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Identification and Quantification of Flavor Attributes present in Chicken, Lamb, Pork, Beef, and Turkey
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to use a meat flavor lexicon to identify and quantify flavor differences among different types of meats such as beef, chicken, lamb, pork, and turkey, and to identify and quantify specific flavor attributes associated with “beef flavor” notes. A trained descriptive panel with 11 participants used a previously developed meat lexicon composed of 18 terms to evaluate the flavor of beef, chicken, pork, turkey, and lamb samples. Results show that beef and lamb samples can be described by flavor attributes such as barny, bitter, gamey, grassy, livery, metallic, and roast beef. Inversely related to these samples were pork and turkey and those attributes that were closely related to them, namely brothy, fatty, salty, sweet, and umami. Chicken was not strongly related to the other types of meats or the attributes used. The descriptive panel also evaluated samples of ground beef mixed with chicken to identify and quantify flavor attributes associated with a “beef flavor.” Meat patties for this portion consisted of ground beef mixed with ground chicken in varying amounts: 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% beef, with the remainder made up of chicken. Beef and beef-rich patties (75% beef) were more closely related to flavor attributes such as astringent, bloody, fatty, gamey, metallic, livery, oxidized, grassy, and roast beef, while chicken was more closely associated with brothy, juicy, sour, sweet, and umami. This research provides information regarding the specific flavor attributes that differentiate chicken and beef products and provides the first set of descriptors that can be associated with “beefy” notes.
Potential Application: The use of a standardized flavor lexicon will allow meat producers to identify specific flavors present in their products. The impact is to identify and quantify negative and positive flavors in the product with the ultimate goal of optimizing processing or cooking conditions and improve the quality of meat products.
... In some analytical sensory studies, the flavor of meat has been measured as "overall flavor intensity" to evaluate how different treatments affected this all-encompassing attribute (Lucherk et al., 2016;O'Quinn et al., 2018;Rodas-González et al., 2009;Spanier et al., 1997), while other studies took all perceived flavor attributes or just different components of meat flavor such as beefy, roasted, and fatty flavor attributes into account (Lorenzen et al., 2005;Wall et al., 2019). Maughan and Martini (2012) conducted DSA and found that the flavor of beef and pork were closely related. The meat was described as "bitter," "barny," "gamey," "livery," "metallic," "roast," and "beef," whereas pork and turkey meat was described as "brothy," "fatty," "salty," "sweet," and "umami" (Maughan & Martini, 2012). ...
... Maughan and Martini (2012) conducted DSA and found that the flavor of beef and pork were closely related. The meat was described as "bitter," "barny," "gamey," "livery," "metallic," "roast," and "beef," whereas pork and turkey meat was described as "brothy," "fatty," "salty," "sweet," and "umami" (Maughan & Martini, 2012). A study by Byrne et al. (2002) found that increased cooking temperatures (160, 170, 180, 190 • C) resulted in chicken with more "toasted," "roasted," and "bitter" sensory characteristics. ...
Although many efforts have been made to improve and control the eating quality of meat, there is still high variability in palatability, which may ultimately result in customer dissatisfaction. Beef meat is especially intricate to study since consumers have specific preferences for degrees of doneness. The degrees of doneness in beef is known to affect its physicochemical properties and have a subsequent effect on palatability. Nevertheless, an in‐depth investigation into the exact changes that occur with increasing internal end‐point temperatures of meat is yet to be explored. With researchers implementing various cooking methods and cooking conditions (i.e., sample preparation and internal end‐point temperatures), the results of studies are often impossible to compare. This review provides an overview of the various benefits and drawbacks of the cooking methods commonly used at home, in commercial enterprises, and research on meat. Furthermore, the physicochemical changes in meat with increasing degrees of doneness are discussed in detail with considerations of the subsequent changes in the sensory properties of meat.
... Rodbotten, Kubberod, Lea, and Ueland (2004) using principal component analysis to evaluate sensory attributes of fresh meat from 15 different A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T species found that colour and flavour explained 68% and 66% of liking variability, respectively. In addition to unique flavours (e.g., gamy, grassy, metallic and livery), intensity also appeared to differ in many flavours that are shared by different species (Rodbotten et al., 2004;Maughan & Martini, 2012;Rhee & Ziprin, 1996). Difference in flavour identity and intensity across species were also found for meat products such as patties (Rhee & Ziprin, 1996;Maughan & Martini, 2012). ...
... In addition to unique flavours (e.g., gamy, grassy, metallic and livery), intensity also appeared to differ in many flavours that are shared by different species (Rodbotten et al., 2004;Maughan & Martini, 2012;Rhee & Ziprin, 1996). Difference in flavour identity and intensity across species were also found for meat products such as patties (Rhee & Ziprin, 1996;Maughan & Martini, 2012). Other eating attributes such as aroma and texture can significantly affect the identification of meat types (Matsuishi, Igeta, Takeda, & Okitani, 2004). ...
Consumer evaluation has been used extensively over the past decades to evaluate
acceptability and quality of food products. New methods have been developed to overcome some biases of traditional techniques. Testing with meat is challenging due to the high variability of the meat samples. This review outlines (a) the traditional consumer-based techniques for assessing food, and available methods to link consumer responses to sensory properties (b) qualitative measurements, (c) past and current methods for evaluating meat sensory characteristics and the development of the Meat Standard Australia (MSA) protocol, and (d) psychological and physiological factors affecting consumers. Conclusions from this review are: (1) Traditional consumer testing provides important information regarding acceptability but may miss important unconscious responses of consumers (2) Qualitative methods can obtain more holistic responses from consumers, (3) The Meat Standard Australia (MSA) protocol offers a reliable and robust method to measure meat quality with consumers, and (4) Physiological responses may help to understand the unbiased emotions of consumers.
... Thus, the use of chicken breast for manufacturing meat products is expected to result in physicochemical and textural properties. In terms of the sensory aspect, the taste and flavor of chicken were associated with being juicy, sour, sweet and umami (Maughan and Martini, 2012). Although both the pork loin and chicken breast have a lower fat content, there is little information available in the literature related to the effect of mixing ratio between pork loin and chicken breast on meat product. ...
... As a result, the overall acceptance of emulsion sausages highly correlated with tenderness, umami taste and residual flavor (p<0.05). Recently, according to Maughan and Martini (2012), the sensory characteristics of chicken meat in meat homogenates containing beef and chicken were brothy, juicy, salt, sour, sweet and umami. In this study, an increase in the added amount of chicken breast contributed to a rich umami taste and deeper flavor in emulsion sausages, thereby resulting in a high overall acceptance score in the formulation of 0-30% pork loin and 70-100% chicken breast. ...
This study is conducted to evaluate the effects of the mixing ratio between pork loin and chicken breast for textural and sensory properties of emulsion sausages. Meat homogenates are prepared by using five mixing ratios between pork loin and chicken breast (100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 0:100), and the emulsion sausages are also formulated with five mixing ratios. The additions of chicken breast increase the salt soluble protein solubility due to high pH levels of chicken breast, thereby resulting in the reduction of cooking losses. In addition, the apparent viscosity of meat homogenates increase with increasing amounts of chicken breast. In terms of emulsion sausages formulated with pork loin and chicken breast, the addition of chicken breast above 50% may contribute to a softer and more flexible texture of emulsion sausages. For sensory evaluations, an increase in the added amount of chicken breast contributes to a rich umami taste and deeper flavor within the emulsion sausages, resulting in the high overall acceptance score for the formulation of 0-30% pork loin and 70-100% chicken breast. Therefore, the optimal mixing ratios between pork loin and chicken breast are 0-30% and 70-100% for enhancing the textural and sensory properties of emulsion sausages.
... Flavor depends on intrinsic and extrinsic factors (i.e., species, genetics, sex, feeding regimen, and management practices) (Maughan & Martini, 2012;Melton, 1990). A meat's flavor is characteristic of the species (Maughan & Martini, 2012). ...
... Flavor depends on intrinsic and extrinsic factors (i.e., species, genetics, sex, feeding regimen, and management practices) (Maughan & Martini, 2012;Melton, 1990). A meat's flavor is characteristic of the species (Maughan & Martini, 2012). Lamb is differentiated from beef and pork because of its flavor intensity (Rhee & Ziprin, 1996) and aroma (Matsuishi, Igeta, Takeda, & Okitani, 2004), and those people who differentiated among the types of meat scored lamb's flavor stronger and with lower palatability (Rhee & Ziprin, 1996). ...
Meat and meat products currently represent an important source of protein in the human diet, and their quality varies according to intrinsic and extrinsic parameters that can sometimes be shaped to make a product more desirable. Because consumers are the final step in the production chain, it is useful to identify which factors affect their behavioral patterns. This would allow the meat sector to better satisfy consumer expectations, demands and needs. This paper focuses on features that might influence consumer behavior, preferences and their perception of meat and meat products with respect to psychological, sensory and marketing aspects. This multidisciplinary approach includes evaluating psychological issues such as attitudes, beliefs, and expectations; sensory properties such as appearance, texture, flavor and odor; and marketing-related aspects such as price and brand.
... Therefore, we speculated that the contribution of L-glutamic acid and L-aspartic acid to umami was mainly to enhance umami richness. Maughan et al. reported that chicken and pork had significantly higher umami compared with beef; our results also showed that chicken umami was stronger than that of the other three species [36]. The bitter aftertaste of chicken was different from that of the other three species (Figure 1D), and the contents of creatinine and hypoxanthine in chicken were also significantly different from those in the other three species. ...
The taste of meat is the result of complex chemical reactions. In this study, non-target metabolomics was used to resolve the taste differences in muscle tissue of four major livestock species (chicken, duck, pork, and beef). The electronic tongue was then combined to identify the major taste contributors to meat. The results showed that the metabolism of chicken meat differed from that of duck, pork, and beef. The multivariate statistical analysis showed that the five important metabolites responsible for the differences were all related to taste, including creatinine, hypoxanthine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, L-glutamic acid, and L-aspartic acid. These five key taste contributors acted mainly through the amino acid metabolic pathways. In combination with electronic tongue (e-tongue) analysis, inosine monophosphate was the main contributor of umami. L-Glutamic acid and L-aspartic acid might be important contributors to the umami richness. Creatinine and hypoxanthine contributed more to the bitter aftertaste of meat.
... Furthermore, meat's aroma is influenced by animal species. Lamb and mutton is differentiated from beef due to the formers' intense aroma, a characteristic which is not widely acceptable among consumers (Matsuishi et al., 2004;Maughan and Martini, 2012). In addition, many differences are observed both within and among countries, regarding consumer preferences for the desirable organoleptic characteristics of meat. ...
... More than one class of VOCs have been found in meat, and the measured VOC composition differs depending on the cooking method. For example, 3,5dimethyl-1,2,4-trithiopentane is the main VOC in fried chicken, while in cooked chicken the main VOCs are heptane, (E) − 2-nonanal and 2nonanal (Maughan & Martini, 2012), and in Dapan chicken they are hexanal and anethole (Jayasena, Ahn, Nam, & Jo, 2013). However, besides the uncertainty about the compounds responsible for the meat flavor, the VOCs are characterized by complex and diverse components, low content and instability, which makes it difficult to identify the most important VOCs. ...
Chicken meat flavor has deteriorated with the increase of meat production. With the aim to identify the main aroma compounds in chicken meat, 972 Chinese local chickens are used to analyze the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in meat by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The results revealed that various VOCs present in the meat belong to aldehyde, alcohol and alkane classes. Total aldehyde content is highest in breeds significantly negatively correlated with the content of the other two classes, and their flavor can be distinguished by E-nose. Also, 9 common VOCs were shared by different breeds. Furthermore, principal component analysis identified hexanal and 1-octen-3-ol as the major VOCs according to the three classes, 9 common VOCs, or all VOCs as a whole in each breed, respectively. This study identified the main aroma VOCs in chicken meat, which could serve as a basis for breeding chickens with improved meat flavor.
... The direct relationship between the attributes "meat odor" and "meat flavor" with "metallic taste" was evaluated. This relationship was confirmed in ground beef or lamb mixed with other ingredients, but was weak in chicken [38]. It is attributed to the presence of minerals such as calcium, magnesium or iron, which can provide taste after cooking [39]. ...
Dishes whose texture has been modified for dysphagia undergo changes in other sensory characteristics as well. Therefore, it is necessary to identify these characteristics in adapted dishes and their relationship to hedonic acceptance. In the present work, the sensory characteristics of five dishes adapted to dysphagia associated with cerebral palsy were investigated using the check-all-that-apply method. A hedonic evaluation with a panel of non-dysphagic judges was performed to relate the degree of acceptance with the sensory characteristics of the adapted dishes. The identification of the original non-adapted dish as well as the relationship between the hedonic evaluation by non-dysphagic judges and dysphagic judges were explored. The main attributes of the dishes adapted to dysphagia were “homogeneity” and “easy-to-swallow”. Attributes that increased the hedonic evaluation were “flavorful”, “flavor of the original dish”, “soft texture”, “easy-to-swallow”, and “odor of the original dish”. The attributes that decreased the hedonic evaluation were “thick mash” and “bland”. The fish dish was the only one correctly identified more than 62.5% of the time. The adapted dishes received scores above 4.7 out of 9.0 in the hedonic evaluation. The most accepted dishes were the chicken stew and the chickpea stew. Except for the pasta dish, the test yielded similar results to those obtained with dysphagic judges. The texture-modified dishes were correctly characterized and accepted. This study shows that all the sensory characteristics of the adapted dishes are crucial for acceptance and identification.
... Perhaps that is because a lexicon for such sensory work is lacking. Such lexicons have been published for many products over the years including meat [31,32], fish [33-35], vegetables [36-40], fruits [41][42][43][44][45], grains and breads [46][47][48], dairy products [49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56], beverages [57][58][59][60][61], other processed foods [62][63][64][65][66][67], and types of chemical compounds [68][69][70][71]. Suwonsichon [72] stated that lexicons are "an effective communication tool and a guidance tool for new product development processes, quality control, product improvement, measuring changes during product shelf life, and breeding new plant cultivars". ...
Mushrooms are a nutritious versatile ingredient in many food products. They are low in calories and have various potential medicinal properties as well. Surprisingly, little research on their descriptive sensory properties has been conducted. The objectives of this study were to a) establish a descriptive sensory flavor lexicon for the evaluation of fresh, dried, and powdered mushrooms and 2) use that lexicon to compare a selection of different mushrooms of various species and in fresh dried and powdered forms. A lexicon for describing mushroom was developed using a consensus profile method. A highly trained, descriptive sensory panel identified, defined, and referenced 27 flavor attributes for commercially available mushroom samples prepared as “meat” and broth. Attributes could be grouped in categories such as musty (dusty/papery, earthy/humus, earthy/damp, earthy/potato, fermented, leather (new), leather (old), mold/cheesy, moldy/damp, mushroomy), and other attributes such as fishy, shell fish, woody, nutty, brown, green, cardboard, burnt/ashy, potato, umami, protein (vegetable), yeasty, bitter, salty, sweet aromatics, sour, and astringent. Samples were then tested in three replications and mean values were compared statistically. In addition, principal component analysis was used to understand the characteristics of mushrooms evaluated. Dried mushrooms showed bitter, burnt, musty/dusty, astringent, old leather, and fresh mushroom characteristics and fresh mushroom showed umami, sweet, earthy/potato, earthy/damp, yeasty, and fermented. Mushrooms were grouped and differentiated in similar ways regardless of whether they were tested as broth or “meat”. Mushroom growers, product developers, chefs and other culinary professionals, sensory scientists, researchers, the food industry, and ultimately consumers will benefit from this lexicon describing a wide variety of mushroom flavor properties.
... The flavor properties of many foods have been well-described, defined, and referenced. For example, Maughan and Martini [32] found that fresh cooked pork is characterized by such terms as brothy, fatty, salty, sweet, and umami. Other authors [33] showed that consumer acceptance of cooked, stored pork patties increased after the addition of plant extracts containing antioxidants. ...
Increasing consumer desire for functional food ingredients, including such products as shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes P.) powder (SM), demands that the sensory impact of such ingredients be tested in an appropriate food system. Pork patties are a common food in many Asian countries. Pork patties in this study were prepared with and without SM, an ingredient that is gaining popularity around the world. A lexicon for describing the texture and flavor of cooked pork patties, with and without 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP), a typical additive to meat, and with varying amounts of SM (0% to 6%) was developed by a highly trained panel to compare sensory properties for each type of patty. The attributes evaluated were juiciness, toughness, rubberiness, mealiness, pork identity (pork ID), meatiness, mushroom, onion, garlic, black pepper, heat/burn, soapy, chemical, animal hair, fatty, salty, sour, bitter, slick, and astringent. An addition of 0.5% STP produced more intense ratings for soapy, salty, sour, and astringent attributes. Without STP, patties containing shiitake mushroom powder had a more mealy consistency but more pork ID than they did with STP.
... However, the strong sulfur aroma in MGX was decreased and the meat-like aroma was increased remarkably, mainly because peptides regulated the production of stimulating compounds during Maillard reaction. In addition, it has been reported that some volatile compounds, such as furan and ketone, were identified to contribute to the overall meaty flavor attributes when sulfur-containing compounds were present in the system (Maughan & Martini, 2012;Soncin, Chiesa, Cantoni, & Biondi, 2007). The results of GC-MS (Table 1) also showed that the content of furans and ketones in MGX were higher than in ACG and ACX, which could have coordinated effects on the whole meat-like flavors of products. ...
Maillard reaction intermediate (MGX) generated from glutathione and xylose in aqueous medium was prepared via the Maillard reaction performed under a two‐stage temperature increase process. The purified MGX was identified by Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance as N‐(1‐deoxy‐d‐xylulos‐1‐yl)‐glutathione (Amadori compound, C15H25O10N3S) with five main isomers. The method of Maillard reaction performed under a two‐stage temperature increase process was further verified by high‐performance liquid chromatography. The optimal reaction time and temperature for the preparation of MGX was determined as 60 min at 90 °C. The yield of MGX was increased from 8.60% to 55.52% through thermal reaction coupled with vacuum dehydration. In addition, rapid and more Maillard‐type volatile compounds were formed in MGX during thermal treatment than that in Maillard reaction products or glutathione‐xylose mixture. Beside, MGX possessed more pleasing meat‐like volatile profile compared with the Amadori compound of glutamic acid‐xylose (AAX), cysteine‐xylose (ACX), and glycine‐xylose (AGX). Therefore, it suggested that the MGX had the potential to achieve a better flavor formation during thermal treatment.
Practical Application
Maillard reaction intermediates, such as Amadori or Heyns rearrangement products (ARP or HRP), are important flavor precursors, which possess stable physicochemical properties, but tend to degrade into flavor compounds at high temperatures. Maillard reaction intermediate from glutathione and xylose acts as primary flavor enhancers to complete Maillard reaction to produce flavors in the subsequent thermal processing, which can significantly improve and stabilize the flavor quality of the meaty food, and deserves a very broad application prospects. The new developed method will be a significant theoretical basis on research preparation and properties of Maillard reaction intermediates in complex food systems.
... Sensory characteristics have been mentioned as the most influential factors on the perception, acceptance and decisions of consumer for lamb meat. 1 In fact, its strong flavour is a distinct characteristic of this type of meat, differentiating lamb from beef and pork. 2 Usually, production of sheep meat does not meet the consumer expectations because carcasses are not standardized and contain excess of fat. 3 The causes for unpleasant odour and flavour characteristics of ruminant meat have been extensively revised 4 and it is believed to be due to the high proportion of saturated fatty acids (FAs), in addition to the degradation and reactions of water-soluble compounds during cooking. 5,6 Moreover, the flavour intensity of lamb meat is related with the proportion of intramuscular fat (IMF) and subcutaneous fat, 7 both of which increase with slaughter age. ...
Background:
The use of spineless cactus in finishing diets for lambs improves the carcass quality. However, data about its influence on meat traits is very scarce. The effects of spineless cactus inclusion in the finishing diet of lambs at four levels (0, 150, 300 and 450 g kg-1 of dry matter, DM) in replacement of Tifton hay on the physicochemical and sensory properties of meat were studied.
Results:
The spineless cactus modified the chemical composition increasing the protein (P < 0.001) and the fat (P < 0.01) contents of meat, presenting the greatest values in lambs fed diets with 150 and 300 g kg-1 (DM) replacing levels, respectively. However, the spineless cactus did not influence the growth performance from 23.7 to 37.3 kg of body weight (on average). In addition, colour parameters of the meat were not affected by the inclusion of spineless cactus in the finishing diet of lambs, resulting in mean values of 37.55, 14.96 and 8.49 for lightness, redness and yellowness, respectively. There were no statistical differences among treatments for cooking loss and shear force, with mean values of 34.8% and 14.8 N, respectively. Finally, the sensorial properties were not affected by the inclusion of spineless cactus in the finishing diet of lambs.
Conclusion:
Spineless cactus could be included up to the level of 300 g kg-1 DM in the finishing diets of lambs to increase the fat content of meat without compromising its sensorial properties. However, further studies about the fatty acid composition of meat from lambs fed diets containing spineless cactus are necessary. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... It has been reported that a large number of volatile compounds, such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters and so on, were identified to contribute to the overall flavor characteristics of cooked meat (Maughan & Martini, 2012;Soncin, Chiesa, Cantoni, & Biondi, 2007). The unique aroma of meat products is generated from the abundant volatile compounds during the cooking process (Mottram, 1998). ...
The influence of high temperature modes (cooking in traditional clay stewpot (TS) and cooking in commercial ceramic electrical stewpot (CS)) and low temperature modes (cooking in electrical stewpot with Temperature Modulations, TM1-TM6) on chicken broth sensory evaluation and flavor profile was studied. Sensory evaluation results showed that chicken broth processed using TM1 had the best flavor with higher chicken meat-like and lower off-flavor scores. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-MS/olfactometry (GC-MS/O) results revealed that the TM1 samples had the most abundant odorants. The umami-taste components from TM1 samples such as umami free amino acids and inosine 5′-monophosphate (IMP) had the highest amount, 20.0 ± 0.10 mg/g chicken broth and 17.19 ± 0.58 μg/g chicken broth respectively. The relationship between sensory evaluation and odor-active compounds were evaluated by Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), and the PLSR analysis indicated that heptanal, benzaldehyde, (Z)-2-decenal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 1-pentanol, 2-undecanone, 2-pentyl-furan and one unknown compound were significantly and positively correlated with chicken meat-like note. Whereas, fatty aroma were significantly and positively correlated with octanal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal and 1-pentanol. (E,E)-2,4-Decadienal and 2-undecanone had a significant and negative correlation with off-flavor attribute.
... Most techniques for developing attributes use some sort of definition or character referencing for individual attributes. A number of such sensory " lexicons " have been published recently, including ones for meat [25,26]; fruit and vegetable plants and products27282930; nuts and nut products313233; beverages [34]; grain and grain products353637; and dog food [38]. The use of carefully crafted lexicons is important when trying to compare to chemical data because using a general language may create confusion. ...
Attempts to relate sensory analysis data to specific chemicals such as volatile compounds have been frequent. Often these associations are difficult to interpret or are weak in nature. Although some difficulties may relate to the methods used, the difficulties also result from the complex nature of flavor. For example, there are multiple volatiles responsible for a flavor sensation, combinations of volatiles yield different flavors than those expected from individual compounds, and the differences in perception of volatiles in different matrices. This review identifies some of the reasons sensory analysis and instrumental measurements result in poor associations and suggests issues that need to be addressed in future research for better understanding of the relationships of flavor/aroma phenomena and chemical composition.
Though stewed beef is favored by consumers, the impact of the domestic high-pressure stewing method on beef has received little attention. This study characterized the beef cooked under varied pressures in the household pressure cooker by analytical instruments, sensory evaluation, and multiple intelligent sensory technologies. Totally, 165 volatile compounds were identified by SPME-GC-TOF-MS, with more detected in samples with higher pressure. The glutamic acid contributed significantly to the umami taste of beef (TAV > 1.25). The meaty and fatty odor, hardness, chewiness, and sweet taste contributed to the overall liking of stewed beef (P < 0.05). The multiple-target BPNN model based on fused data from multiple intelligent sensory technologies could simultaneously predict sensory perception intensities with a satisfying performance (R2 > 0.9340), but could not efficiently predict subjective overall liking scores. The study guides the domestic cooking of beef stew and quantitative sensory prediction based on multiple intelligent sensory techniques.
Chilled chicken has become the mainstream of chicken consumption. In order to explore the effect of post-mortem aging on water-soluble flavor precursors of chicken, pH, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) degradation, flavor nucleosides, free amino acids and water-soluble low molecular weight peptides were determined using Qingyuan partridge yellow-feathered broilers as material during 0–4 °C post-mortem aging in 48 h. The results showed that the pH value fell to the limit pH 5.64 (4 h) in chicken breast and 6.21 (3 h) in thigh. Regardless of chicken breast or thigh, ATP dropped rapidly within 3 h. It was found that the K-value in chicken thigh was the lowest at 2 h indicating the freshness was the best. Considering the equivalent umami concentration (EUC), the value at 3 h and 4 h was relatively high, but the corresponding electronic tongue umami value was not high, which further showed that the water-soluble low molecular taste peptide played an important role on the post-mortem aging process. Combined with cluster analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), it was preliminarily inferred that the optimal time for chilled chicken during 0–4 °C post-mortem aging was 2 h, which could provide a theoretical basis for the further processing of fresh chicken.
This study analyzed the influence of cooking temperature (60, 70 or 80 °C) and time (2, 6, 12 or 24 h) on the quality of duck meat cooked in sous vide method. Cooking loss, color, texture, microstructure, flavor profile and lipid oxidation were investigated. Temperature and time affected quality properties. As cooking temperature increased, the values of cooking loss, yellowness, adhesiveness increased; but the values of lightness, redness, hardness decreased. Increasing cooking time led to higher cooking loss, yellowness and lower lightness, redness, hardness, springiness, chewiness. Texture and microstructure results showed the mild treatment in sous vide cooking provided tender meat. The flavor profile of duck meat was evaluated by sensory analysis, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and odor activity values (OAVs). Sensory results indicated that samples cooked at moderate conditions (70 °C for 6 or 12 h) showed better sensory characteristic with higher meaty, fatty and umami note. The volatile compounds reached the highest concentration in duck meat cooked at 70 °C for 6 h and then followed by 70 °C for 12 h. Of these, 14 odor-active compounds with OAVs ≥1 were the main contributors to the overall aroma of duck meat. The OAVs of hexanal, heptanal, octanal, (E)-2-octenal, nonanal, cis-4-decenal, decanal, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal and 1-octen-3-ol in samples cooked at 70 °C for 6 h or 12 h were relatively higher than other samples. Therefore, it was suggested that moderate cooking temperature-time combination would produce better flavor characteristic and texture quality of duck meat in sous vide method.
Many wonder why consumers choose to consume beef, lamb, and pork, commonly referred to as “red” meat. Most know that meat is a very nutrient-dense food as it provides more nutrients per calorie than just about any other food. But besides consuming meat to provide basic human nutrition, consumers purchase meat because it tastes good. Red meat has a tremendous amount of flavor and often is considered the “Center of the Plate” because of its strong flavor and ability to pair with so many other foods on the side. Meat can also stand by itself because it is rich in so many flavors. Variety in flavors can result from the choices in the cut of meat, spices used, animal background, species, cookery, and more. Much of what provides this variety is the nutrient content of the meat, of which species differences contribute much of the variation. Many of the differences that are inherent in species like digestive tract (monogastric and ruminant), eating habits (grazing, browsing, and rooting), genetic selection, and degree of muscle exercise all determine many of the differences in flavor that we enjoy. These are the basic factors that determine meat flavor and we use that information to determine differences in flavor among beef, pork, lamb, and goat.
One of the main drivers in consumer meat choice is flavor with some pleasing flavor attributes associated with high oleic acid (C18:1) content in the intramuscular fat. This project aimed to produce pork with a distinctively pleasant bouquet by feeding C18:1 rich macadamia oil compared to corn oil. The project also tested three feed formulations based on cereals and pulses representing different pork producing areas: corn/soy (CS), sorghum-lupins (SL), or wheat/canola (WC). Compared to corn oil, feeding macadamia oil resulted in a significant increase in the C18:1 content in pork loin (longissimus dorsi) with the CS showing a higher impact than the WC diets. Pork loins from the two CS-based groups (CS-Corn and CS-Macadamia) were selected for a consumer sensory study involving 82 panelists (39 of Chinese background). Across ethnic backgrounds the taste of high C18:1 pork resulted in the highest hedonic values.
The objective of this study was to investigate the volatile and non-volatile
15 compounds of stewed pork with different processing methods (TS: traditional stewing,
16 TSE: traditional stewing with enzymatic degradation, TSEM: traditional stewing with
17 enzymatic degradation and Maillard reaction, HS: high-temperature stewing, HSE:
18 high-temperature stewing with enzymatic degradation, HSEM: high-temperature
19 stewing with enzymatic degradation and Maillard reaction). The odour compounds
20 results showed that HS, HSE and HSEM had higher types and contents of volatile
21 compounds than TS, TSE and TSEM, especially HSEM. All stewed pork from
22 traditional and high-temperature stewing methods were classified into two groups
23 using an electronic nose due to different flavor characteristics. Non-volatile
24 compounds results displayed the contents of total amino acids in HS, HSE and HSEM
25 were higher significantly (P < 0.05) than those of TS, TSE and TSEM, of which the
26 contents of Asp and Glu related to umami taste were the most in HS and HSEM. In
27 contrast, there were the lower contents of 5’-nucleotides and fatty acids in HS, HSE
28 and HSEM. These findings indicated that the high-temperature stewed pork method
29 could be used as an effective method to improve the flavor of pork, among which
30 HSEM processing method was particularly remarkable.
Background
The hTAS2R38 taste receptor genotype is related to bitter taste perception and thus may affect food preferences. The present study aimed to evaluate the relationship between the hTAS2R38 genotype and the food consumption and nutrient intakes of Finnish children aged 2-6years. Methods
Dietary intake was assessed with 7-day food records, and DNA samples were collected by cheek swabs for genotyping. Food intake data between the three most common genotypes were compared (n=345). ResultsThe proportion of the AVI/AVI genotype was 36.7%; PAV/AVI was 42.4%; and PAV/PAV was 14.9%. Boys with the PAV/PAV genotype consumed a mean (SD) weight of sugar and candy of 27 (13)gday(-1), which was significantly more compared to the other two genotypes [AVI/AVI 19 (12)gday(-1) and PAV/AVI 18 (12)gday(-1); both P<0.01]. These boys also consumed significantly more meat (gday(-1)) compared to AVI/AVI boys (P<0.05). PAV/PAV girls tended to consume more grains (gMJ(-1)) compared to AVI/AVI girls (P=0.07). Vegetable and fruit consumption and nutrient intake did not differ significantly between genotypes. Based on principal component analysis carried out with total food consumption data, PAV/PAV boys were different from both AVI/AVI and PAV/AVI boys. Conclusions
The hTAS2R38 genotype may have distinct associations with food consumption in boys and girls.
We determined if tall fescue in a mixture with either tannin-containing sainfoin or saponin-containing alfalfa affected cattle foraging behavior, performance, meat quality, and consumer acceptance of meat. Foraging behavior, BW, and pasture biomass before and after grazing were monitored when cattle strip-grazed 3 replications of 2 treatments from May through September 2010 (12/replication) and from June through September 2012 (8/replication). Animals were allowed a choice between tall fescue and sainfoin (SAN) or tall fescue and alfalfa (ALF) growing in strips (fescue, legume, and fescue-legume mixture). Incidence of use (scan samples) of legumes increased from the beginning to the end of the trials (P < 0.05), suggesting that cattle learned to mix legumes with tall fescue. Scan samples and assessments of pasture biomass removal revealed greater use of sainfoin than alfalfa when both legumes were abundant in the spring (P < 0.05); that pattern reversed toward the end of the growing season (P < 0.05) as the abundance of sainfoin declined more than that of alfalfa. Intake of forage/kg of gain was greater for SAN than for ALF in 2010 (P = 0.0003) and showed a tendency to be greater for SAN than ALF in 2012 (P = 0.19). There were no differences in ADG between SAN and ALF in either year (1 kg/d; P > 0.05). No incidences of bloat were detected. When cattle (3/treatment in 2010 and 8/treatment in 2012) were slaughtered in September to assess meat quality and consumer acceptance, carcasses were lean (4%-6% fat content of the longissimus muscle), but compared with ALF, SAN had higher marbling scores, quality grades (Select versus Standard), and backfat thicknesses (P < 0.05) in 2012. Steaks from cattle finished on SAN were redder in color than steaks from cattle finished on ALF (P < 0.05; 2012). Meat samples from SAN and ALF showed some differences in unsaturated fatty acid profiles and volatiles concentrations (P < 0.05), but consumer acceptance did not differ between SAN and ALF (P > 0.05). Thus, cattle incorporated a lower quality grass into their diets even when legumes were available ad libitum during most grazing trials. Choices between tall fescue and legumes differing in the type of secondary compound (tannins vs. saponins) and bloating potential influenced patterns of forage use by cattle and led to differences in meat quality.
The training and application of a sensory panel for the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis of lamb meat are described. A proper vocabulary has been developed and validated by reference samples obtained from different kinds of meat cooked under different conditions or mixed with specific ingredients that mimic possible lamb meat sensory characteristics. The final list contains 14 attributes for odour (3), flavour (7) and texture (4). Data have been checked to assess panel consonance, reproducibility and discrimination ability by providing accurate and reliable definitions of the sensory characteristics of lamb meat and their correlation with production/management systems.
An experiment was conducted for 111 days in the summer of 2002/2003 to compare the effect of grazing lambs on condensed tannin-containing Lotus corniculatus L. (cv. Grasslands Goldie; n=12) and perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture (PRG/WC; Lolium perenne/Trifolium repens; n=12) on the concentration of indole and skatole in rumen fluid, blood plasma and body fat and upon the odour of the fat. Rumen fluid and blood samples were obtained on days 0, 22, 58, 87 and 111 of the experiment. Fat from inter-muscular and tail-stub depots was obtained at slaughter. During the experiment the mean concentration of indole and skatole in both the rumen fluid and blood plasma was lower for lambs grazing L. corniculatus compared to PRG/WC pastures. The concentration of skatole in the tail-stub fat was lower and less variable (P
Little information is available in the literature on the interrelationships and interactions among pH, aging time, marbling, and maturity on the flavor profile of some beef muscles commonly used for steaks. To investigate these effects on beef flavor, the infraspinatus (top-blade steak) from the chuck clod, the gluteus medius (top-sirloin steak) from the sirloin, and the psoas major (tenderloin steak) from the loin were obtained from A- (n = 80) and B-maturity (n = 60) carcasses with either Slight (n = 68) or Small (n = 72) marbling, and with either normal (< or = 5.7; n = 80) or high (> or = 6.0; n = 60) pH. Muscles were selected from two commercial processing plants at six different sampling times to evaluate factors that affect the flavor profile of cooked beef steaks. Muscles were vacuum-aged for 7, 14, 21, or 35 d, and a highly trained, flavor-profile sensory panel evaluated charbroiled steaks from these muscles. Numerous statistical interactions (P < 0.05) were detected for flavor attributes of the different muscles. In general, muscles from high pH (dark cutting) carcasses had less typical beef flavor identity and less brown-roasted flavor than those from carcasses with normal pH. Aging longer than 21 d generally decreased beef flavor identity. Top-blade steaks generally had less intense beef flavor identity and more intense bloody/serumy flavor than did top-sirloin and tenderloin steaks. Tenderloin and top-sirloin steaks of normal pH generally had the most brown-roasted flavor, especially when aged 21 d or less. Small degree of marbling generally resulted in a more rancid flavor compared with Slight marbling, but marbling had no other appreciable effects on the flavor profile. Aging steaks for 35 d increased (P < 0.05) the metallic flavor compared with aging for only 7 or 14 d. Top-sirloin steaks had a more intense (P < 0.05) sour flavor than did top-blade steaks, and steaks from carcasses with a high pH were more rancid (P < 0.05) than steaks from carcasses with normal pH. Vacuum-aging top-blade, top-sirloin, and tenderloin steaks to 21 or 35 d postmortem generally increased metallic and rancid flavors and increased sour flavor in top-sirloin steaks that were high in pH.
Beef M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum was used to investigate the effects of 6 end-point temperatures on flavor and texture. Steaks cooked to medium temperature were associated with 4-heptanolide, whereas those cooked to higher temperatures were associated with pyrazines and hexanol. These steaks were also associated with flavor attributes, such as roasted, burnt, and beefy. However, consumers did not find differences in flavor liking of steaks (P > 0.05) cooked to 6 end-point temperatures. Although steaks cooked to lower temperatures were liked for their tenderness and juiciness, overall liking scores were not affected by end-point temperature. Thus both flavor and tenderness play an important role in consumer satisfaction.
A sensory panel utilized chicken patties from Pectoralis major muscle to develop a descriptive vocabulary for warmed-over flavor. Patties were subjected to 4 different cooking temperatures and stored at 4C for up to 4 days. A list of 33 descriptive terms, developed from the literature and a preliminary sample evaluation was modified over 5 daily sessions to 18 terms with corresponding references. In the term selection process the criteria used were, that terms should; have relevance to the product, discriminate clearly between samples, be nonredundant, and have cognitive clarity to the assessors. A comprehensive vocabulary was developed that described the sensory dimensions present in the samples. Over sessions the panel was found to display dynamic changes in their use of the sensory vocabulary. Overall, panel discriminative abilities were enhanced and a process of sensory learning was observed.
Three trials were conducted to investigate the effect of deboning times postmortem on sensory descriptive flavor and texture profiles of cooked boneless skinless chicken thigh muscles (iliotibialis, iliofibularis and the femoritibialis). Broiler carcasses (42-d old birds) were procured from a commercial processing plant. Thighs were hot-boned (about 45 min postmortem), cold-deboned 2 h (2 h) or 24 h (24 h) postmortem. Sensory descriptive tests were performed on cooked meat by 8 trained descriptive panelists using 0–15 universal intensity scale. Our results show that there were no significant differences in average intensity scores of the tested texture and flavor attributes between the hot-boned and 2 h thigh meat. No significant differences for the sensory flavor attributes were found due to three deboning times. However, the intensity scores of 24 h thighs were significantly lower than the hot-boned and 2 h thighs (p
Summary The influence of breed, diet, sex and slaugh- ter weight on lamb carcass characteristics and meat flavor was studied. Suffolk (n = 67)- or Columbia (n = 67)-sired ram or ewe iambs were fed one of two isoprotein, isocaloric diets containing alfalfa or soybean meal as the supplemental protein source. Lambs were slaughtered in one of two groups at live animal weights of 50 (slaughter group 1) or 69 kg (slaughter group 2). Observations of carcass characteristics and flavor profile characteristics of cooked lamb rib chops were made. Suffolk- sired lambs were heavier (P
Reduced (7%)- and regular (25%)-fat ground beef were formulated from domestic A- or E-maturity or imported knuckles. Dried Cream Extract (DCE), Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein (HPV), Natural Prime Beef Bases #224545 and #224546, or no flavoring (C7) were added to reduced-fat formulations for flavor enhancement. Immediately after cooking, A- and E-maturity 25% fat controls (C25) exhibited higher (P<0.05) beef flavor intensity and lower (P<0.05) offflavor scores than C25 of imported lean. Compared to C7, patties of imported lean with 224545, 224546, and HVP had greater (P<0.05) beef flavor intensities (P<0.05) at O min holding time. Cooking losses were lower (P<0.05) for E-maturity beef bases containing patties than for HVP counterparts. Reduced-fat patties from A- or E- maturity lean sources were more desirable than those from imported source, when beef flavor intensity, juiciness and off flavor notes were evaluated.
Beef M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum was used to investigate the effects of 6 end-point temperatures on flavor and texture. Steaks cooked to medium temperature were associated with 4-heptanolide, whereas those cooked to higher temperatures were associated with pyrazines and hexanol. These steaks were also associated with flavor attributes, such as roasted, burnt, and beefy. However, consumers did not find differences in flavor liking of steaks (P > 0.05) cooked to 6 end-point temperatures. Although steaks cooked to lower temperatures were liked for their tenderness and juiciness, overall liking scores were not affected by end-point temperature. Thus both flavor and tenderness play an important role in consumer satisfaction.
Cooked turkey breast is particularly susceptible to lipid oxidation-mediated off-flavour development during refrigerated storage. Volatile aroma compounds present in freshly cooked turkey breast muscle after cooling in air and under nitrogen, and also those in air-cooled meat stored for 3 days at 4 °C, were examined using headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Odour-port sensory assessment of the separated volatiles was carried out, using a modified form of aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA). Compared to weakly aromatic nitrogen-cooled turkey breast, the levels of a number of unsaturated carbonyl compounds were much higher in freshly cooked air-cooled samples and showed further large increases in the oxidized chilled meat. Among these, the most potent odour contributors to both fresh and oxidized turkey samples were 1-octen-3-one, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal and (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal. The concentration of the only moderately potent sulphur-containing compound identified, viz. 2-pentylthiophene, was significantly lower in the oxidized compared to the fresh samples, and gas chromatography–olfactometry (GCO) suggested that this compound made a contribution to the aroma of freshly cooked turkey. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Pork patties from M. longissimus dorsi and M. psoas major were used by a sensory panel to develop a descriptive vocabulary to describe warmed-over flavor development. The patties were made from meat from animals supplemented with one of four dietary treatments, (I) control diet, (II) supplemental iron (7 g iron (II) sulfate/kg feed), (III) supplemental vitamin E (200 mg dl-α-tocopherol acetate/kg of feed) and (IV) supplemental vitamin E + supplemental iron. The sample set used for training reflected the variation in muscle type and degree of warmed-over flavor development (day 1 and 5). The sensory terms selected had to be relevant to the samples, discriminate between the samples, have cognitive clarity and be nonredundant. Based on these selection criteria an initial training list of 36 sensory terms consisting of odors, flavors, basic tastes and aftertastes was developed in a pretrial using experts with product knowledge. This list constituted the start of training the panel. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and assessor suggestions were used for reducing the number of terms and after 5 days of training this list was reduced to 21 sensory terms. The discriminative ability of the sensory panel improved over the course of sensory training and was quantified by using the mean assessor signal to noise ratios (S/N) for the sensory terms for each training session. This signal to noise ratio is essentially the total initial variance divided by the residual cross-validated variance. Subsequent detailed multivariate analysis found that the bilinear descriptor leverage was a particularly efficient method for term reduction.
In the present study, the effect of marbling level of pork and the quality attributes of pork loins obtained from 42 pure Duroc × pure Iberian pigs (21 castrates, 21 sows) were studied. Generally, sex had less influence than degree of marbling on loin quality: results for physicochemical characteristics and color were similar for castrates and sows, whereas differences in marbling prompted significant differences (P < 0.05) for almost all parameters tested. Pressure-induced water loss, moisture, protein and ash content all increased as the degree of marbling decreased; by contrast, fat content, calorie content and color parameters L* and b* all rose with increased marbling. Quantitative descriptive sensory analysis showed that raw castrate loins displayed more marbling than raw sow loins; after cooking, however, both were similar in appearance. Aroma and taste properties were also similar after roasting, although there were sex-related differences in terms of texture. The panelist preferred the most heavily marbled loins.
The Iberian pork sector is increasingly making use of 25 and 50% Iberian × Duroc crosses, with a view to obtaining commercial hybrids providing improved productive traits compared with pure Iberian stock, with no loss of the rusticity and capacity for environmental adaptation characteristic of the Iberian pig; there is also no significant decline in intramuscular fat levels.
Marketed Duroc × Iberian meat displays varying degrees of marbling, leading to variations in sensory attributes. This study defined differences in the sensory qualities of Duroc × Iberian pork loin as a function of three levels of marbling: slight, moderate and heavy.
The effects of two doses (2.0 and 3.5 kGy) of nonradioactive irradiation on flavor, texture and aroma were compared to nonirradiated controls for (1) frozen raw and precooked, ground beef patties with 10 and 22% fat packaged in vacuum or aerobically; (2) frozen, vacuum-packaged, boneless beef steaks; and (3) chilled, vacuum-packaged, boneless, beef steaks that were repackaged in an oxygen-permeable film (PVC) after 14 days of storage. Samples were evaluated by a highly trained descriptive panel for fifteen sensory attributes for ground beef patties and eighteen sensory attributes for whole muscle beef. Irradiation had minimal effects on flavor, texture, and aroma of frozen, raw and precooked, ground beef patties; frozen boneless beef steaks; and vacuum-packaged, chilled, boneless, beef steaks. Reintroduction of oxygen to irradiated beef by repackaging into PVC film after vacuum aging increased liver-like (at 3.5 kGy) and toughness (at 2.0 kGy) attributes and slightly decreased beef identity and browned/roasted flavor notes (at 2.0 kGy.)
ABSTRACTA new descriptive language for evaluating the taste of warmed-over meat flavor has been developed. These terms should help researchers elucidate the causes of the phenomena of off-flavor in meats. The meat industry should also be able to apply these terms in new meat product development, quality control, and shelf-life stability.
To assess the variation in quality of chicken breast fillets available from retail supermarkets, six brands of boneless, skinless fillets without additives were obtained from the fresh counter at grocery stores in Athens, GA, and the surrounding area during fall of 2005. The samples were stored at −20C and subsequently cooked using a Henny Penny MCS-6 combi oven (Henny Penny Corp., Eaton, OH). Quality parameters of the fillets were measured on the cooked chicken breast fillets including cook yield, descriptive sensory flavor and texture profiling, and Warner–Bratzler (WB) shear force. Our results show that the average cook yield ranged from 78.1 to 80.9%, the average intensity of individual descriptive sensory characteristics was less than 5.4 in a 0–15 universal scale, and WB shear force values were less than 5.2 kg. There were no significant differences in the intensity among brands of all flavor attributes and the texture characteristics associated with moisture. However, significant differences were found among the brands for cook yield, mechanical properties of texture (including springiness, cohesiveness, hardness and chewiness) and WB shear force values. The variation of WB shear force measurements (coefficient of variation) depended on brand. These results indicate that differences exist in the quality and shear force consistency among market brands of boneless, skinless chicken breast fillets available in Athens, GA, and the surrounding area.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThis study is the first survey reported to evaluate the quality of boneless, skinless chicken breast products without additives in U.S. retail market. This study supplies the evidence that the intensity of sensory quality is mild of cooked boneless, skinless chicken breast products and there are the differences in the quality among the different retail brands obtained by consumers.
A descriptive training program involves the development of standardized practices or a common frame of reference. This paper reviews concepts and procedures on developing a qualitative frame of reference (i.e., the development of a common lexicon, language), and discusses the different alternatives for quantitative frames of reference. Different quantitative frames of reference can be established depending on the philosophy chosen to rate attribute intensities. The three philosophies presented in this manuscript are the universal, product specific and attribute specific scaling approaches. The advantages, disadvantages and uses of each of these techniques are discussed. A well trained panel has sound common qualitative and quantitative frames of reference used in product evaluations. A low panel variability is obtained when both frames of reference are successfully implemented and used.
Vacuum packaged (VP) ground beef was compared to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) packaged product by describing and quantifying via flavor profiling those flavor changes occurring during display. VP samples displayed for 24 days had a more constant profile than did PVC samples displayed for 5 days. The initial beefy, fresh impact of VP samples declined only slightly during display. The beefy note became briefer and was replaced by a lingering sourness. Bloody/serumy notes changed to metallic/sharp notes. After 3-day display, PVC samples were bland with a threshold amount of stale note. At 5-day display, beef identity and freshness of the PVC sample were very low. Bloody/serumy was not detected and blandness was replaced by a lingering stale note.
Variations in diet, age and castration were employed to generate a range of flavours that were chemically analysed to find the cause of ‘pastoral’ flavour in sheepmeat and its relationship to species flavour. Lambs were raised on pasture (ram or castrate) or on a maize-based or lucerne-based concentrate diet (ram only). They were slaughtered at 132 and 232 days. Fat from animals raised on concentrates had lower proportions of fat-hardening stearic acid and higher proportions of oxidation-prone fat-softening oleic and linoleic acids. Concentrations of species-characterising short branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs), typified by 4-methyloctanoic acid, were lower for pasture-fed lambs, particularly at 232 days, although between-animal variation was high. Castration did not statistically affect BCFA concentration at this age. Correlations between BCFAs and testes weight were not significant, suggesting that they were not acting as sex pheromones. Concentrations of 3-methylindole (skatole) in perirenal fat were higher for the pasture diet at both slaughter dates. Concentrations of 4-methylphenol in the fat were not affected by diet. However, 3-methylphenol was more abundant in pasture treatments. A sensory panel found that the intensity of ‘sheepmeat’ flavour was higher for pasture-raised animals, but that associations of ‘barnyard’ flavour (which has been linked to pastoral flavour) with diet were more complex. The issue was resolved by fat sniffing. Panel responses to heated subcutaneous fat were recorded as frequency of descriptive terms drawn from a limited lexicon. Volatiles from fats pooled by treatment were resolved on a gas chromatographic column whose effluent was monitored by odourport sniffing. Compounds were identified by parallel chromatographic/mass spectrometric runs. The headspace concentrations of these compounds were then measured for individual animals. These data were related to frequency data by the principal component method. ‘Mutton’ and ‘sheepmeat’ odour notes were clearly linked to indoles (skatole particularly) and, to a lesser extent, methylphenol, setting these notes apart from ‘lamb’, an odour note more associated with lucerne and maize diets through higher concentrations of BCFAs. It was concluded that 3-methylindole was the major cause of pastoral flavour in sheepmeat, and that fat oxidation products represented a background flavour that varied quantitatively but not qualitatively with fatty acid profile.© 2002 Society of Chemical Industry
Pork patties from Musculus semimembranosus, were utilized by a sensory panel to develop a descriptive vocabulary for the sensory profiling of warmed-over flavor. Patties were derived from the meat of nonstressed and stressed animals and were stored at 4C for up to 5 days. An initial list containing 45 descriptive terms developed from the literature and a preliminary sample evaluation was presented to the panel. This list was modified over a 7 session period to 16 terms each with a corresponding reference material. Selection criteria were that terms should; have relevance to the product, discriminate clearly between samples, be nonredundant, and have cognitive clarity to the assessors. Criteria fulfillment was determined via representative sample and reference assessment, panel discussions and interpretation of Principal Component Analysis. During vocabulary development the panel showed dynamic changes in their use of the sensory vocabulary. Discriminative abilities were found to increase over the early sessions and appeared to stabilize in the final two sessions.
Fresh skinless turkey breasts packaged in air or nitrogen gas were either irradiated (2.4 to 2.9 kGy) or not and stored at 2 °C. Samples of raw and cooked turkey were evaluated by a descriptive panel at 2, 5, 8, 19, and 22 d of storage. Half of each cooked sample was sealed in a polyethylene bag, stored for an additional 3 d, and then evaluated. Color and tocopherol content were measured. Irradiation affected color, odor, flavor, and levels of alpha-tocopherol. Irradiated samples had a more intense pink color and acrid/irradiation odor. Irradiation reduced alpha-tocopherol levels by 33%. Irradiated cooked turkey had less turkey flavor, but higher metallic flavor, than non-irradiated turkey. After the additional 3rd d of storage at 2 °C, cooked samples originally packaged in air had a stale flavor of low intensity that was absent in originally nitrogen-packaged samples.
Flavor lexicons are a widely used tool for documenting and describing sensory perception of a selected food. Development of a representative flavor lexicon requires several steps, including appropriate product frame of reference collection, language generation, and designation of definitions and references before a final descriptor list can be determined. Once developed, flavor lexicons can be used to record and define product flavor, compare products, and determine storage stability, as well as interface with consumer liking and acceptability and chemical flavor data.
Descriptive sensory analyses are distinguished from other sensory testing methods in that they seek to profile a product on all of its perceived sensory characteristics. In this paper, the process of implementing a descriptive sensory programme will be reviewed, with some discussion of new approaches and applications. Variations of descriptive sensory analysis will also be considered, including The Flavour Profile Method™, Texture Profile Method™, Quantitative Descriptive Analysis™, Quantitative Flavour Profiling, Spectrum™ method and Free-Choice Profiling. Advantages and disadvantages of these methods will be discussed in a comparative way and the future of descriptive sensory analysis is also considered. In addition, some current assumptions of sensory panel training are questioned and potential new applications of descriptive techniques are discussed.
Eighteen commercial Angus cross-bred feedlot steers of similar hip height and live weight were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatment groups: corn-, corn/barley, or barleybased diets (n = 6 per treatment). Steers were fed for 102-103 days on their respective diets prior to slaughter. Live animal performance traits, carcass characteristics, total lipid and descriptive flavor and descriptive palatability attributes of beef strip loin steaks were determined. End live weight (P = 0.88) did not differ between dietary treatments. Beef carcasses from steers fed corn-, barley-, and corn/barley-based diets did not differ in hot carcass weight (P = 0.18), ribeye area (P = 0.21), kidney, pelvic and heart fat (KPH) (P = 0.35), and yield grade (P = 0.14). However, adjusted preliminary yield grade was higher (P = 0.03) for carcasses from steers fed corn/barley-based diets than carcasses from steers fed barley as the dietary energy source. These data suggest that carcasses from steers fed barley-based diets were lower in external fat. Quality grade characteristics were not different in beef carcasses from steers fed either corn-, barley-, or a corn/barley-based diet. Cook time (P = 0.37), cooking loss (P = 0.83), descriptive meat palatability attributes (P > 0.27), Warner-Bratzler shear force (P = 0.25), and descriptive sensory flavor attributes (P ≥ 0.17) did not differ for steaks from steers fed the three diets prior to slaughter. The Japanese have claimed that feeding cattle barley-based high energy diets result in beef with different flavor than when cattle are fed high-energy corn-based diets. These results indicated that the eating quality, tenderness and flavor attributes of beef steaks were not influenced by the dietary grain source fed to young steers in this study prior to slaughter.
The effect of raw meat quality and cooking temperature on flavour generation in pork was investigated. The semimembranosus muscle was varied through genetics (carrier (HLY) and non-carrier (DLY) of the RN(-) allele) and ageing at 2°C (2, 15, and 22 days), whereas the pan-frying temperatures were 150°C and 250°C. HLY gave more pronounced 'fried' and 'burnt' notes than DLY after frying. This could partly be explained by a significantly higher concentration of glucose and glucose 6-phosphate in HLY after 22 days of ageing. HLY was generally perceived as more sour, which correlated well with the measured pH of HLY, but not to the l-lactate concentration. HLY was furthermore perceived as more tender and juicier than DLY, both attributes increased during ageing. Lipid-derived aroma volatiles dominated the samples fried at 150°C, while those from Maillard reactions mostly prevailed in the aroma profile at 250°C.
The effects of short-term realimentation (0, 42 or 84 days) of cull beef cows (n=24) and post-mortem aging (10 or 20 days) of selected muscles on sensory off-flavor score, off-flavor descriptors of m. Gluteus medius (GLM), m. Longissimus lumborum (LOL), m. Triceps brachii-long head (LON) and m. Rectus femoris (REF) and fatty acid profiles (GLM, LOL and LON) were researched. Post-mortem aging did not affect sensory off-flavor detection or the interaction with muscle or treatment (P⩾0.65). Sensory off-flavor scores were lower (P<0.01) for steaks that were derived from cull cows fed a concentrate diet for at least 42days. As well, the number of samples that had detectable off-flavors decreased (P<0.01) when cull cows were fed for 42days. Realimentation did have an effect on fatty acid profiles (P<0.05). However, regression analysis showed changes in sensory off-flavor score were not influenced (P>0.05) by alterations in fatty acid profiles.
To identify and quantify selected flavor-active volatile compounds and relate them to sensory characteristics, the gluteus medius (round), rectus femoris (round), vastus lateralis (round), vatsus medialis (round), teres major (chuck), infraspinatus (chuck), complexus (chuck), serratus ventralis (chuck), psoas major (loin) and longissimus dorsi (loin) were removed from heifer carcasses, enhanced, vacuum packaged, aged for 7 or 14days, steaks were cut, vacuum packaged and frozen (48h). Flavor-active volatiles affected by enhancement and ageing in the various muscles included nonanal, 2,3-octanedione, pentanal, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, 2-pentyl furan, 1-octen-3-ol, butanoic acid, pentanal and hexanoic acid, compounds often associated with lipid oxidation. Enhancement decreased hexanal and hexanoic acid. Ageing decreased butanoic acid. Pentanal content varied among muscles depending on enhancement and ageing. Livery off-flavor was positively correlated with pentanal, hexanal, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone and hexanoic acid. Rancid off-flavor was correlated with pentanal and with 2-pentyl furan but not with hexanal.
Steaks from seven muscles from 10 beef carcasses were cooked quickly or slowly and held 0 or 1h to explore the influence of cooking rate and holding time on beef flavor. Moisture, ash, pH, and heme-iron concentration were determined for each muscle. Trained sensory panels evaluated the steaks for tenderness, juiciness, connective tissue, and off-flavor intensity in addition to identifying specific off-flavors. Off-flavor intensity was lowest when beef was cooked slowly (on a 149°C gas grill instead of a 249°C grill) and when it was held for 1h prior to sensory evaluation. The M. infraspinatus had the least intense off-flavor and the M. vastus intermedius had the most intense off-flavor. Slow cooking or holding for 1h prior to consumption reduced the intensity of off-flavor in value cuts from the beef chuck and round while chemical characteristics did not contribute to off-flavor in this study.
Ten panelists were selected from the local community to develop a meat lexicon composed of 18 terms that describe flavor attributes found in red meats. This flavor lexicon was used to compare the flavor profile of meat from beef cattle finished on grass or grain. Steaks from grass-fed animals were significantly (P<0.05) higher in barny, bitter, gamey, and grassy flavor, and lower in juicy and umami notes. Gamey, barny, bitter and grassy were some of the attributes inversely correlated to the degree of liking of the meat and therefore can be classified as "negative" attributes. Brothy, umami, roast beef, juicy, browned, fatty and salty are some of the attributes positively correlated to the degree of liking of beef and therefore can be identified as attributes that drive consumers' acceptance. Steaks from grass-fed cattle were rated by consumers as slightly liked (6.08 on a 9-point scale), while steaks from grain-fed animals were rated as moderately liked (7.05 on a 9-point scale).
Castrated male Corriedale lambs from Uruguay were finished under one of four feeding systems, which differed in the level of pasture and the amount of concentrates. Treatment 1 (T(1)) was all pasture (P), T(2) was P plus concentrate (C; 0.6% of live weight [LW]), T(3) was P+C (1.2% of LW), and T(4) was C plus alfalfa hay as a source of fibre (both ad libitum). A trained taste panel analysed samples from 96 lambs, using a quantitative descriptive method in a complete and balanced design. Eight of the 11 sensory attributes were affected by Treatment (p<0.05). The inclusion of concentrate in the lamb diet improved the sensory quality of the meat, being related to its effect on lowering the intensity of undesirable odours and flavours (strange, rancid and acid), generating higher intensity of typical lamb aromas as well as producing higher tenderness. The frequencies of odour/flavour unsolicited observations also showed disadvantages to pasture feeding. Lambs fed only concentrates (T(4)) produced meat that had the highest fat flavour intensity and the best overall acceptability given by the panellists.
Descriptive sensory analysis, instrumental color, yield, pH, water activity, and binding strength were determined on ground chicken breast and thigh with or without grape seed extract (GSE) during refrigerated storage. In chicken breast, GSE inhibited the intensity of musty and rancid odor, and rancid flavor compared to control patties, but GSE caused significantly darker (L(∗)), redder (a(∗)), and less yellow (b(∗)) patties. No differences were observed for pH, water activity, or yield, though differences were observed for binding strength. In chicken thigh, sensory scores were significantly different for 14 of 15 sensory attributes, although the differences were due to storage time or precooking, not the presence of GSE. GSE caused significantly darker sensory scores and L(∗) values, and redder (a(∗)) and less yellow (b(∗)) patties. Differences in binding strength and yield were attributable to precooking, not the presence of GSE. GSE may be an effective antioxidant in precooked chicken breast systems.
USDA Select striploins (n = 20) were cut into thirds (anterior, medial, and posterior) and randomly assigned to 1 of 6 treatments. Treatments included: (1) control (C); (2) 0.006% BHA (butylated hydroxyl anisole)/BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) (70%/30%) (BB); (3) 0.4% trisodiumphosphate (CT); (4) 0.4% sodiumtripolyphosphate with 0.5% salt (BH); (5) sodiumtripolyphosphate, 0.5% salt, and 0.006% BHA/BHT (70%/30%) (SB); (6) 0.2% sodiumtripolyphosphate, 0.2% trisodiumphosphate, and 0.5% salt (STB). Muscle sections were injected to 110% (10% pump) of their weight with their respective treatments. Inclusion of BHA/BHT allowed for lower mean oxidation values. Regardless of phosphate type, muscles treated with both phosphate and salt had lower retail purge (P < 0.05). Sensory panelists rated (P < 0.05) STB, SB, and BH to be juicier than all other treatments. These data suggest that inclusion of both salt and phosphate can enhance palatability, lower cook loss, and retail purge.
Quality assessment results of cooked meat can be significantly affected by sample preparation with different cooking techniques. A combi oven is a relatively new cooking technique in the U.S. market. However, there was a lack of published data about its effect on quality measurements of chicken meat. Broiler breast fillets deboned at 24-h postmortem were cooked with one of the 3 methods to the core temperature of 80 degrees C. Cooking methods were evaluated based on cooking operation requirements, sensory profiles, Warner-Bratzler (WB) shear and cooking loss. Our results show that the average cooking time for the combi oven was 17 min compared with 31 min for the commercial oven method and 16 min for the hot water method. The combi oven did not result in a significant difference in the WB shear force values, although the cooking loss of the combi oven samples was significantly lower than the commercial oven and hot water samples. Sensory profiles of the combi oven samples did not significantly differ from those of the commercial oven and hot water samples. These results demonstrate that combi oven cooking did not significantly affect sensory profiles and WB shear force measurements of chicken breast muscle compared to the other 2 cooking methods. The combi oven method appears to be an acceptable alternative for preparing chicken breast fillets in a quality assessment.
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