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2007 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA
Infinite Universe Theory
Glenn Borchardt
Director, Progressive Science Institute, P.O. Box 5335, Berkeley, CA 94705
e-mail gborchardt@usa.net
The inevitable rejection of the Big Bang Theory (BBT) will lead to a more enlightened and more logical
theory, but what will it be? The BBT will be replaced by the Infinite Universe Theory (IUT). It will produce the
greatest revolution in science since Copernicus. A change of this magnitude will not come easily, probably not
for decades, but it will come. The outlines of IUT can be seen by examining the logical defects of the BBT. A
side-by-side comparison of the two theories not only shows the logical superiority of IUT, but it points the way
to fertile fields of research and experimentation while rejecting still others. Among the predictions of IUT: time
is motion; there is an ether; light is wave motion; the galactic redshift is due primarily to absorption; gravity in-
volves a push, not a pull; there is a complement to the Second Law of Thermodynamics; light bending near
massive bodies is refraction due to a dense etherosphere; galactic ages will not correlate with distance from
Earth; the universe is Euclidean and not expanding; empty space and solid matter are ideas, not reality; matter
has only three dimensions. Among the illegitimate pursuits: cosmogony, non-Euclidean mathematics; unifica-
tion of physics via a single equation; objectification of time; and energy viewed as matterless motion. Welcome
to the infinite universe!
Introduction
The previous paper [1], as well as the book it summarized
[2], demonstrated the societal appeal of Einstein’s relativity and
the Big Bang Theory. Almost everyone harbors preconceived
notions that consider matterless motion and creation from noth-
ing to be logical possibilities. We cannot see the motion of the
tiniest particles; everything we know seems to have a beginning.
Why hypothesize undetected, infinitely small particles? Why not
hypothesize a beginning for the universe? Ultimately, we are
faced with a fantastic philosophical choice: either the universe is
finite or it is infinite. There is no way one could travel to the “end
of the universe” to provide a final test of what must forever re-
main an assumption.
At present, however, most cosmologists are pretty certain
that the universe is finite, expanding from a point easily calcu-
lated from well-established measurements. But what if we adopt
the opposite point of view: that the universe is infinite in three
dimensions and eternal? This paper explores that possibility by
contrasting the Big Bang Theory (BBT) with its logical opposite,
the Infinite Universe Theory (IUT) (Table 1). Many other cosmol-
ogies have been advanced in the past, of course, in attempts to
handle contradictions within the BBT. The steady state theory of
Hoyle [3], for example, was an attempt to rescue the BBT from its
unprecedented rejection of conservation by proposing just
enough creation to keep up with expansion. The idea of an alter-
nating expanding and collapsing universe keeps cropping up [4].
It is currently popular, once again, to hypothesize “multiverses,”
each of which gets to explode from nothing in its own oxymoron-
ic way [5]. The comparison begins with a few critical assump-
tions:
Assumptions
All ten assumptions of science [6] are important in compar-
ing the BBT and IUT, but we will focus on five that are especially
critical (Table 1).
Infinity. As is well-known, the BBT was devised and is
maintained by mathematicians. Mathematics really cannot yield
a satisfactory treatment of infinity, so an assumption of finity
comes natural. The problem is that, if one assumes finity at the
beginning, one will end up with finity at the end. The argument
becomes circular no matter which assumption one uses. I chose
infinity (microcosmic and macrocosmic) here because the result-
ing logical argument avoids the many contradictions inherent in
the BBT.
Causality. The assumption of finite universal causality was
the foundation of Newton’s mechanics, classical determinism,
and today’s mathematical physics. But, as argued in [1], there is
no logical way to advance IUT without using Bohm’s assumption
of infinite universal causality. With all things in the infinite un-
iverse being bathed in an infinity of particles, all causal relations
have an infinite number of terms. In practice, all we can hope for
is to determine the most important and ignore the rest.
Conservation. Conservation, the First Law of Thermody-
namics, assumes that matter and the motion of matter neither can
be created nor destroyed. The BBT, of course, is the most blatant
violation of conservation ever devised. The creation of something
from nothing is clearly a religious assumption, not a scientific
one. Special pleading generally involves the idea that the calcu-
lated “beginning” really was not a beginning, but that some-
thing, perhaps a tiny “singularity,” existed “before” the begin-
ning. Another plea involves the claim that conservation could not
be violated because there could be no fundamental laws or as-
sumptions before the universe existed.
Inseparability. According to Hegel, “Just as there is no mo-
tion without matter, so there is no matter without motion.” In
other words, all phenomena may be classified as either matter or
the motion of matter. The opposing assumption is separability,
the popular idea that motion could occur without matter. Matter-
less motion is especially popular among logical positivists and
theologians.
Mathematics
From the foregoing it is obvious that the IUT can be only
partly compliant to a mathematical approach (Table 1). Like the
classical mechanics before it, the BBT claims to be fully compliant
with mathematics. As mentioned in the discussion of infinite
universal causality, math never can give a completely accurate
picture of reality. Mathematics forever must be a slave to science;
science should not be a slave to mathematics.
2007 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA
But to a hammer, all the world is a nail. The best mathema-
ticians realize that the idealism underlying calculation is just that:
idealism, a representation of reality, not reality itself. Nonethe-
less, it is easy to forget this simple fact if all one does is mathe-
matics. The idealism must be treated as an occupational disease.
Einstein, for example, had many choices in preparing relativity
theory. The equation said that mass would increase as velocities
approached the speed of light. There is, of course, no physical
reason for the mass of an object to increase simply because it is
travelling at a high velocity through empty space. Either the
math was wrong, or the physics was wrong. Einstein discarded
the physics and kept the math. Any relativistic effects found in
subsequent tests only proved that space was not really empty.
Einstein’s consideration of time as a dimension prepared the
way for the BBT by removing the unlikely possibility of actually
finding the point of origin. Time, of course, simply is motion, not
matter. All measurements of time always involve measurements
of the motions of one thing with respect to another thing. Uni-
versal time is the motion of each thing with respect to all other
things. Plotting a time measurement on graph paper or using it
in an equation does not make it a dimension. It turns out that, if
you can believe in four dimensions, you can believe in 13 of
them, as seen in the widely popular string theory that just now is
being questioned by insiders [7]. Calculations for an imaginary
object with 248 dimensions were performed recently [8]. Of
course, all of this is math, not physics.
Space
The concept of perfectly empty space is dear to the hearts of
logical positivists, Big Bang theorists, and other idealists. If emp-
ty space could be found, it would prove that non-existence is
possible. The failure to produce an absolute vacuum, the univer-
sal presence of the cosmic microwave background (CMB), and
measurements of ether drift (Fig. 1) support the opposing conten-
tion. As is typical of most prevailing theories, the BBT claims the
CMB as its own; a kind of matterless motion left over from the
Big Bang. Instead, the CMB actually is proof that matter in mo-
tion (ether) exists everywhere in outer space. Matter in motion is
necessary for temperature to occur. Perfectly empty space would
have no temperature at all; it would be 0
o
K and not the measured
2.7
o
K.
Radiation
Einstein popularized the idea that matter could be converted
into energy. As a result, some have even claimed that the un-
iverse once contained no matter at all, only pure energy. Energy,
of course, is the motion of matter, and per inseparability, it is
nonsense to talk of energy without its material referent. Accord-
ing to neomechanics, the physical meaning of E=mc
2
merely in-
volves the conversion of the microcosmic motion of matter to the
macrocosmic motion of matter. The emission of motion could not
occur in a macrocosm devoid of matter. There has to be a me-
dium (ether) to transfer the motion to—perfectly empty space
will not do. In the same way, increases in mass require the mo-
tion of matter to be absorbed by the microcosm. This is why a hot
tea kettle has more mass than a cold one.
Figure 1. Ether drift and atmospheric pressure reduction versus
altitude [2, p. 202] derived from the data of Galaev [9].
Light
The BBT stands or falls on a single interpretation: that the
galactic redshift is solely the product of the Doppler Effect. Light,
considered as a wave-particle is presumed to travel through
empty space for up to 13.7 billion light years without significant
changes other than the lengthening of its wave length due to
Doppler Effects. This claim, of course, is unprecedented, for we
know of no other phenomenon that behaves that way. The idea
that a phenomenon could be both matter and motion at the same
time violates inseparability—a violation unlikely to be rejected
by the indeterministic establishment. But as explained in detail in
[2], clear thinking requires that we maintain a conceptual distinc-
tion between matter and motion, while assuming that there can
be no physical distinction between matter and motion. Matter
exists; motion occurs.
The other possibility, that light is a wave within a particu-
late medium, is only common sense. All wave motion is red-
shifted with distance. The Doppler Effect, like all wave effects,
must be a group effect. There is plenty of evidence for the hy-
pothesized medium, as reviewed by Gift and shown in his calcu-
lations regarding measurements of the period of Jupiter’s satel-
lite, Io [10]. The infamous Michelson-Morley measurements cited
by Einstein were poorly done, had too short a path length, were
plagued by other instrumental problems, and did not consider
the possibility that ether could be entrained by the earth. Miller
[11] eventually obtained an ether drift of 3 km/s in Cleveland
(265 m), only 10% of the value expected, which was Earth’s orbit-
al velocity, 30 km/s. His measurements at Mt Wilson (1830 m)
were much greater, up to 10 km/s, suggesting the altitude func-
tion confirmed by Galaev [9] with measurements at elevations of
42, 4.75, and 1.6 m (Fig. 1). Galaev also pointed out that the sup-
posed confirmations of the Michelson-Morley null result in the
1920’s were done in hermetically sealed metallic chambers not
amenable to drift. A plot of Galaev’s data shows that ether drift
follows a square root function of altitude instead of the direct
gravitational function followed by air molecules (Fig. 1). This
may to be a valuable clue to the nature of ether particles.
2007 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA
As Fig. 1 shows, the entrained ether or “etherosphere” is
about 13 km thick. The 30 km/s result would not be obtained
before that elevation is reached—above the troposphere. It is
likely that most, if not all, celestial bodies have an etherosphere
that might produce the light refraction that supposedly proved
Einstein’s specious claim that gravitation was due to “curved
spacetime.”
Gravitation
Gravitation is either a pull or a push. Since none of New-
ton’s laws or any of the six neomechanical laws [2] involve a pull,
it is clear that “gravitational attraction” as well as “curved space-
time” are mere myopic idealizations of systems philosophy and
its cousin, logical positivism (Table 1). As long as finity remains
its logical foundation, the true, physical mechanism of gravita-
tion will remain a mystery. Although he failed to pursue it, we
must agree with Einstein that gravitation and inertia are equiva-
lent. In an infinite universe lacking empty space, the motion of
one microcosm always affects the motions of other microcosms.
In other words, it is impossible for an object to move from point
A to point B without pushing other objects ahead of it. It is the
motion of these objects, whether they be ether particles, gravi-
tons, fluxions, “dark matter,” or some other constituent of so-
called “empty space,” that produce the manifestations of gravita-
tion via shadowing or some other mechanism [12]. This view of
gravitation is inconceivable without an infinite universe and an
infinite universe is inconceivable without this view of gravita-
tion. The alternative view is that, contrary to the First Law of
Motion, massive bodies create their own gravitational fields, as if
reaching out anthropomorphically to embrace passing bodies,
gathering them unto themselves for reasons known only to the
mystically inclined.
The upshot is that the microcosmic search for enough “dark
matter” to produce the “attraction” sufficient to counter the “ex-
pansion” of the universe is bound to fail. I predict that only
enough “dark matter” (e.g., ether, gravitons, etc.) to satisfy the
infinite universe theory will be found. Surprisingly, this view of
gravitation is consistent with indirect observations of gravita-
tional waves, although it denies that the mechanism predicted by
Einstein (fluctuation in the curvature of spacetime) is responsible
(Table 1).
Cosmogony
IUT denies that cosmogony, the study of the origin of the
universe, is legitimate (Table 1). The word “cosmogony” has not
seen popular use in cosmology. To do so would imply that an
alternative view was possible. It would emphasize the horrible
bias that has overtaken science with renewed vigor during the
20
th
century. In keeping with systems philosophy and its over-
emphasis on the system and neglect of the environment, we have
devised a ludicrous cosmology nevertheless acceptable to the
powers that be. Even the Pope has blessed the new cosmogony. It
looks like there will be no complete pardon for Giordano Bruno
any time soon.
Conclusions
As always, we have a choice to make between two critical
assumptions for which there can be no final proof: Either the
universe is finite or it is infinite. The recent invention of the Big
Bang Theory has forced us to choose between two fantastic pos-
sibilities: Either the universe exploded out of nothing, or it has
always existed. This review of the two possibilities shows that
the Infinite Universe Theory is, by far, the more logical of the
two. The logical counterpart to macrocosmic infinity is micro-
cosmic infinity. Both provide a framework for future scientific
work that eschews the overt idealism of relativity and the BBT.
The inference is that worldviews that use logical positivism and
systems philosophy are no longer useful for advancing cosmolo-
gy. We need to abandon the idea of empty space and the view
that systems actually could exist in isolation. Any portion of the
universe is a microcosm that could not exist without its macro-
cosm. Only a combination of the two—the univironment—can
explain the motions of any microcosm. IUT is the logical culmi-
nation of univironmental determinism, the scientific worldview
[2]. Finally, with IUT, we are able to advance beyond the pre-
Copernican worldview in which we childishly and myopically
see ourselves as the center of the universe. Nothing less would
neither be scientific nor befitting our ultimate maturation as a
species.
References
[ 1 ] G. Borchardt, “The Scientific Worldview and the Demise of Cos-
mogony”: Proceedings of the Natural Philosophy Alliance, v. 4, no.
1, p. xx-xx, 2007.
[ 2 ] G. Borchardt, The Scientific Worldview: Beyond Newton and
Einstein (Lincoln, NE, iUniverse; 411 p., 2007).
[ 3 ] F. Hoyle, “The steady-state universe”: Scientific American, v. 195,
no. 3, p. 157-166, 1956.
[ 4 ] J. Silk, The Infinite Cosmos: Questions from the frontiers of cos-
mology (New York, Oxford University Press; 256 p., 2006).
[ 5 ] D. Deutsch, The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Un-
iverses and Its Implications (New York, Penguin; 400 p., 1998).
[ 6 ] G. Borchardt, The Ten Assumptions of Science: Toward a New
Scientific Worldview (Lincoln, NE, iUniverse, 125 p., 2004). Also
included in [1] and summarized in: G. Borchardt, “Ten assump-
tions of science and the demise of 'cosmogony'”: Proceedings of the
Natural Philosophy Alliance, v. 1, no. 1, p. 3-6, 2004.
[ 7 ] L. Smolin, The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory,
the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next (New York, Mariner
Books; 416 p., 2006).
[ 8 ] http://aimath.org/E8/
[ 9 ] Y.M. Galaev, 2002, The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kine-
matic ether viscosity within optical waves band (English transla-
tion): Spacetime & Substance, v. 3, no. 5, p. 207-224.
[ 10 ] Stephan J.G. Gift, 2007, Light speed invariance is a remarkable illu-
sion: Proceedings of the Natural Philosophy Alliance, v. 4, no. 1, p.
xxx-xxx.
[ 11 ] Dayton Miller, 1933, The Ether-Drift Experiment and the Determi-
nation of the Absolute Motion of the Earth: Reviews of Modern
Physics, v. 5, no. 2, p. 203-242.
[ 12 ] M.R. Edwards, ed., Pushing gravity: New perspectives on Le
Sage's theory of gravitation (Montreal, Canada, Apeiron, 316 p.,
2002).
2007 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA
Table 1. Comparison between the essential assumptions and characteristics of the two possible cosmologies.
Characteristics
Big Bang
Theory
Infinite Universe
Theory
Acronym BBT IUT
CRITICAL ASSUMPTIONS
finity infinity
finite universal causality infinite universal causality
creation conservation
separability inseparability
MATHEMATICS
Mathematical compliance full partial
Time matter motion
Number of dimensions 4 to 13 3
String theory legitimate? yes no
SPACE
Empty? yes no
Microwave background evidence proves BBT proves ether
Nonexistence possible? yes no
LIGHT
Character wave-particle wave
Light medium none ether
Is there an etherosphere? no yes
Solar light refraction curved spacetime etherosphere
Galactic redshift (universal) Doppler Effect absorption
Expansion? yes no
GRAVITATION
Mechanism pull push
Gravitational waves possible? yes yes
COSMOLOGY
Universe had an origin? yes no
Cosmogony legitimate? yes no
Worldview systems philosophy univironmental determinism
Mechanism of evolution neo-Darwinism univironmental determinism
