to providing cellulases and lignases, and other enzymes necessary in a termite’s
physiological life. To our knowledge, there are no studies on the role of actinomycetes
within termite nests over the various seasons. The fact that the temperatures in the nest drop
during winter may have bearing on the functioning of the actinomycetes at such lower
temperatures, which would ensure that their symbionts partners, the termites, have optimal
conditions to sustain the nest colonies (Figure 3).
1.4 Building with termites
While there have been examples of biomimetic design for climate control in buildings such
as Eastgate Centre, Zimbabwe, built in 1996, and London’s Portcullis House, built in 2001,
and CH2 in Melbourne, built in 2006. These buildings operate on passive cooling systems
that are a viable alternative to artificial air-conditioning. Passive cooling works by storing
heat in the day and venting it at night as temperatures drop. It is estimated that such
buildings use only 10% of the energy needed by a similar conventionally cooled building
(Doan, 2007).
The future toward ‘building with termites’ thus holds immense challenges, intellectual and
practical, for architects, builders, the wood protection industry as a whole, and building
regulators. For instance, will the gaseous environment of a “living building” affect structural
components? Also, the notion of water-trapping may indeed ‘attract’ termite foragers to
buildings, thus taking ‘termite management systems’ into a new era. Appropriate laboratory
bioassays and ecosystem level experimentation in the field will be required to evaluate
termite-susceptible components of such “living buildings” (French 1988). The Australian
Standards for buildings would have to be amended and updated to ensure compliance by
designers, architects, builders, and the building authorities. The Building Code of Australia
(BCA) would need to incorporate these standards into “deemed-to-satisfy” clauses within
the Standards.
Multi-component biocide systems have been developed that protect wood in buildings from
mould fungi, decay fungi, borers and termites for interior application, either as remedial or
preventative treatments (Clausen and Yang 2004, 2007; Turner 2008). Basically, these
systems comprise a glycol borate base, with the synthetic pyrethroids deltamethrin and
permethrin, and a fungicide, propiconazole. These systems protect timber-in-service for the
life of the building (Lloyd et al., 1999; Smith & Lloyd 2004).
1.5 Towards designing eco-friendly buildings with in-built termite protection
An American scientist, James Hansen of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, put climate change squarely on the agenda of policymakers on 23 June
1988. Hansen told a United States of America (USA) Senate Committee “ he was 99 percent
certain that the years record temperatures were not the result of natural variation”. Hansen
concluded that the rising heat was due to the growing concentration of carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4) and other atmospheric pollutants Global emissions of carbon dioxide
from fossil fuel combustion and cement production rose from 22.6 billion tons in 1990 to an
estimated 31.2 billion tons in 2007 – a staggering 37 percent increase. This is 85 million tons
of carbon dioxide spilled into the atmosphere each day – or 13 kg on average per person
(Flavin & Engelman 2009; Engelman 2009).
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Between 1990 and 2008 USA emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion grew
by 27 percent – but emissions from China rose 150 percent, from 2.3 billion to 5.9 billion
tons. In 2006 China passed the USA in emissions (Lewis, 2008).
Accelerating emissions are not the only factor driving increased concern. Tropical
deforestation – estimated at 13 million hectares annually is adding 6.5 billion tons of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere each year. But more alarmingly, the Earths natural sinks (oceans
and biological systems) appear to be losing their ability to absorb a sizeable fraction of these
increases. As a result, the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations has
accelerated to the fastest rate ever recorded (Anon 2007).
The guiding principles of international efforts to deal with climate change were established
in 1992 in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was
adopted in Rio Janeiro at the Earth Summit: “The ultimate objective of this Convention and
any related legal instruments is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner” (Hare,
2009).
So how are our wood protection and allied chemical and building industries dealing with
the major challenge of global warming, namely the stabilization of greenhouse gas
emissions? Are we designing buildings and the wood protection systems to combat termites
and wood decay fungi that will minimise our carbon footprint? If the answer to both of
these questions was in the affirmative, we could be forgiven to think that our industries are
meeting the climate-change challenge! However, the reality is that the wood protection
systems in current use are not designed to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions. We are
still relying heavily on chemical solutions that can only be viewed as environmental
pollutants, such as chromium and arsenic.
In researching building products that can meet the challenge facing our industries, reduce
carbon emissions, and have termite resistant properties, we focussed on the carbon-neutral,
bio-composite, Hemcrete® (French et al., 2010). This paper explores the utilisation of this
product that we suggest would be economically attractive, meet the challenges of eco-
friendly building products, and at the same time offer in-built termite protection.
Hemcrete® is a blend of lime based binder (Tradical® HB) and specially prepared hemp (ca.
10-15 mm in length) (Tradical®HF) which has virtually no narcotic content (Roaf, et al.,
2007). Together these form a sustainable bio-composite construction material that combats
climate change by capturing carbon and delivering high performance airtight, insulating
walls. The lime hemp walls can be solid with no need for a cavity and consequently the
constructed details are simple and robust (MacDougall, 2008). History shows us that
buildings like these are comfortable to live in (warm in winter and cool in summer) and can
last for centuries. In addition using hemp in this way will help reduce the demand for
aggregates and offer new economic opportunities to farmers (Roaf, et al., 2007). To date
most of the hemp buildings that have been built are non-load bearing, with a separate
timber frame. However, research is ongoing to develop lime composites that can be used in
a load-bearing capacity (Roaf et al., 2007).
Preliminary field tests of Hemcrete® against the most economically important wood-feeding
species, Coptotermes, in semi-tropical and tropical Australia indicated that there was no
feeding or penetration of the substrate after two weeks continuous contact within and on
Biomimicry of Termite Social Cohesion and Design to Inspire and Create Sustainable Systems
579
termite mound colonies. Our experience (JRJF & BA) with evaluating Granitgard, a graded
particle barrier of granite screenings (1.7 to 2.4mm diameter), and other physical barriers in
laboratory bioassays since 1987, show that if Coptotermes termite species do not
tunnel/penetrate/breach a physical barrier within the first 24-48hrs, they never succeeded
after 2-4 weeks exposure in all bioassay studies (French et al. 2003). This pattern of
behaviour has been consistent in all our laboratory and field bioassays (French et al., 2010).
It is considered that the high insulation of Hemcrete® in-fill means that single wall structure
provides sufficient insulation and does not require additional insulation and avoids the
need for cavity wall construction. This makes construction speed and simplicity a most
attractive feature of Hemcrete® construction compared with our current brick veneer and
wall cavity constructions.
Our experience in Australia clearly indicates that the most likely path for termite entry into
the brick work is either through perpend (vertical joint) or at the base of the wall. The base is
most likely as often the footing and is commonly covered with some soil in places onto
which the base course of mortar is spread. For a base entry it does not matter if there are
graded particle barrier material between the brickwork and the strip shield as, if they come
up between the vertical leg of the shielding and the brickwork on reaching the horizontal leg
they will be forced to the external face of the brickwork which is within the inspection zone
required by AS 3660.1 - 2000. Also for the perpend it is not really critical, as often these are
not filled and there is an open void within the perpends and entry through a perpend will
also result in them being forced, either up the horizontal surface of the strip shielding or
down into the graded material. If they are foraging in between the horizontal part of the
strip and the brick, they most likely would have a mud tube up the outside of the brickwork
in the inspection zone. It is the maintaining of the 75mm inspection zone that is the main
concern (French et al., 2009).
1.6 Future termite control and co-existence requires partnerships between industry,
government and people.
On June 1995 in Australia, when the use of organochlorines in termite control were banned,
the pest control industry, together with the housing and timber industries, and performance
of the State regulatory agencies were philosophically ill-prepared to consider alternative
termite control measures (French & Ahmed 2006). However, conditions have drastically
altered and there is an awareness of such alternatives as bait and dust toxicants, and
reticulation systems such as the Plasmite Termite Reticulation System using bifenthrin
within cavity walls. But, termite barriers need to be termed more accurately, as termite
monitoring systems, as they do not protect timber-in-service within buildings, merely
intercept and detect termites. Thus, we still require thorough annual termite inspections of
buildings, with chemical termiticides needed to eradicate termite activity when found
during inspections. So, physical termite barrier methods will need to be coupled with
chemical eradication systems.
In the future, we will experience a move from mono-component biocide systems to multi-
component biocide systems (Clausen & Yang 2004, 2007; Lloyd et al., 1999). This will require
innovative, flexible and performance based testing to evaluate candidate termiticides and
biocide systems. Another feature of termite control in Australia is the paucity of scientific
data to assess termite distribution and to determine the hazard faced by buildings in
Australia to wood-feeding termites. But the distribution of house type across Australia is not
uniform, so the influence of house age, construction type, and termite protection method
On Biomimetics
580
also needed to be determined. To obtain a random sample of houses, not those reported to
pest control operators as having termite infestations, a Termite Tally was instigated by Dr
John French through Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation’s
(CSIRO’s) Double Helix science club, with the data collected by the school children members
of the club. There was some initial concern about the reliability and randomness of this
survey method, however a verification study revealed a high level of accuracy in the data
instigated hazard ratings (Cookson & Ahmed 1998). The termite tally survey provided
results for 5122 dwellings. The mean house age was 30 years, and the mean occupancy
duration was 11 years. The dominant factor affecting termite incidence inside a house was
house age. The occurrence of termites inside a house was not significantly affected by house
construction type (timber, masonry, concrete, steel or their combinations). Termite
eradication was most successful by soil or wood treatment. The study indicated that the
most important factor determining termite distribution is temperature, followed secondly
by rainfall. Vegetation and soil types appear to play a more minor role within the dominant
effects of temperature and moisture (Cookson & Ahmed 1998; Cookson, 1999).
We recommend the further use of school children in garnishing scientific data on future
termite surveys and hazard evaluations assisted by enthusiastic professional scientists. But
again, this requires a total partnership approach, with industry, government and people
engaging in an integrated pest management (IPM) approach to termite control based on
sound ecological parameters and social priorities. These include adopting a mix of
alternative strategies as mentioned above, plus planning to ensure continuous funding for
termite Research & Development (R & D) and training and education programs to supply
‘termite expertise’ in the future.
Fig. 4. Subterranean termite feeding is not random and balances the feeding territory within
a living tree structure only attacking the dead cells (xylem cells) while keeping the sapwood
living cells intact. Termite follow the Compartmentakization of Decay in Trees (CODIT)
model perfectly. Of course, given time, the termites, just as the decay- causing
microorganisms will breakdown all matter. But, in the early stages, the termites, just as the
decay fungi in products, follow the CODIT model. And again, the termites will follow
wound-altered wood that was preset in the living tree (see Shigo, 1979).
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Unfortunately, with the closure of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products and reduction by
State Governments into termite R&D, there are few government establishments offering
impartial, professional research, training and education in termite control measures. Target
research seems to be the order of the day, with scant emphasis on “blue-sky research”.
Meanwhile, given these obvious limitations in having centres of termite research excellence,
screening and evaluation methods of new generation termiticides have to be flexible, in the
main stream of biological and chemical thinking, and considerate of ecological impact to
humans and the environment. Assessors would be required to have a broader knowledge
than just termiticide toxicity data and termite control methods (Figure 4).
1.7 Modelling termite behaviour and engineering to create sustainable human
buildings
We believe that by understanding more about termite ecology and behaviour, and wearing
“termite spectacles” as it were, we will gain better understanding in applying and adopting
biomimetic systems that we will need in a sustainable future. This will also allow us to pass
on the “message of biomimicry”, advise the community to adopt such a pathway, and
develop policies inclusive of all ecosystems, human and otherwise. We need to educate and
ensure that policies address problems that affect all levels of the community, develop
sustainable partnerships with industry, government and people. This also means involving
school children, awaking in them a sense of ‘stewardship’ with their whole environment,
and contributing into similar projects as the CSIRO Double Helix Club Termite Tally as
mentioned above.
Janine Benyus (1997) in her book on biomimicry suggests looking to Nature as a "Model,
Measure, and Mentor" and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry. Nature
as model: Biomimicry is a new science that studies nature’s models and then emulates these
forms, process, systems, and strategies to solve human problems – sustainably. Nature as
measure: Biomimicry uses an ecological standard to judge the sustainability of our
innovations. After nearly 4 billion years of evolution, nature has learned what works and
what lasts. Nature as mentor: Biomimicry is a new way of viewing and valuing nature. It
introduces an era based not on what we can extract from the natural world, but what we can
learn from it.
We can plan and create communities in which citizens will enjoy sustainable, secure,
equitable, socially just, exciting, curious, peaceful and satisfying lives, without diminishing
the chances of future generations.
2. Conclusions
The core idea of biomimicry is that nature, innovative by necessity, has already solved many
of the problems we are grappling with. Margulis (1998) considers that the major kinds of life
on Earth are bacteria, protoctists, fungi, animals and plants. All have become the
consummate survivors. They have found what works, what is appropriate, and most
important, what lasts here on Earth. This is the real news of biomimicry: After nearly 4
billion years of research and development, failures are fossils, and what surrounds us is the
secret to survival. Termites have been experimenting for over 300 million years on our
symbiotic planet and their distribution and abundance attests to their evolutionary success.
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We have discussed the richness and abundance of the termite fauna in Australia (Ewart and
French 1986; Colloff et al., 2010). Also, we have shown the beneficial aspects of ‘living with
termites’ particularly their role in the restoration of ecosystem function to revegetation
communities, enhancing soil water infiltration and as invertebrate primary consumers and
abundant and widespread macropores.
Termites have inspired us to create sustainable human buildings modelled from their
mound colonies, with examples at the Eastgate Centre, Zimbabwe (1996), London’s
Portcullis House (2001), and CH2 in Melbourne (2006). These buildings operate on passive
cooling systems that store heat during the day and vent and release heat at night. It is
estimated that such buildings use only 10% of the energy needed by a similar conventionally
cooled building.
Janine Benyus (1997) suggests looking to Nature as a "Model, Measure, and Mentor" and
emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry. We concur and promote the
challenge of innovative sustainable human buildings modelled on ‘termite engineering’
with respect to carbon footprints, energy, and durability for life of the building. The mention
of the Hemcrete®, the bio-composite, carbon neutral product that is termite resistant, was
merely an illustrative example of the type of building that could mimic termite mounds
with respect to insulation, thermoregulation, energy efficiency, moisture control and water
storage, leading to the development of human buildings that enhance eco-friendly materials,
and buildings of high comfort and durability.
An integral part of promoting such eco-friendly, carbon neutral buildings is addressing the
issue of foraging termites attacking and damaging such buildings. We are proponents of
protecting wood in service using multi-component biocide systems that comprise glycol
borates, with synthetic pyrethroids (deltamethrin and permethrin) and a fungicide
(propiconazole). This spray-on treatment diffuses deep into structural timbers protecting
them from decay fungi, mould fungi, borers and termites for the life of the building.
While this paper has dealt with termite behaviour and engineering to inspire and create
sustainable human buildings, our ultimate objective would be the message as enunciated by
the Biomimicry Guild (Anon 2011), namely, that “our mission is to nurture and grow a
global community of people who are learning from, emulating, and conserving life's genius
to create a healthier, more sustainable planet”.
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The concepts of green building and sustainable construction have received tremendous interest in North America in the past decade, as shown by the growth in the numbers of L.E.E.D.™ certified projects (Kibert 2005). Parallel to this has been a growing interest in natural, vernacular, or traditional building materials and techniques. Examples of these include straw bale construction and rammed earth construction. From an environmental point of view, these materials offer a low embodied energy and low embodied carbon alternative to conventional building materials such as concrete and steel (Woolley 2006, Walker 2007). In the case of straw bale construction, use is made of a waste material with excellent insulation properties. Other benefits of many natural materials include their ability to passively regulate humidity in a building, reduced toxicity, high thermal mass, and biodegradability at the end of life (Walker 2007). There remain many barriers to the use of natural building materials in the mainstream construction industry, including a lack of scientific data to quantify their true performance (Woolley 2006) and lack of experience by the mainstream construction industry in using these materials. This leads to the perception that these materials are low-tech and have poor performance. This perception, however, is changing. There is a growing body of research that is quantifying the performance of natural building materials and showing that they can compete with conventional building materials. There are also some excellent recent examples of the integration of natural building materials in mainstream construction projects. This paper describes three natural building material products that have been successfully integrated into mainstream construction projects in the United Kingdom: straw bale panels by ModCell; a hemp-lime composite called hemcrete and marketed by Tradical; and, rammed earth and unfired clay bricks. The information in this paper is based on interviews and site inspections undertaken by the author during February 2008. Some of the research supporting the use of these products will be described. Finally, some lessons and cautions for the use of these products in North America will be discussed. A caveat regarding the limitations of this paper is in order. This paper does not claim to be an exhaustive review of natural building materials and their performance. Other references should be consulted for more details on thermal or fire performance, for example.
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A study was made to determine whether or not Eutermes exitiosttS maintains within its mound a constant temperature at which it would be desirable to maintain artificial laboratory colonies of this termite.
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This paper reviews the mode of action, environmental, health and efficacy attributes of borates in remedial timber treatment applications, with an emphasis on the use of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate. It also reviews recent research investigating the important role moisture plays in both borate diffusion and retention in wood. Up to 60 years of global experience and 10 years with remedial application in North America demonstrate that borates offer: proven efficacy against a range of wood-destroying pests; application flexibility; protection that can last as long as the wood remains in service; and a good margin of safety to humans and the environment.