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Rule-based versus Principle-based
Regulatory Compliance
Brigitte BURGEMEESTRE a, Joris HULSTIJN a,1and Yao-Hua TAN a,b
aVrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
bDelft University of Technology
Abstract. There is an ongoing debate in law and accounting about the relative
merits of principle-based versus rule-based regulatory systems. In this paper we
characterize what kind of reasoning underlies the two styles of regulation. We adapt
an original account of Verheij et al (1998) to take aspects of the implementation
context into account, such as the process of adoption of a new norm and the roles
of the participants. The model is validated by a comparison between EU and US
customs regulations intended to enhance safety and security in international trade.
The EU regulations (AEO self-assessment) are essentially principle-based, whereas
the American system (C-TPAT) is rule-based.
Keywords. compliance, formal reasoning, principle-based, rule-based
1. Introduction
In the domains of accounting [2,20,9] and law [10,15,16,8,14] there is a long standing
debate about the relative merits of rule-based versus principle-based regulatory systems.
Rule-based regulation prescribes in detail how to behave: “On Dutch highways the speed
limit is 120 km/hour”. In principle-based regulation norms are formulated as guidelines;
the exact implementation is left to the subject of the norm: “Drive responsibly when it
is snowing”. Many regulations are implemented through IT. For example, accounting
standards are coded in ERP systems, and business processes are re-designed for compli-
ance [17]. In general, IT requires detailed and specific requirements. Therefore princi-
ples first need to be tailored to a company’s specific situation, before they can be imple-
mented [14]. A common way to adopt principle-based regulation, is to first identify con-
trol objectives and then design a system of control measures, which can be implemented
as rules in computer systems [19]. Rules require less interpretation to be implemented.
One would expect that the application of principles requires a different form of rea-
soning than the application of rules. However, Verheij et al [21] claim that the differences
between rules and principles are merely a matter of degree. They show that rules and
principles have the same logical structure, but show different behavior when applied in
practice. This is in line with recent work, both in law and accounting, which argues that
principles and rules are extremes on a continuum [18,15,8].
1Corresponding Author: Department of IT Audit, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration,
Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands, jhulstijn@feweb.vu.nl
In our empirical research about EU customs regulations [5], we find large differ-
ences in the way principles and rules are adopted. Implementation of a principle requires
legal knowledge and expertise about the domain. Moreover, adoption of one principle
often involves a trade-off with another principle. For example, companies need to invest
in control measures to make their supply chain more secure. The principle of security
must be weighed against the principle of profit. How much control measures are suffi-
cient? Solving such dilemmas requires a different kind of reasoning than straightforward
application of rules. This leads to the following research question.
Is it possible to explain the differences in the regulatory process of principle-based
regulation and rule-based regulation, by differences in the reasoning process?
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. In Section 2 we introduce the main
characteristics of principles-based and rule based forms of regulation. We identify a
number of dimensions to determine whether regulation is predominantly rule-based or
principle-based. In Section 3 we present a case study of EU and US customs’ regula-
tions concerning security in international trade. We compare implementation of the AEO
legislation in the Netherlands, which may be considered principle-based, with the US
C-TPAT regulations, which may be considered rule-based. In Section 4 we characterize
reasoning with principles and rules, using a formalism adapted from Verheij et al [21].
2. Characterizing Principles and Rules
In the debate between rules and principles we often see a tendency to classify legislative
systems as either principle- or rule-based. The advantages of principles are then depicted
as the disadvantages of rules, and vice versa. However, in practice the distinction is not
so clear cut. In fact, most regulatory systems contain a mixture of rules and principles.
Rules may become more principle-like through the addition of qualifications and excep-
tions, whereas principles may become more rule-like by the addition of best-practices
and requirements [14]. “One reason why relatively younger standard setting regimes [...]
appear more principles-based is that they havent had as much time to accrete rules.” [18].
Therefore: “Every accounting standard will exist somewhere along a spectrum between
rules and principles. The goal must be to seek the ‘sweet spot’ on that spectrum.” [9].
In legal theory, Cunningham [8] suggests three dimensions to localize a regulative
system on the continuum: temporal, conceptual and functional.
1. The temporal dimension indicates when the content of a regulation is provided: rules
define boundaries ex ante, i.e., before adoption and implementation, whereas a prin-
ciple is settled ex post, when compliance is being audited. Rules provide certainty:
when you follow a rule, you know that you will be compliant [16]. A rule-based
system initially requires more effort from the regulator, because details need to be
fixed in advance; a principle-based system requires effort from the subject.
2. The conceptual dimension distinguishes between principles and rules by the prop-
erties of being general versus specific, abstract versus concrete and universal ver-
sus particular. The number of clarifications, details, exceptions or limitations may
serve as an indicator. The properties generality, abstractness and universality may be
combined under the label of ‘relative vagueness’ [8].
Dimension Typical Principles Typical Rules
1. temporal ex post ex ante
2. conceptual general / universal / abstract specific / particular / concrete
3. functional large discretionary power little discretionary power
4. representation declarative (what) procedural (how)
5. knowledge needed quite a lot relatively little
6. exception handling allow for exceptions (defeasible) all or nothing (strict)
7. conflict resolution by weight (trade off) no conflicts possible
Table 1. Characterization of rules and principles by dimensions
3. The functional dimension considers the relative discretionary power of the partici-
pants in the regulative process. Rules are defined by the regulator. Principles tend to
give more space for interpretation to both subjects and auditors.
In addition to these legal dimensions, we can also consider characteristics derived from
artificial intelligence and formal reasoning. The legal dimensions above apply to regula-
tory systems; the characteristics below apply to a single rule or principle.
4. A declarative representation specifies what situation is required. How this should be
achieved is left to the discretion of the implementer. Procedural descriptions specify
how, i.e. by what actions, an objective should be achieved. Generally principles are
formulated in a declarative way; typical rules are procedural.
5. What knowledge is needed to apply a regulation? Applying rules requires relatively
little knowledge. Knowledge of the rule itself and the instantiation of the concepts
involved, suffices. Applying principles requires more knowledge, such as knowledge
of the context and of all other relevant principles.
6. How are exceptions handled? A form of reasoning may be defeasible, in the sense
that exceptions may occur and overrule the original line of reasoning, or strict, in the
sense that no exceptions are allowed. This can be modeled in defeasible logic [1].
7. To resolve conflicts between different exceptions we will need a kind of priority or-
der or weight. In other words: for principles there is a conflict resolution mechanism;
for rules no conflicts are possible.
These last two characteristics are famously addressed by Dworkin [10]. In his terms, typ-
ical rules have an all-or-nothing character: incorporating an exception would in fact alter
the rule. Principles can have many exceptions, but this does not diminish their validity
in the legal system. Unlike rules, principles do not prescribe, but they point in a certain
direction. It is possible that competing principles point in different directions. So we will
have to find out which principle carries most weight.
Please note that these dimensions are not meant as necessary characteristics of either
rules or principles. For example, one can easily find declarative legal rules, or legal rules
which allow for exceptions. Such examples show that indeed rules and principles form
a continuum. The dimensions are only meant to characterize to what extend particular
regulations resemble ‘prototypical’ rules or principles.
We apply the dimensions to the case in Section 3 to determine whether the regulatory
system is predominantly rule-based or principle-based.
AEO – Article 14 k C-TPAT – Security criteria for foreign manufacturers
(b) appropriate access control measures are in
place to prevent unauthorized access to shipping
areas, loading docks and cargo areas;
Procedures for the issuance, removal and changing of
access devices (e.g. keys, key cards, etc.) must be doc-
umented
Proper vendor ID and/or photo identification must be
presented for documentation purposes upon arrival by
all vendors
Alarm systems and video surveillance cameras should
be utilized to monitor premises and prevent unautho-
rized access to cargo handling and storage areas.
(c) measures for the handling of goods include
protection against the introduction, exchange or
loss of any material and tampering with cargo
units
A high security seal must be affixed to all loaded con-
tainers and trailers bound for the U.S. All seals must
meet or exceed the current PAS ISO 17712 standard
for high security seals.
A seven-point inspection process is recommended
for all containers: Front wall, Left side, Right
side, Floor, Ceiling/Roof, Inside/outside doors, Out-
side/Undercarriage
The cargo should be accurately described, and the
weights, labels, marks and piece count indicated and
verified.
Private passenger vehicles should be prohibited from
parking in or adjacent to cargo handling and storage
areas.
(f) the applicant conducts, in so far as legisla-
tion permits, security screening on prospective
employees working in security sensitive positions
and carries out periodic background checks;
Application information, such as employment history
and references must be verified prior to employment.
Table 2. Linking a selection of AEO principles and C-TPAT rules
3. Case Study: Safety and Security of International Trade
In this case study we compare European (AEO) and US customs regulations (C-TPAT).
Both initiatives try to enhance the safety and security of international trade. Although
they address similar topics, they use a different approach to compliance.
AEO A company can apply for Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) if it is reliable
throughout the EU in the context of its customs related operations [13,11]. AEOs re-
ceive several benefits in customs handling within all EU member states that can lead
to considerable cost-reductions. For non-certified enterprises customs will continue to
carry out the traditional supervision. Customs can direct their efforts towards checking
non-certified companies to increase the security of international supply chains, while
reducing the administrative burden for AEOs.
To qualify for the AEO status a company must perform a self assessment to deter-
mine whether it meets the criteria, described in the Community Customs Code and the
AEO guidelines [13]. The first step is that a company collects information relevant for
the AEO status, such as business processes, safety procedures, licenses and certificates,
IT systems, etc. Next, the company must identify risks to which the business is exposed
(using the AEO guidelines) and identify the measures that must be implemented to mit-
igate them [11]. The last step is to evaluate the remaining risks in relation to the line of
business, and determine if additional measures are needed. The company then decides to
either submit the AEO application or implement additional measures first. The customs
first assess the validity of the application. Next, they determine the type of audit, based
on the type of AEO application (customs simplification, security, or both) and on his-
torical data about customs and tax compliance. An audit is needed to check whether the
self-assessment is performed correctly, whether the company identified all the risks and
has taken appropriate measures, and whether these measures are operational.
C-TPAT Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) is an initiative of the
United States Customs and Border patrol (CBP) to try and increase the safety and secu-
rity of supply chains in international trade [6]. Like AEOs, C-TPAT members are entitled
to certain benefits (reduced inspections, priority handling, etc.) if they can ensure the
integrity of their own security practices. Furthermore, C-TPAT is a prerequisite for the
Free and Secure Trade (FAST) program, which provides fast expedited cargo processing
at the US borders with Mexico and Canada.
In joining C-TPAT, companies sign an agreement to work with CBP to protect the
supply chain, identify security gaps and implement specific security measures and best
practices [6]. Additionally, C-TPAT partners have to provide CBP with a security pro-
file outlining the specific security measures the company has in place and how security
is addressed throughout their supply chain. A certified partner is a participant that has
had their security profile reviewed and deemed acceptable. The last step is validation,
in which the CBP reviews the security measures and procedures to verify that the com-
pany’s security plans are effective and accurate.
Characterizing AEO and C-TPAT In Table 2 we show three principles from article 14
of the AEO legislation concerning safety and security [12] and selected some matching
C-TPAT rules from the Security criteria for foreign manufacturers [7]. Using these reg-
ulations as example, we will now try to locate AEO and C-TPAT on the scale by the
dimensions of Section 2. The results are shown in Table 3.
1. Under AEO, a company must interpret what is meant by regulation (c): “measures
... against the introduction, exchange or loss of any material”. This interpretation is
verified afterwards, when the auditor makes a visit. C-TPAT indicates in advance
which measures are obligatory: “PAS ISO 17712 standard for high security seals”.
2. Table 2 shows that AEO is indeed more general and abstract. C-TPAT is more spe-
cific and concrete. To use the same example: the general requirement to protect
“against the introduction, exchange or loss of material” corresponds to the concrete
requirement to implement a “high security seal”. AEO guidelines are also more uni-
versal. High security seals can only be applied to containers, but for bulk goods
which are shipped in high-pressure tanks, the concept does not make sense.
3. In C-TPAT the regulator (here: CBP) has already decided what counts as “being
in control of security in the supply chain”. There is little discretionary power for
both companies and auditors. By contrast, AEO guidelines leave much space for
interpretation, based on the risk assessment.
4. It is easy to check in the examples that AEO regulations are formulated in a declar-
ative way; C-TPAT on the other hand contains both declarative (e.g. “The cargo
should be accurately described”) and procedural clauses (e.g. “A seven-point inspec-
tion process is recommended for all containers: Front wall, Left side, Right side,
Floor, Ceiling/Roof, Inside/outside doors, Outside/Undercarriage”).
Dimension AEO C-TPAT
1. temporal certainty ex-post certainty ex-ante
2. conceptual general/universal/abstract specific/particular/concrete
3. functional much (company), much (auditor) little (company), little (auditor)
4. representation declarative both procedural and declarative
5. knowledge needed context expertise, normative knowledge context expertise
6. exception handling built into ‘understanding the business’ no, only by consulting CBP
7. conflict resolution risk assessment no weighing
Table 3. Characterization of AEO and C-TPAT
5. Both AEO and C-TPAT rules require expertise of the domain, e.g., what is a high
security seal. However, the application of principles also requires a different kind of
knowledge, namely, knowledge about what it means to be ‘in control’ of safety and
security. In practice, this kind of knowledge is hard to obtain.
6. AEO deals with exceptions up-front, by ‘understanding the business’ and a risk as-
sessment. C-TPAT does not have a formal procedure for handling exceptions. There
are two solutions: a company implements a rule that has no real function, or the
company must negotiate with CBP to allow alternative measures. This requires CPB
to evaluate these measures against the principle that apparently motivates the rule.
7. In AEO applications the risk assessment determines the relative weight attached to
certain business risks versus security risks. It is implicitly understood that security
should weigh more heavily than, say, profit making. On the other hand, business
principles will put a limit on security investments. Basic measures are good enough.
In C-TPAT there are also trade-offs, but here the base-line (what is good enough) is
set by the rules; not by the circumstances of the company.
What can we conclude from this characterization? It is clear that AEO self assessment
does indeed classify as principle-based regulation. It has all the properties. C-TPAT has
many of the typical rule-based characteristics, but also some of the principle-based ones.
It can be located more towards the rule-based end of the scale.
4. Reasoning with Principles and Rules
Section 2 lists differences between principles and rules. Do these differences affect the
reasoning? Verheij et al [21] claim that the logical structure of rules and principles is the
same. Their argument runs as follows. “If the condition of a rule is satisfied, the rule is
applied and its conclusion follows directly. [...] In contrast with a rule, a principle only
gives rise to a reason for its conclusion if it applies. Moreover, there can be other applying
principles that give rise to both reasons for and reasons against the same conclusion.
A conclusion then only follows by weighing the pros and cons.” [21, p 2.] Next, they
argue, also a rule may be represented as providing a reason for its conclusion. So for a
rule or principle in isolation, the difference in logical structure disappears. When various
principles apply, the difference lies in the weighing process. Moreover, they observe
that legal rules are generally motivated by some underlying principles. For established
rules, the potential conflicts between principles have already been solved in the political
process. Such a rule is said to replace the underlying principles.
fact formula of predicate logic
rule or principle Rule(condition, conclusion)
reason Reason(fact, state of affairs)
validity Valid(Rule(condition, conclusion))
exclusion Excluded(Rule(condition, conclusion), fact, state of affairs)
applicable Applicable(Rule(condition, conclusion),fact,state of affairs)
applies Applies(Rule(condition, conclusion),fact,state of affairs)
weighing Outweighs(reasons pro, reasons con, state of affairs),
where condition, conclusion, state of affairs, reasons pro,
reasons con are variables representing sets of facts.
Table 4. Primitives of Reason-Based Logic.
Domain, task and roles The example used by Verheij et al [21] concerns an article from
Dutch civil law, that the sale of a house should not terminate an existing rent contract. It
embodies a dilemma between the principle that inhabitants should be protected against
eviction, and the principle that a contract only binds the contractual parties. In this case,
parliament has considered the first principle to be more important. Therefore, when the
judge derives a verdict, there is indeed no difference in reasoning. In this paper however,
we focus on a less ‘crystallized’ setting: safety and security in international trade.
Apart from the domain, also the tasks in the regulative process, and the roles of the
participants are different. In the rental example, the task is adjudication: the judge deliv-
ers a verdict, based on the relevant laws, jurisprudence and evidence. In our example, we
consider at least three tasks: adoption, implementing and auditing. The adoption task is
similar to practical reasoning. This kind of reasoning may be compared to value-based
argumentation techniques [3]: the company must justify with reference to control objec-
tives (goals) and its risk appetite (values) why the control measures (actions) are appro-
priate and sufficient, given its line of business. In implementation, both rules and relevant
principles can by applied, provided all relevant contextual factors have been decided on.
Here, we find little difference. Finally, the auditing task is similar to adjudication: based
on evidence, the auditor must judge wether the measures are sufficient, and are imple-
mented effectively. In an established domain we find little difference between rule-based
and principle-based reasoning, but without commonly accepted rules, the judge or au-
ditor will first have to provide a practical reasoning argument to judge whether the sub-
ject’s conduct was reasonable given the circumstances. Note that ‘reasoning’ in a strict
sense, i.e. applying a rule or principles, makes up only a small part of these tasks. Most
effort will go into collecting evidence, selecting relevant laws and jurisprudence, and
constructing a convincing argument.
Reason Based Logic Essentially Reason Based Logic is a version of Predicate Logic,
with a number of primitives for expressing facts, rules, reasons etc (Table 4). The mean-
ing of these primitives is ensured by a number of properties. A fact fcan be a reason
for a certain state of affairs sa holding: Reason(f,sa). To read the expressions in Table 4,
realize that fact is an instantiation of condition and state of affairs is an instance of con-
clusion. A rule is applicable, when its its precondition is a reason to apply it. Moreover,
a rule can only be applicable when this fact is true.
Applicable(rule(c1,c2),f,sa) is true iff Reason(f, applies(rule(c1,c2), f,sa)) is true.
If Applicable(rule(c1,c2),f,sa) is true, then fis true.
A rule or principle applies when the fact that makes the rule/principle applicable is a rea-
son for the conclusion, or, equivalently, a reason against the opposite of the conclusion.
For all f, sa there are terms c1and c2, such that Applies(rule(c1, c2), f, sa) is true if
and only if Reason(f, sa) is true.
Note the difference between applicable and applied. When a rule or principle is applica-
ble there are one or more reasons for applying it, but there may also be reasons for not
applying it. By contrast, a typical rule applies exclusively.
Next we consider weighing. A set of reasons makes a conclusion true, if the pros
outweigh the cons, provided that no con is overlooked. It is possible that one or more
pros are overlooked; in that case there are already sufficient pros to outweigh the cons.
IfReason(pro1,sa),...,Reason(pron,sa),Reason(con1,not-sa),...,Reason(conm,not-sa),
and Outweighs({pro1,...,pron},{con1,...,conm},sa) are true, then sa is true, or else
there is a different con such that Reason(con,not sa) is true.
Reason-Based Logic itself does not determine which set of reasons will outweigh another
set of reasons. This is an extra-logical fact. However, when all reasons point in the same
direction, any set of reasons outweighs the empty set of reasons.
Reasoning in the case We will now discuss an example, based on conversations with
customs officers about an actual AEO application. We use a semi-formal representation,
because a formalized version would require too much explanation about the domain.
Consider again principle (c) of Table 2. We follow the reasoning of a petro chemical
company ‘PCC’ that has applied for both C-TPAT and AEO certification. PCC produces
explosive liquids and gases. Production processes are almost fully automated. The cargo
is shipped in large high pressure tanks. These tanks are transported by trucks over the
road. Because of the nature of the goods, security is important but, because of the low
value of the goods per unit, the costs of security must be kept low. This precludes new
technological solutions. Their proposed solution is to hire trustworthy truck drivers and
reduce their incentive to commit fraud by paying a high salary.
principle: Require (c) measures for the handling of goods include protection against
the introduction, exchange or loss of any material and tampering with cargo units.
context: petrochemical company, explosive goods, low value of goods per unit, auto-
mated processes, transport in high pressure tanks, transport by road, ...
priorities: Security is important, but costs per product must be kept low.
reasons pro and con implementation of control measures:
If tanks are under pressure, introduction, exchange or loss of materials is impossible.
conclude: For high pressure tanks, security seals are not needed.
Explosive goods must be well protected.
Automated processes reduce possibilities to tamper with the goods.
Inside PCC premises, tanks are well protected.
Outside PCC premises, an electronic tracking device can be installed.
An electronic tracking device is expensive.
Outside PCC premises, the truck driver is responsible.
Incentives to commit fraud can be reduced by a high salary.
conclude: Do not invest in electronic tracking. Pay truck drivers a high salary.
Note how hard it is to represent this kind of reasoning in condition-conclusion pairs.
Instead, the decision making can be much better represented by a risk assessment, as
required by many security standards, or by an argumentation, compare e.g. [3].
Now we consider the corresponding rule from C-TPAT:
rule: A high security seal must be affixed to all loaded containers and trailers bound
for the US. All seals must meet or exceed the current PAS ISO 17712 standard.
context: PCC is sending shipment TX4312 to customers in Texas. Texas is in the US.
conclude: A high security seal must be affixed to shipment TX4312, which meets or
exceeds PAS ISO 17712.
The example shows that principles and rules in the safety and security domain are used
in fundamentally different way. Rules are applied mechanically whereas principles re-
quire the weighing of alternatives. Principles need to be interpreted in a certain context.
Rules should take all contextual facts into account. Furthermore, different conclusions
can be drawn on the basis of the same facts. The example also identifies a limitation of
rules. What if a rule is not really necessary, but only required for compliance ‘on paper’?
Should one still apply such a rule, which may lead to a fake sense of security?
5. Conclusions
This paper revives the debate about rule-based and principle-based regulation. Given the
attention the debate has been given, one would expect that there are crucial differences
between the two styles of reasoning. However, researchers in law and accounting have
argued that there is no fundamental difference, but that regulatory systems composed of
rules and principles can be seen as extremes on a continuum, e.g. [18,8]. The actual dif-
ferences between rules and principles are treated as dimensions by which a set of regu-
lations can be localized on the continuum. This position coincides with that of Verheij et
al [21], who claim that there is no difference in logical structure.
In our case study we demonstrate that there are clear differences between safety
and security regulations from the EU (AEO) and from the US (C-TPAT). Using the di-
mensions, these regulation systems can indeed be located on the continuum: AEO is
principle-based and C-TPAT is largely rule-based. The dimensions may help to explain
why in practice applying for an AEO certificate is considered hard; the number of suc-
cessful applications stays below what was to be expected. In many cases companies have
been asked to withdraw their applications.
We have re-applied the Reason-Based Logic approach to an example which is typi-
cal for the trade-offs found in applying principle-based regulations. The example shows
that many modeling decisions needs to be made: what counts as a reason, and which
set of reasons outweigh which other set of reasons? Such decisions can be made by a
risk assessment, or by value-based argumentation techniques [3]. In the examples of Ver-
heij et al these decisions have already been made in the political process. In our case,
both companies and auditors are struggling to reach consensus on these issues.
So the answer to our research question depends on the task and the domain. For the
adoption and auditing tasks, the empirical differences can be explained by the need to
select and weigh relevant principles based on contextually relevant facts. This requires
special expertise. In standard settings, and also during implementation in a computer
system, we expect little differences.
For each new regulation, consensus has to be reached about what counts as accept-
able [16]. We call this social negotiation process norm emergence. Our future research
investigates which factors determine norm emergence. For instance, what is the impact
of the communication between subject and regulator? We start from Australian experi-
ences with responsive regulation [4]. Regarding practice, our findings suggests that regu-
lators should collaborate with branch organizations to provide sector-specific guidelines,
which may help companies to implement the necessary control measures.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dutch Tax and Customs Administration.
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