Content uploaded by Nancy Ann Wintering
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Nancy Ann Wintering
Content may be subject to copyright.
Effects of an 8-Week Meditation Program on Mood
and Anxiety in Patients with Memory Loss
Aleeze´ Sattar Moss, PhD,
1
Nancy Wintering, MSW,
1
Hannah Roggenkamp, BA,
1
Dharma Singh Khalsa, MD,
2
Mark R. Waldman, BA,
3
Daniel Monti, MD,
1
and Andrew B. Newberg, MD
1
Abstract
Background: This study assesses changes in mood and anxiety in a cohort of subjects with memory loss who
participated in an 8-week Kirtan Kriya meditation program. Perceived spirituality also was assessed. Previous
reports from this cohort showed changes in cognitive function and cerebral blood flow (CBF). The purpose of
this analysis was to assess outcome measures of mood and affect, and also spirituality, and to determine whether
or not results correlated with changes in CBF.
Methods: Fifteen (15) subjects (mean age 62 –7 years) with memory problems were enrolled in an 8-week
meditation program. Before and after the 8-week meditation, subjects were given a battery of neuropsychologic
tests as well as measures of mood, anxiety, and spirituality. In addition, they underwent single photon emission
computed tomography scans before and after the program. A region-of-interest template obtained counts in
several brain structures that could also be compared to the results from the affect and spirituality measures.
Results: The meditation training program resulted in notable improvement trends in mood, anxiety, tension, and
fatigue, with some parameters reaching statistical significance. All major trends correlated with changes in CBF.
There were nonsignificant trends in spirituality scores that did not correlate with changes in CBF.
Conclusions: An 8-week, 12 minute a day meditation program in patients with memory loss was associated with
positive changes in mood, anxiety, and other neuropsychologic parameters, and these changes correlated with
changes in CBF. A larger-scale study is needed to confirm these findings and better elucidate mechanisms of
change.
Introduction
Memory loss and age-associated cognitive problems
are significant issues for an aging American population.
According to the census data, 13% of the U.S. population aged
65 and 25%–50% of those aged 85 or older have symptoms
of Alzheimer disease (AD).
1,2
Some of the early symptoms
of AD include memory loss, confusion regarding time and
place, problems with words in speaking or writing, as well as
changes in mood and personality. Somewhere between 10%
and 20% of people aged 65 and older and 29% of those 85 or
older have mild cognitive impairment (MCI)
3
that may de-
velop into AD. People with MCI have problems with mem-
ory, language, or another essential cognitive function that is
noticeable to others but not severe enough to interfere with
daily life. Age-associated cognitive impairment can be ac-
companied by depression and changes in mood,
4,5
and the
data suggest that mood disorders can aggravate the processes
of cognitive decline.
6
The effect of aging and AD on spiritu-
ality is less clear, although individuals with early AD have
frequently turned to spirituality as an important coping
mechanism.
7
In fact, higher levels of spirituality have been
associated with a slower rate of cognitive decline in patients
with AD.
8
There are not many treatment options for age-associated
memory loss and cognitive impairment, especially with
associated mood-related problems. While some medication
and vaccine trials are under way, a cost-effective non-
pharmacological approach without side-effects that could be
easily implemented would be extremely useful in the treat-
ment of early cognitive impairment and memory loss and
associated mood disorders in the elderly. Initial studies in-
dicate that meditation can be helpful for emotional regula-
tion as well as cognitive improvement.
9,10,11,12,13,14,15
While
there are many different forms of meditation, a common
element in all meditative techniques is the regulation of
1
Jefferson–Myrna Brind Center of Integrative Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
2
Alzheimer Research and Prevention Foundation, Tucson, AZ.
3
Private Practice, Agoura, CA.
THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE
Volume 18, Number 1, 2012, pp. 48–53
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/acm.2011.0051
48
attention and emotion. Recent neuroimaging studies have
demonstrated neurological correlates of meditation, high-
lighting brain regions that regulate attentional control and
affect.
16,17,18,19,20,21
This study was conducted to investigate the potential ef-
fects of a specific form of meditation called Kirtan Kriya (KK)
on cerebral blood flow (CBF), cognitive effects, and mood in
elderly subjects with actual memory loss. Functional brain
imaging with single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) was used to measure potential changes in CBF.
Additionally, neurocognitive tests were used to evaluate
changes in cognitive function and memory, and self-reported
measures were used to assess mood and feelings of spiritu-
ality. Previously reported findings from this study showed
that this simple 8-week meditation program resulted in sig-
nificant increases ( p<0.05) in baseline CBF ratios in the
prefrontal, superior frontal, and superior parietal cortices as
well as improvements in neuropsychologic tests of verbal
fluency, Trails B, and logical memory.
22
The primary pur-
pose of this article is to report on the effects of performing
daily KK meditation for 8 weeks on mood states and feelings
of spirituality and to correlate potential effects with changes
in CBF, and improvements in memory.
KK meditation employs a simple technique that involves
the repetition of four sounds: SA TA NA MA. While the
person vocalizes these sounds, they sequentially touch their
thumb to their index finger, middle finger, fourth finger, and
then fifth finger. This is performed out loud for 2 minutes, in
a whisper for 2 minutes, in silence for 4 minutes, followed by
in a whisper for 2 more minutes, and finally out loud for the
final 2 minutes. The total time is 12 minutes. Since this is a
simple and quick practice, it has the potential to be a very
practical and low-cost measure to help improve memory and
mood in the elderly. This also distinguishes KK practice from
a number of other meditation practices that require extended
class sessions and long meditation practices that may not be
practical in an older population. While KK originates in the
Kundalini yoga tradition, for the purposes of this research it
was taught in a secular manner.
Subjects were studied using SPECT imaging to assess
changes in CBF at baseline and after practicing the medita-
tion on a daily basis for 8 weeks. Subjects also completed
subjective measures of anxiety, depression, and spirituality.
It was hypothesized that several brain structures would be
particularly affected by the KK meditation program that
could be correlated with changes in mood and possibly
feelings of spirituality. Studies have shown that attention-
focusing practices such as meditation activate the attentional
network in the brain, which includes frontal lobe structures
as well as the anterior cingulate cortex.
23,24,25
These areas
also help mediate emotional responses and have also been
observed to be related to a variety of spiritual measures.
Materials and Methods
Subjects and imaging acquisition
Fifteen (15) subjects complaining of memory problems
ranging from mild age associated memory impairment
(N=7), to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (N=5), to
moderate impairment with a diagnosis of AD (N=3) were
recruited into the study. The Mini-Mental Status Examina-
tion scores (MMSE) ranged from 16 to 30 with a mean of
28 –3. There were 6 men and 9 women with ages ranging
from 52 to 77 years, with a mean age of 62–7 years.
None of the subjects had significant experience with
meditation or yoga. Subjects were studied on their first KK
training day and then again after an 8-week self-directed
training program. On the first day of the study, a baseline
SPECT scan was conducted after the subject rested in the
room with their eyes closed and listened to a general infor-
mational CD about the effects of meditation practices for
approximately 12 minutes. This CD was neutral in its con-
tent. This scan was labeled the ‘‘pre-program baseline’’ scan.
Following this pre-program baseline scan, the subject re-
turned to the room for their first meditation session. Subjects
initially viewed a 10-minute video on how to perform the
Kirtan Kriya meditation. Subjects were not asked to do any-
thing more than perform the task. Thus, there were no ad-
ditional instructions regarding the state of mind that they
should be in, any preparatory exercises, or any mindfulness
exercises. At the end of the video, the principal investigator
answered any questions and then observed the subjects do-
ing the meditation to make sure that it was done correctly.
Subjects were instructed that they would perform the med-
itation while listening to a meditation CD that guided them
through the entire practice. The CD contains an individual
performing the meditation practice in its intended manner
with some light background music to aid in the performance
of the meditation. The subjects were then asked to perform
the meditation for 12 minutes the first time. The subject was
then scanned for 30 minutes using the same imaging pa-
rameters as for the baseline study. This scan was labeled the
‘‘pre-program meditation’’ scan.
Subjects were sent home with the meditation CD so that
they could practice it at home. They were instructed to per-
form the practice every day for 8 weeks. Subjects completed
a log to record when they performed the meditation practice
and their subjective experience of the practice and its effects.
No subjects were excluded from the study based on their
responses, but additional statistical analyses were done to
determine whether there was any effect related to the
amount of meditation performed. Upon completion of the
8-week meditation training program, subjects returned to
undergo a second imaging day essentially identical to the
first. They received a ‘‘post-program baseline’’ scan after
listening again to an informational CD. After the baseline
scan, the subjects then performed the meditation for the final
time, after which they underwent a ‘‘post-program medita-
tion’’ scan. The same order was maintained in the pre- and
post-program imaging studies so that the effect of doing the
meditation would not interfere with the baseline scans.
A comparison group was recruited, after the initial cohort,
in which KK meditation was replaced with ‘‘music listening.’’
Five (5) subjects, 2 with MCI and 3 with aging-associated
memory impairment (all women with a mean age of 69 –9
years and a range from 56 to 79 and mean MMSE of 28–2),
were asked to simply listen to two Mozart violin concertos
each day for approximately 12 minutes, the same amount of
time required for the KK meditation. The subjects were asked
to listen to the music and to record their progress in a log
book. Subjects underwent the same SPECT imaging proce-
dures as the KK group, with listening to the music replacing
listening and performing KK meditation. The music group
listened to the same informational CD with neutral content.
MEDITATION ENHANCEMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND AFFECT 49
Therefore, the baseline states represented both subject groups
listening to the same information, allowing for adequate
comparison of these baseline scans. In addition, by listening to
music for the same amount of time as the subjects who per-
formed KK meditation, this provided an appropriate com-
parison for the KK meditation program since subjects would
undergo similar types of programs with the exception of not
doing the active part of the KK meditation.
Subjects in both groups were also evaluated on the first
imaging day with a series of questionnaires including the
Speilberger State and Trait Anxiety Inventory,
26
which mea-
sures both the temporary condition of ‘‘state anxiety’’ and the
more general condition of ‘‘trait anxiety’’; and the Profile of
Mood States (POMS), which measures identifiable mood or
affective states: Tension–Anxiety, Depression–Dejection, An-
ger–Hostility, Fatigue–Inertia, and Confusion–Bewilder-
ment.
27
Measures of spiritually related feelings included the
Index of Core Spiritual Experiences (INSPIRIT),
28
the Purpose
in Life Scale,
29
the Mysticism Scale,
30
and the Quest Scale.
31
Subjects also completed the Mindful Attention Awareness
Scale.
32
These same tests were repeated at the 8-week post-
program session. Similarly, a neuropsychologic test battery
was performed on the pre- and postprogram scan days and
comprising a Category Fluency task in which subjects named
as many animals as possible in a 60-second time period, the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Digit Symbol Substitution
Test, a Logical Memory task, and Trails A and B. These tests
also were selected based upon other studies in which neu-
ropsychologic tests were used to evaluate changes in cognition
associated with mental task interventions.
33,34
Image analysis and statistics
The images of the pre- and postprogram baseline and
meditation scans were reconstructed and resliced, using an
oblique reformatting program, according to the anterior–
posterior commissure line so that the final two sets were
aligned for analysis. All images were de-identified and an-
alyses were performed blinded to the patient or the pre/post
state of the brain. A previously validated template method-
ology consisting of regions of interest (ROI) corresponding to
the major cortical and subcortical structures was placed over
the baseline scan.
35
For the purposes of this study, the CBF
was examined as measured in only a selected number of
ROIs, which was hypothesis driven. The ROIs examined
included the inferior frontal, superior frontal, dorsolateral
prefrontal, inferior temporal, superior temporal, inferior pa-
rietal, superior parietal, as well as the amygdala, caudate,
thalamus, and cingulate gyrus since these are areas that have
been found to be previously affected during meditation tasks
and also because these structures subserve a number of
cognitive and affective responses. The location for each ROI
was determined based upon magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) anatomy such that they could then be placed directly
on functional SPECT scans. Furthermore, each ROI (which fit
within each specified region and therefore represents a
‘‘punch biopsy’’ of any given area in order to ensure proper
placement and to avoid problems with partial voluming)
were placed on the initial scan and then copied directly onto
all subsequent scans. This was possible because the images
were already resliced into the same planes as described
above. The count values for the baseline and meditation
scans were obtained by determining the number of counts in
each ROI on the meditation scan and normalizing those
counts to the whole brain activity. This provides a CBF ratio
for each ROI compared to the whole brain. Since two SPECT
scans were performed on the same day, the second scan had
the decay-corrected counts from the first scan subtracted out
prior to analysis. This technique has previously been vali-
dated and it was shown that there is a high test–retest cor-
relation with less than 6% variability.
36
A percentage change between the meditation and baseline
scans (for both the pre- and postprogram sessions) was cal-
culated using the equation:
%Change ¼(Meditation Baseline)
(Baseline) ·100
Measures of affect and spirituality were compared using
paired ttests. A linear regression model was used to corre-
late changes in mood with changes in memory. A limited
number of Pearson correlations between changes in neu-
ropsychologic test scores and changes in the pre- and post-
baseline CBF were compared for selected regions that are
known to be related to such parameters. Thus, the amygdala
and caudate nucleus were compared to emotional states of
tension and depression and the amygdala, frontal lobe, and
temporal lobe CBF were compared to feelings of spirituality.
The CBF data analyses for multiple comparisons were cor-
rected using the False Discovery Rate method.
37
Results
The characteristics of the KK and music listening groups
are not significantly different and are given in Table 1. Pri-
mary results of the SPECT scans were previously reported
and showed significant changes between the pre and post-
program scans in CBF.
22
Structures in the frontal lobe regions
and right superior parietal lobe had significantly higher
baseline CBF after the 8-week training program and that
were associated with improvements in several memory tests.
Regarding the POMS, the KK group showed pre/post im-
provement in all categories, although significance was only
observed in the fatigue subcategory (Table 2). When compared
Table 1. Baseline Characteristics of the
Kirtan Kriya (KK) and Music Comparison Groups
Baseline characteristics KK group Music group p
Age 64.0 –8.0 65.0 –9.9 N.S.
MMSE 28.1 –0.7 29.0 –1.0 N.S.
Category fluency
(animals)
21.1 –7.9 21.5 –5.0 N.S.
Trails B 105.5 –52.8 132.5 –58.6 N.S.
Logical memory
delayed
10.6 –5.2 12.3 –6.5 N.S.
POMS 52.2 –12.9 47.5 –17.2 N.S.
Tension 8.9 –5.4 9.0 –5.0 N.S.
Depression 6.6 –4.8 4.8 –4.6 N.S.
Anger 4.7 –3.4 2.8 –3.0 N.S.
Fatigue 9.2 –9.0 6.3 –4.6 N.S.
Confusion 8.4 –5.4 9.5 –4.5 N.S.
MMSE, Mini-Mental Status Examination; POMS, Profile of Mood
States; N.S., not significant.
50 MOSS ET AL.
to the music control group, the POMS scores were significantly
improved in the KK group in both the tension and fatigue
categories ( p<0.05). The other POMS scores were better in the
KK group, but did not reach significance. There was significant
pre/post improvement in the Spielberger state anxiety score
for the KK group (pre 35.2 –7.9 and post 30.1 –7.7, p=0.01), but
no significant change in trait anxiety score.
There were no significant changes in spirituality scores over
the 8- week period. Some trends were noted that approached
significance including a slight decrease in the INSPIRIT and
Mysticism scores, and a slight increase in Purpose in Life.
There was also a trend toward an increase in mindfulness
scores (pre score mean was 3.8–0.5 and post score mean was
4.1 –0.6, p=0.06). None of the spiritual measures were found
to correlate with measures of CBF.
In the KK group, there were several significant correlations
observed between the change in baseline CBF ratios and the
change in results for the POMS scores (Table 3). Specifically,
areas such as the amygdala and caudate correlated with
depression scores while the prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal
lobe, parietal region, and cingulate cortex correlated with
feelings of tension.
Interestingly, there were two significant correlations be-
tween the change in POMS scores (confusion and depres-
sion) and change in verbal memory as assessed by category
fluency memory test (R=0.63, p=0.005; R=0.59, p=0.01, re-
spectively). This suggests that the improvement in feelings of
confusion and depression was related to the cognitive im-
provement. No other scores of affect and cognition were
significantly correlated.
It should be noted that log books and exit interviews with
the subjects revealed that the subjects in general found the
meditation practice enjoyable and beneficial. The subjects
were able to perform the practice a mean of 75% of the days
that they were in the study. Most subjects reported that they
subjectively perceived improvements in their mental well-
being after the 8-week program. However, it was not pos-
sible to find any correlation between the amount of practice
reported and changes in CBF or affect scores.
Discussion
In this study, several neuropsychologic and neurophysio-
logic changes were observed, and the results suggest that the
intervention may be useful for some of the mood and quality-of-
life issues that often are associatedwith cognitive decline. These
observations are consistent with a growing literature base of
other meditation practices such as mindfulness meditation,
which has been shown to reduce anxiety, depression, and
psychologic distress in a variety of populations
38,39,40,41,42,43
including those with chronic medical conditions.
44,45,46,47,48,49,50
Likewise, a pilot study of mantra meditation with veterans
found that a 5-week program significantly reduced symptoms
of stress and anxiety and improved feelings of spirituality and
well-being.
51
Mantra meditation is similar to KK practice in that
it involves the repetition of certain words or phrases either out
loud or silently.
52
Neuroimaging studies have started to illustrate the
neurobiologic correlates of meditation, highlighting brain
regions that regulate attention control and affect. While
studies utilizing positron emission tomography, SPECT,
and functional MRI (fMRI) have all demonstrated specific
changes in cortical and subcortical structures when subjects
were actively meditating,
53,54,55,56,57,58
theevidencesug-
gests that different meditation practices lead to different
neuropsychologic outcomes.
17,18,20,22,59,60,61
The preliminary data from the present study show a cor-
relation between changes in the baseline CBF in the right
amygdala and right caudate with a reduction in the feeling of
depression. A previous fMRI study by Lutz et al. (2008) re-
ported increased CBF in the amygdala associated with im-
proved emotional processing.
62
Other meditation studies,
including the Cohen et al. prior study on the effects of yoga
on CBF,
63
have reported significant effects in the amygdala,
as well as the striatum.
17
Furthermore, these areas are fre-
quently implicated in depression by a variety of functional
neuroimaging studies.
64
The current data also suggest a
correlation between the change in baseline CBF in the right
anterior cingulate with a reduction in tension for participants
in the KK group. This is consistent with previous studies that
have shown the anterior cingulate to be associated with both
mood as well as the brain’s response to stress.
65
Also, it was
previously reported that the anterior cingulate is activated
during meditation practices.
66
Habituation is potentially a
contributing factor to brain changes during the practice of
meditation itself; however, it would not explain changes in
the baseline brain function that are reported here. There also
are correlations between improvements in emotional states
Table 2. Profile of Mood States (POMS)
for Both the Kirtan Kriya (KK) Group and Music
Group Pre- and Post the 8-Week Program
POMS scores Pre Post % Change p
KK group
Tension 8.9 –5.4 6.6 –5.2 -26 0.04
Depression 6.6 –4.8 5.2 –4.6 -18 0.20
Anger 4.7 –3.4 4.2 –3.6 -10 0.29
Fatigue 9.2 –9.0 4.8 –5.2 -48 0.02
Confusion 8.4 –5.4 5.8 –4.4 -31 0.11
Music group
Tension 9.0 –5.0 16.5.0 –13.5 +83 0.13
Depression 4.8 –4.6 5.3 –3.5 +10 0.35
Anger 2.8 –3.0 4.3 –4.3 +54 0.19
Fatigue 6.3 –4.6 12.3. –5.7 +95 0.01
Confusion 9.5 –4.5 10.0 –2.6 +5 0.10
Table 3. Correlation Between Change in Profile
of Mood States (POMS) Scores and Change
in Baseline Cerebral Blood Flow (the Correlations
that Are Given were Significant After Correction
for Multiple Comparisons)
POMS category Structure Rp
Tension R Prefrontal cortex 0.73 0.016
Tension R Inferior frontal 0.77 0.008
Tension R Parietal 0.80 0.005
Tension R Cingulate 0.65 0.021
Depression L Superior frontal 0.83 0.002
Depression R Amygdala 0.67 0.022
Depression R Caudate 0.65 0.021
Anger L Superior temporal 0.86 0.002
Fatigue R Cingulate 0.73 0.017
MEDITATION ENHANCEMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND AFFECT 51
and memory, but it is important to underscore the small
sample size and statistical nonsignificance of many of these
observations. Finally, subjects were able to perform the
practice a mean of 75% of the days that they were in the
study, and most subjects reported that they subjectively
perceived improvements in their mental well-being after the
8-week program. While it was not possible to find any cor-
relation between the amount of practice reported and chan-
ges in CBF or affect scores, a few studies in the literature
suggest that greater expertise in meditation results in greater
effect.
62,67
However, larger studies will be better able to as-
sess how the amount and duration of practice correlates with
psychologic and cognitive benefits.
The overall findings from this study are an important
initial step in understanding potential mediators, modera-
tors, and neurophysiologic correlates of KK practice. Larger,
controlled studies with more elaborate neuropsychologic
assessments are required to better evaluate the relationship
between meditation, memory, and affect.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Alzheimer’s Research
and Prevention Foundation in Tucson, Arizona (www
.alzheimersprevention.org) for their generous support of
this research project.
Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
References
1. Herbert L, Scherr P, Bienias J, et al. Alzheimer disease in the
US population: Prevalence estimates using the 2000 census.
Arch Neurol 2003;60:1119–1122.
2. Alzheimer’s Association. 2010 Alzheimer’s disease facts and
figures. Alzheimer’s Dement 2010;6:158–194.
3. Lopez OL, Jagust WJ, DeKosky ST, et al. Prevalence and
classification of mild cognitive impairment in the Cardio-
vascular Health Study Cognition Study. Arch Neurol
2003;60:1385–1389.
4. Ownby RL, Crocco E, Acevedo A, John V, Loewenstein D.
Depression and risk for Alzheimer disease: systematic re-
view, meta-analysis, and metaregression analysis. Arch Gen
Psychiatry 2006;63:530–8.
5. Rinck M, Becker E. Selective memory and memory deficits in
depressed inpatients. Depress Anxiety 2003;17:197–206.
6. Gualtieri CT, Johnson LG. Age related cognitive decline in
patients with mood disorders. Prog Neuro-Psychopharma-
col Biol Psychiatry 2008;32:962–967.
7. Beuscher L, Beck C. A literature review of spirituality in
coping with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Nurs
2008;17:88–97.
8. Kaufman Y, Anaki D, Binns M, Freedman M. Cognitive
decline in Alzheimer disease: Impact of spirituality, religi-
osity, and QOL. Neurology 2007;68:1509–1514.
9. Horowitz S. Health benefits of meditation: What the newest
research shows. Altern Complement Ther 2010;16:223–228.
10. Fortney L, Taylor M. Mediation in medical practice: A re-
view of the evidence and practice. Prim Care 2010;37:81–90.
11. Grossman P, Niemann L, Schmidt S, Walach H. Mind-
fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-
analysis. J Psychosom Res 2004;57:35–43.
12. Jain S, Shapiro SL, Swanick S, et al. A randomized controlled
trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training:
Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and
distraction. Ann Behav Med 2007;33:11–21.
13. Jha A, Stanley E. Examining the protective effects of mind-
fulness training on working memory capacity and affective
experience. Emotion 2010;10:54–64.
14. Lutz A, Slagter H, Rawlings NB, et al. Mental training en-
hances attentional stability: Neural and behavioral evidence.
J Neurosci 2009;29:13418–13427.
15. Xiong GL, Doraiswamy PM. Does meditation enhance cogni-
tion and brain plasticity? Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009;1172:63–69.
16. Davidson RJ, Kabat-Zinn J, Schumacher J, et al. Alterations
in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness
meditation. Psychosom Med 2003;65:564–570.
17. Lazar SW, Bush G, Gollub RL, et al. Functional brain map-
ping of the relaxation response and meditation. Neuroreport
2000;11:581–585.
18. Lou HC, Kjaer TW, Friberg L, et al. A 15O-H2O PET study of
meditation and the resting state of normal consciousness.
Hum Brain Map 1999;7:98–105.
19. Herzog H, Lele VR, Kuwert T, et al. Changed pattern of
regional glucose metabolism during Yoga meditative relax-
ation. Neuropsychobiology 1990–1991;23:182–187.
20. Cahn BR, Polich J. Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP,
and neuroimaging studies. Psychol Bull 2006;132:180–211.
21. Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, et al. Meditation ex-
perience is associated with increased cortical thickness.
Neuroreport 2005;16:1893–1897.
22. Newberg AB, Wintering N, Khalsa DS, et al. Meditation
effects on cognitive function and cerebral blood flow in
subjects with memory loss: A preliminary study. J Alzhei-
mers Dis 2010;20:517–526.
23. Frith CD, Friston K, Liddle PF, et al. Willed action and the
prefrontal cortex in man: A study with PET. Proc R Soc Lond
1991;244:241–246.
24. Posner MI, Petersen SE. The attention system of the human
brain. Ann Rev Neurosci 1990;13:25–42.
25. Pagnoni G, Cekic M. Age effects on gray matter volume and
attentional performance in Zen meditation. Neurobiol Aging
2007;28:1623–1627.
26. Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. Manual for the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press, 1970.
27. McNair DM, Lorr M, Droppleman LF. Manual for the Profile
of Mood States. San Diego, CA: EdITS/Educational and
Industrial Testing Service, 1992.
28. Kass JD, Friedman R, Lesserman J, et al. Health outcomes
and a new index of spiritual experience. J Sci Study Relig
1991;30:203–211.
29. Marsh A, Smith L, Piek J, Saunders B. The purpose in life
scale: Psychometric properties for social drinkers and
drinkers in alcohol treatment. Educ Psychol Meas
2003;63:859.
30. Hood RW, Ghobani N, Watson PJ, et al. Dimensions of the
mysticism scale: Confirming the three-factor structure in the
United States and Iran. J Sci Study Relig 2001;40:691–705.
31. Batson CD, Schoenrade P. Measuring religion as Quest:
Validity concerns. J Sci Study Relig 1991;30:416–429.
32. Brown KW, Ryan RM. The benefits of being present:
Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. J Pers
Soc Psychol 2003;84:822–848.
33. Talassi E, Guerreschi M, Feriani M, et al. Effectiveness of a
cognitive rehabilitation program in mild dementia ( MD) and
52 MOSS ET AL.
mild cognitive impairment (MCI): A case control study.
Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2007;44:391–399.
34. Belleville S. Cognitive training for persons with mild cog-
nitive impairment. Int Psychogeriatr 2008;20:57–66.
35. Resnick SM, Karp JS, Tretsky BI, Gur RE. Comparison of
anatomically defined versus physiologically based regional
localization: Effects on PET-FDG quantitation. J Nucl Med
1993;34:201–208.
36. Newberg AB, Saffer J, Farrar J, et al. Stability of cerebral blood
flow measures using a split-dose technique with 99mTc-
exametazime SPECT. Nucl Med Comm 2005;26:475–478.
37. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery
rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J
R Stat Soc Ser B (Methodological) 1995;57:289–300.
38. Miller JJ, Fletcher K, Kabat-Zinn J. Three-year follow-up and
clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based
stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety
disorders. Gen Hosp Psychiatr 1995;17:192–200.
39. Brown KW, Ryan RM. The benefits of being present:
Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. J Pers
Soc Psychol 2003;84:822–848.
40. Carmody J, Reed G, Kristeller J, Merriam P. Mindfulness,
spirituality, and health-related symptoms. J Psychosom Res
2008;64:393–403.
41. Reibel DK, Greeson JM, Brainard GS, Rosenzweig S. Mind-
fulness-based stress reduction and health-related quality of
life in a heterogeneous patient population. Gen Hosp Psy-
chiatry 2001;23:183–192.
42. Toneatto T, Nguyen L. Does mindfulness meditation im-
prove anxiety and mood symptoms? A review of the con-
trolled research. Can J Psychiatry 2007;52:260–266.
43. Goldin PR, Gross JJ. Effects of mindfulness-based stress re-
duction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety
disorder. Emotion 2010;10:83–91.
44. Monti DA, Peterson C, Shakin Kunkel EJ, et al. A random-
ized, controlled trial of mindfulness-based art therapy for
women with cancer. Psychooncology 2006;15:363–373.
45. Ledesma D, Kumano H. Mindfulness-based stress reduction
and cancer: A meta-analysis. Psychooncology 2008;18:571–
579.
46. Witek-Janusek L, Albuquerque K, Chroniak KR, et al. Effect
of mindfulness based stress reduction on immune function,
quality of life and coping in women newly diagnosed with
early stage breast cancer. Brain Behav Immun 2008;969–981.
47. Rosenzweig S, Reibel DK, Greeson JM, et al. Mindfulness-
based stress reduction is associated with improved glycemic
control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A pilot study. Altern Ther
Health Med 2007;13:36–38.
48. Rosenzweig S, Greeson J, Reibel D, et al. Mindfulness-based
stress reduction for chronic pain conditions: Variation in
treatment outcomes and role of home meditation practice. J
Psychosom Res 2010;68:29–36.
49. Zautra AJ, Davis MC, Reich JW, et al. Comparison of cog-
nitive behavioral and mindfulness meditation interventions
on adaptation to rheumatoid arthritis for patients with and
without history of recurrent depression. J Consul Clin Psy-
chol 2008;76:408–421.
50. Zylowska L, Ackerman DL, Yang MH, et al. Mindfulness
meditation training in adults and adolescents with ADHD:
A feasibility study. J Attention Disord 2008;11:737–746.
51. Bormann JE, Smith TL, Becker S, et al. Efficacy of frequent
mantram repetition on stress, quality of life, and spiritual
well-being in veterans: A pilot study. J Holist Nurs 2005;23:
395–414.
52. Dillbeck MC, Orme-Johnson DW. Physiological difference
between Transcendental Meditation and rest. Am Psychol
1987;42:879–881.
53. Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Lutz A, Schaefer HS, et al. Neural
correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation
practitioners. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:11483–488.
54. Newberg AB, Alavi A, Baime M, et al. The measurement of
regional cerebral blood flow during the complex cognitive
task of meditation: A preliminary SPECT study. Psychiatry
Res Neuroimaging 2001;106:113–122.
55. Luders E, Toga AW, Lepore N, Gaser C. The underlying
anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: Larger hip-
pocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter. Neuroimage
2009;45:672–678.
56. Vestergaard-Poulsen P, van Beek M, Skewes J, et al. Long-
term meditation is associated with increased gray matter
density in the brain stem. Neuroreport 2009;20:170–174.
57. Doraiswamy PM, Xiong GL. Does meditation enhance
cognition and brain longevity? Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009;
1172:63–69.
58. Galvin JA, Benson H, Deckro GR, et al. The relaxation
response: Reducing stress and improving cognition in
healthy aging adults. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2006;
12:186–191.
59. Lutz A, Greischar LL, Rawlings NB, et al. Long-term med-
itators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during
mental practice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:16369–
16373.
60. Davidson RJ, Harrington A. Visions of Compassion: Wes-
tern Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human
Nature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
61. Newberg AB, Iversen J. The neural basis of the complex
mental task of meditation: Neurotransmitter and neuro-
chemical considerations. Med Hypotheses 2003;61:282–291.
62. Lutz A, Brefczynski-Lewis J, Johnstone T, Davidson RJ.
Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion
meditation: Effects of meditative expertise. PLoS One
2008;3:e1897.
63. Cohen DL, Wintering N, Tolles V, et al. Cerebral blood flow
effects of yoga training: Preliminary evaluation of 4 cases. J
Altern Complement Med 2009;15:9–14.
64. Rigucci S, Serafini G, Pompili M, et al. Anatomical and
functional correlates in major depressive disorder: The con-
tribution of neuroimaging studies. World J Biol Psychiatry
2010;11(2 pt 2):165–180.
65. Dedovic K, D’Aguiar C, Pruessner JC. What stress does to
your brain: A review of neuroimaging studies. Can J Psy-
chiatry 2009;54:6–15.
66. Wang DJ, Rao H, Korczykowski M, et al. Cerebral blood
flow changes associated with different meditation practices
and perceived depth of meditation. Psychiatry Res 2011;
191:60–67.
67. Lutz A, Greischar LL, Perlman DM, Davidson RJ. BOLD
signal in insula is differentially related to cardiac function
during compassion meditation in experts vs. novices. Neu-
roimage 2009;47:1038–1046.
Address correspondence to:
Andrew B. Newberg, MD
Jefferson–Myrna Brind Center of Integrative Medicine
1015 Chestnut Street, Suite 412
Philadelphia, PA 19107
E-mail: Andrew.newberg@jefferson.edu
MEDITATION ENHANCEMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND AFFECT 53
