No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
On the Definition and Classification of Cybercrime
Abstract
The idea of Cybercrime is not new, yet there is significant confusion amongst academics, computer security experts and users as to the extent of real Cybercrime. In this paper, we explore the breadth of computer-based crime, providing a definition of the emerging terms “Cybercrime” and “crimeware”. We then divide Cybercrime into two distinct categories: Type I Cybercrime, which is mostly technological in nature, and Type II Cybercrime, which has a more pronounced human element. We then use two case studies to illustrate the role of crimeware in different types of Cybercrime, and offer some observations on the role of cognition in the process of Cybercrime. Finally we provide several suggestions for future work in the area of Cybercrime.
... In their considerations, they focus on the description of the verb "collect", which allows them to determine the context and circumstances of this activity. J. Giezek (2021) defines it as "an act as a consequence of which the perpetrator expands the scope of his or her knowledge, thus eliminating or reducing the extent of his or her ignorance about the surroundings (about someone or something). " V. Konarska-Wrzosek (2023) extends this description using the concepts of "knowledge", "news" and "data". ...
... Such a view -in accordance with the principles of linguistic interpretation -suggests different meanings. M. and J. Giezek (2021) do not make detailed determinations in this regard. P. Kardas (2016), on the other hand, does not analyse the two concepts separately, but emphasizes the functional context of this "information transfer", pointing to its relevance to the achievement of the assumed goal, i.e. the commission of a criminal act by another person. ...
... The key considerations only relate to their association with a specific law, and the content of the record, which is evidence of a law or legal relationship, or a legally significant circumstance. J. Giezek (2021) comments that the content in question can be expressed in words or graphic signs, and that it "got there as a result of the will of its sender. " ...
This paper examines the legal definitions of “information” and “data” within the Polish Criminal Code (CC), highlighting their implications for criminal liability, particularly in the realm of cybercrime. The research addresses the problem of definitional ambiguity, which poses challenges to the principles of legal certainty and consistency in criminal law. The study employs a dogmatic analysis of both general and specific parts of the CC,including an evaluation of commentaries and relevant judicial decisions. Findings indicate that the interchangeable use of “information” and “data” across various provisions leads to interpretational inconsistencies, potentially broadening the scope of criminal liabilityin a manner that contradicts constitutional principles. Moreover, the lack of precise legal definitions complicates the application of law by practitioners and undermines efforts to standardize legal frameworks for international cooperation in combating cybercrime. The author concludes that establishing clearer definitions is essential for the effective enforcement of criminal law and the protection of fundamental rights in the digital age.
... For instance, the 2005 Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime categorized cybercrime or its awareness into four offenses: offenses against confidentiality, integrity, and availability of computer data and systems; content-related offenses; copyright-related offenses; and computer-related offenses. Researchers prefer broad and binary categorization of cybercrime awareness for computer-assisted and computer-focused cybercrimes and cybercrime awareness (Ashaolu, 2011;Gordon & Ford, 2006;Yar, 2005). ...
... These refer to the demonstration of sufficient knowledge or awareness of such categories of cybercrime that pre-date the Internet but take on a new life in cyberspace. They include cyber terrorism; e-forgery; e-fraud; identity theft; erotic and pornographic material, e-pedophile; racism, hate speech, glorification of violence; religious offenses; illegal gambling and online games; libel and false information; cyberbullying; cyber stalking; copyright-related offences; trademark-related offenses; and e-drug trafficking (Ashaolu, 2011;Gordon & Ford, 2006;Yar, 2005;Mbachu & Nazeef, 2017). ...
... These refer to the demonstration of sufficient knowledge or awareness of such categories of cybercrime that have emerged in tandem with the establishment of the Internet and could not exist apart from it. They include ransom-worms; email bombing; denial-of-service attack; trojan; key-loggers; remote administration tools; spam; ransomware; logic bombs; botnets; exploit kits; hacking; data espionage; illegal interception; data/system interference; viral attacks; phishing; email/web spoofing; and web jacking (Ashaolu, 2011;Gordon & Ford, 2006;Yar, 2005;Mbachu & Nazeef, 2017). ...
The study examined the current trend in cybercrime awareness and the relationship such trend has with cybercrime vulnerability or victimization. Selecting a sample of 1104 Internet users from Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria, We found that: 1) awareness of information security was high in that about 2 in every 3 (68%) participants demonstrated a favorable awareness of information security and cybercrime. It was, however, revealed that such a high level of awareness could be partial and weak. 2) most Internet users demonstrated the awareness of fraud-related cybercrime categories (39%), e-theft (15%), hacking (12%), and ATM theft (10%). However, they were rarely aware of sexually related offenses, cyber-terrorism, malware attacks, spam emails, and identity theft as their proportion hovered around 8% and below. 3) Internet users significantly demonstrated more awareness of computer-assisted (M = 2.5; SD = 1.7) than that of computer-focused cybercrime categories (M = 2.2, SD = 1.3), t(1103) = 2.9, p=.000, r =.2. 4) Internet users significantly demonstrated more awareness of property cybercrime (M = 2.54; SD = 1.6) than that of violent cybercrime categories (M = 1.82, SD = 1.2), t(1103) = 5.94, p=.000, r =.3. 5) cybercrime awareness is positively correlated to cybercrime victimization experiences in that participants who demonstrated more awareness of cybercrime experienced significantly more cybercrime victimization (M = 1.66; SD = 1.7) than those who did not demonstrate awareness of cybercrime (M = .73, SD = 1.4), t(1103) = 7.55, p=.000, r =.52.
... These types of cybercrime are defined based on a comprehensive and systematic review of online crimes, case studies, and articles in academic, industry, and government circles. This includes instances and cases of cybercrime across the world (e.g., [5,22]), taxonomies of cybercrime and cyberattacks that have been developed in research (e.g., [26,81,82]), industry reports on prevalent crimes (e.g., [12,59]), and governmental publications in the space (e.g., NCA [49]). ...
... It is important to note here that many of the types identified here can be seen across prior works. For example, Walls work [82] examines crimes against the individual, crimes against the machine, and crimes in the machine, and Gordon and Ford [26] use some of these types as exemplars of their Type 1 and Type 2 cybercrimes. This taxonomys value is therefore not in identifying new types of cybercrime, but instead in providing a new perspective on the topic which centers in on the types of cybercrime most prevalent today. ...
Cybercrime is a significant challenge to society, but it can be particularly harmful to the individuals who become victims. This chapter engages in a comprehensive and topical analysis of the cybercrimes that target individuals. It also examines the motivation of criminals that perpetrate such attacks and the key human factors and psychological aspects that help to make cybercriminals successful. Key areas assessed include social engineering (e.g., phishing, romance scams, catfishing), online harassment (e.g., cyberbullying, trolling, revenge porn, hate crimes), identity-related crimes (e.g., identity theft, doxing), hacking (e.g., malware, cryptojacking, account hacking), and denial-of-service crimes. As a part of its contribution, the chapter introduces a summary taxonomy of cybercrimes against individuals and a case for why they will continue to occur if concerted interdisciplinary efforts are not pursued.
... Since the inception of this term, the academic and professional fields have grappled with the challenge of reaching a consensus regarding a universal definition and typology for cybercrime. This has resulted in a diversity of interpretations among scholars, practitioners, and policymakers alike, each contributing their unique perspective to the discourse (e.g., Council of Europe, 2001; Gordon & Ford, 2006;Holt & Bossler, 2016;UN, 2000;Wall, 2007a). Despite the absence of a unified definition, one particularly notable and widely referenced definition posits cybercrime simply as "crimes that occur within cyberspace" (Wall, 2007a). ...
... Extant scholarship has extensively cataloged a diverse array of typologies and taxonomies for the classification of cybercrimes, indicating a profound exploration of this domain (Brenner, 2007;Gordon & Ford, 2006;Holt & Bossler, 2016;Sarre et al., 2018;Wall, 2007a). The binary classification system has achieved notable prominence among both researchers and practitioners, positing that cybercrimes can be bifurcated into cyberdependent and cyber-enabled crimes (Brenner, 2007;Holt & Bossler, 2016;McGuire & Dowling, 2013;Wall, 2007a). ...
The advent of the metaverse has given rise to metacrime, a novel category of criminal activities occurring in the metaverse, which not only challenges conventional digital criminality but existing law enforcement frameworks. To address the scholarship vacancy, this study examines the intersections and distinctions between metacrime and conventional cybercrime by employing a multi-disciplinary literature review and comparative analysis. We identified five shared characteristics between these two crime types: crime classification, continuous evolution, hyper-spatial-temporality (global reach), anonymity, and governance challenges. Crucially, our research highlights the distinct epistemological aspects of metacrime through its criminogenic, victimogenic, etiological, ethical, and regulatory dimensions, exemplified by virtual-to-physical attacks, immersive virtual reality attacks, victimization superrealism, complexities of human-avatar interactivity, excessive misuse of biometric data, increasingly vulnerable populations, and avatars’ liability. Our findings underscore the imperative need for tailored and forward-thinking regulatory responses to address the intricate challenges of metacrime, thereby ensuring the security and integrity of evolving digital environments.
... These criminals leverage their technical expertise and sophisticated computer equipment to exploit vulnerabilities in the digital infrastructure and carry out their nefarious activities. From stealing personal information to launching devastating cyber attacks, the impact of these cybercriminals can be far-reaching and damaging (Gordon & Ford, 2006). It should be noted here that the vast majority of cybercriminals aim to obtain some financial gain (Nicholls et al., 2021). ...
... The twenty-first century has offered humanity many innovations, and many mean to simplify its daily life and existence. However, as noted in the research, along with positive moments, there were also moments when the gifts of technological progress were used for harmful, criminal purposes (Gordon & Ford, 2006). ...
Purpose: As technology advances, electronic devices have become ubiquitous among individuals of all backgrounds. From mobile phones to computing devices, people rely on these tools on a daily basis for both personal and professional purposes. The presented research seeks to investigate the extent to which individuals are being monitored in the digital realm and identify solutions to safeguard citizens from the threat of mass surveillance.
Findings: In the modern era, it is common for people to utilize various devices for a multitude of purposes, such as search engines and social networks. However, many are unaware that the information they share online is not always erased from cyberspace. This study aims to shed light on how this data is obtained and utilized and the potential risks humanity faces if privacy is not safeguarded in the digital age.
Research limitations/implications: The objective of this research is to thoroughly examine the current scientific literature, studies, and articles regarding the perils of surveillance in the digital era. The paper aims to highlight the challenges associated with combating surveillance. In the concluding section of the analysis, a concise set of recommendations will be provided, which are crucial to uphold in order to safeguard individuals' constitutional rights in the face of the potential ramifications of streamlined surveillance.
Originality/value: In today's digital age, it has become almost universal for people to communicate through electronic devices in cyberspace, whether for work or personal purposes. Unfortunately, this environment is often not secure, and automated surveillance models can be used to acquire people's data 2 without their knowledge or consent. This raises serious concerns about privacy and the protection of fundamental human rights. That is why it is essential to conduct research that sheds light on the means of surveillance and explores ways to fight against it.
... Cybercrimes can be defined as crimes in which a computer is the object of the crime or is used as a tool for the commission of an offence (Anderson et al., 2013). Cybercrimes are the result of rampant innovation and development in the field of information technology which is why, in order to curb their occurrence, technology has to play a major role (Gordon & Ford, 2006). Cyberspace has developed to such an extent that it has now created a platform for people to lead alternate virtual lives (Broadhurst & Chang, 2012). ...
... So, it is impossible to predict the age and other details of a cybercriminal. Further, cybercriminals could be classified into various categories (Gordon & Ford, 2006). This classification is based on consideration of the internal objective of the perpetrator. ...
... However, Congress has also enacted a comprehensive new computer fraud and abuse section that can easily be amended to reflect changes in technology and computer use by criminals. In fact, the U.S. [8] Congress has enacted statutes that widen the scope of traditional crimes to specifically include crimes involving computers, or categorize them as entirely separate offenses. [9] For example, the main federal statutory framework for many computer crimes is the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (-CFAA‖). ...
... However, if the virus is loaded onto a non-networked computer that, for example, is used in a small office for billing and the virus is placed on it by a diskette, a strong argument can be made that it is not a protected computer under federal jurisdiction because it is not a computer -which is used in interstate or foreign commerce or communication.‖ However, if the virus is loaded onto a computer and causes any of the enumerated damages in § 1030(e) (8), then action against the attacker might be brought under the statute. ...
Cyber-crime, once the domain of disaffected genius teenagers as portrayed in the movies "War Games" and "Hackers," has grown into a mature and sophisticated threat to the open nature of the Internet. "Cyber-criminals," like their non-virtual traditional criminal counterparts, seek opportunity and are attracted to vacuums in law enforcement. The news media is filled with reports of debilitating denial of service attacks, defaced web sites, and new computer viruses worming their way through the nation's computers. However, there are countless other cyber-crimes that are not made public due to private industry's reluctance to publicize its vulnerability and the government's concern for security. Along with the phenomenal growth of the Internet has come the growth of cyber-crime opportunities. As a result of rapid adoption of the Internet globally, computer crimes include not only hacking and cracking, but now also include extortion, child pornography, money laundering, fraud, software pirating, and corporate espionage, to name a few. Law enforcement officials have been frustrated by the inability of legislators to keep cyber-crime legislation ahead of the fast-moving technological curve. At the same time, legislators face the need to balance the competing interests between individual rights, such as privacy and free speech, and the need to protect the integrity of the world's public and private networks. Further complicating cyber-crime enforcement is the area of legal jurisdiction. Like pollution control legislation, one country cannot by itself effectively enact laws that comprehensively address the problem of Internet crimes without cooperation from other nations. While the major international organizations, like the OECD and the G-8, are seriously discussing cooperative schemes, many countries do not share the urgency to combat cyber-crime for many reasons, including different values concerning piracy and espionage or the need to 132 address more pressing social problems. These countries, inadvertently or not, present the cyber-criminal with a safe haven to operate. Never before has it been so easy to commit a crime in one jurisdiction while hiding behind the jurisdiction of another. In section II of this article, we begin by providing an overview of cyber-crimes, the state of the law, and cyber-crime perpetrators and their motivations. Then, in section III we discuss in detail three major computer crimes and analyze how the different statutory subsections are applied depending upon the technical details of the crime itself. Just as a murder prosecution is dependent on how the crime was committed, different hacking techniques trigger different federal anti-computer crime subsections. We begin with a discussion of the various denial of service attacks and the applicable statutes. Next we discuss the technical details of several hacking techniques and apply the relevant statutory subsections to the specific techniques. Finally, we explore the various types of computer viruses and how viral "payloads" and the class of the targeted computer will determine which federal subsection can be applied to the crime. In section IV, we discuss proposed legislative changes to the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and related privacy concerns.
... Type I is about crimes that are more technical in nature, whereas Type II is about crimes that rely more on human contact than technology. It is noteworthy that these authors state that 'there are likely to be very few events which are purely Type I or Type II; these types represent either end of a continuum' [11]. This idea of a continuum is interesting, since it allows us to attempt to trace what is special about cybercrime in general without abstracting ourselves from the particularities of each specific kind of cybercrime, the latter question becoming the object of such typifications, whereas the former question calling for interdisciplinary research, since it is not only technical aspects that should be addressed, but also criminological and sociological, legal, and even political ones. ...
RESUMEN This paper addresses theoretical concerns on crime and technological innovation enabling cybercriminal activities by reflecting on Marx's short satirical essay "Apologist Conception of the Productivity of all Professions" to discuss criminological challenges posed by cybertechnologies. To a certain extent, it could be argued that the epistemological challenges posed to criminological theories by the development of cybercrime stem from the mediational role of digital technologies and the social dynamics that frame their potentially criminal uses. Social studies of technology may arguably inform ways to meet such challenges. To address this issue, the paper discusses the case for the role of hacking in developing the so-called cyberculture and the technological devices enabling it. In this regard, it is argued that Marx's short essay may become insightful for discussing the relationship between crime and technological innovation, informing theoretical concerns that bear significant practical, criminological, legal and jurisprudential consequences.
... • The rapid evolution of cybercrime: Cybercrime [4] is a rapidly evolving threat, and new types of cybercrime are constantly emerging. This makes it difficult for law enforcement agencies to keep up with the latest trends. ...
... 2000 define cybercrime as "computer-mediated activities which are either illegal or considered illicit by certain parties and which can be conducted through global electronic networks" (p. 3), 2006 Gordon and Ford whereas Gordon and Ford (in 2006) define cybercrime as "any crime that is facilitated or committed using a computer, network, or hardware device" (p. 14). ...
The study examines attributional differences in assessing the level of knowledge awareness about Jordanian Cybercrimes Law (JCL) among college students. The study sample comprised 500 Jordanian students representing four Jordanian universities (TTU, MU, JU, & BU). Of these, 43% were males, and 57% were females. Students (19%) reported being victims of cybercrimes, and 24% were perpetrators. Reliability as estimated by the scale’s Cronbach’s α was 0.66, and the validity (correlation between the scale and LSC scale) was 0.157 α = 0.00 (F = 187.161, α = 0.00). More than 25% of the sample read about the JCL and observed that the law has been politicized. Moreover, three-quarters of them heard about it. More than half of the sample witnessed illegal actions on the net that required punishment. Less than 10% of the sample dealt with the JCL or participated in an online action that required punishment. ANOVA analysis of the mean gender differences in cybercrime knowledge showed females were more knowledgeable about JCL than males (F = 4.402, α =.036). Furthermore, an ANOVA analysis of the mean external attribution differences (yes vs. no) in JCL knowledge (F = 4.402, α =.036) was performed. Finally, ANOVA analysis of the mean external attribution differences in the knowledge of JCL (F = 4.402, α =.036).
... Several types of cybercriminal activities differ in their motivations, practices, patterns, and extent of perpetration and victimisation (Ibrahim, 2016;Yar & Steinmetz, 2019). Multiple attempts have been made to classify the diversity of cybercrime and online deviance (e.g., Gordon & Ford, 2006;McGuire & Dowling, 2013;Wall, 2013). Cybercrimes are broadly classified into cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crimes (see McGuire & Dowling, 2013 for more details). ...
We examine cryptocurrency fraud cases prosecuted by Nigeria's Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC). We considered the lens of the Space Transition Theory (STT) in exploring the dynamics of these digital crimes. Our data analysis reveals common types of fraud, including cryptocurrency investment schemes. The results show an exclusive male demographic (100%), with the majority under 30 years old and only a quarter possessing a degree, providing insights into the socio-demographic characteristics of cryptocurrency fraudsters. Additionally, while most fraudsters (55%) targeted victims in the United States, Bitcoin, leveraging blockchain technology, was the most commonly used method (46%) for cryptocurrency fraud. Our examination of the methods and mediums used for cryptocurrency fraud supports some aspects of STT while others do not. We advocate for a multifaceted strategy that prioritises stringent regulation, implementation, and heightened scrutiny of digital currency ecosystems in Nigeria and beyond. This study contributes to the broader discourse on cybercrime prevention and enforcement by emphasising the novel methodological approach utilised.
... It is actually the mode of crime that has shifted from the traditional physical space to online space. Thus, we see an emergence of newer types of crimes in this cyberspace that breaks-away the hindrances of geographical barriers (Gordon & Ford 2006). Cybercrime is the dark side of cyberspace and what may look otherwise be true can be ugly in reality. ...
Internet is being actively used world over. Covid 19 pandemic have brought a steep rise in internet use by users of all age groups. In India specifically, there are total 692 million active internet users that includes 351 million users from rural India and 341 from urban India. Without a doubt, the advantages of internet use are numerous. It is but obvious that with such a high rate of internet use, online world also opens up platforms for ever increasing cybercrimes in country. Increased online time, lack of awareness among internet users are popular reasons for the increased cybercrime trends. Moreover, lack of technical knowledge among professionals adds to the complications in solving cybercrime cases. Hackers, on the other hand, are coming up with new and innovative modus operandi to scam more and more people. This paper analyses the cybercrime related news content of leading news websites in India. The research is conducted to investigate cybercrime news reporting, identify the increase in cybercrimes and to understand the types of cybercrimes taking place in the country. It attempts to understand the most popular strategies being adopted by online attackers for luring online users. This paper attempts to create necessary mindfulness while using the internet. It is analyzed that cybercrime awareness campaigns of government are unable to make an impact at a larger level.
... Such flexibility aligns with the evolving digital landscape and allows law enforcement and policymakers to adapt more quickly to emerging threats. Phillips et al. (2022) have done a comprehensive review of the definition of cybercrime, tracing its use across the 1980s and 1990s, to various permutations offered by various authors (Thomas and Loader 2000;Gordon and Ford 2006;Wall 2007) as well as relevant legal instruments like the Budapest Convention in force since July 2004. They pull together various definitions, classifications, and typologies to develop a new framework for 'cyberdeviance'-deviant online behaviors that may or may not overlap with cybercrimes. ...
As cybercrime proliferates globally, law enforcement agencies face significant challenges in responding effectively. This essay shares perspectives from Singapore, where cybercrime accounted for about 70% of the total annual crime in 2023, with no clear data on case resolution rates. This situation reflects a broader global trend and highlights the need to reconceptualize policing objectives in cyberspace. The fundamental differences between cybercrime and physical crime necessitate a shift from emphasizing the identification and prosecution of perpetrators to adopting a harm-centric perspective. Under this perspective, structures and policies should be implemented to disrupt financial flows, ensure data security, disrupt the spread of harmful content, and prevent physical damage. Once this is done, strategies such as public–private partnerships, international cooperation, and training and building capabilities to address specific harms can be more effectively implemented to mitigate the growing threat that cybercrime poses worldwide.
... (Anderson et al., 2013) . ويمكن اجلريمة تقسيم السيربانية ومها االجرامية الطبيعة حيث من فئتني إىل (Gordon & Ford, 2006) : ...
الدراسة هدفت للتحقق من مصداقية الوعي بالجريمة السيبرانية القائمة على منصات التواصل الاجتماعي على عينة من المجتمع العماني، وتم استخدام المنهج التحليلي الاستكشافي في هذه الدراسة، وتكونت عينة الدراسة من 170 فرداً من المجتمع العماني، وقد اختيرت العينة بطريقة كرة الثلج، وقد توصلت الدراسة في ضوء الدراسات السابقة وفي ضوء تحليل المحتوى لدراسات الجريمة السيبرانية عن بعض العبارات التي تشير للوعي بالجريمة السيبرانية القائمة على منصات التواصل الاجتماعي وبلغ عددهم 16 عبارة، وقد تم استخدام التحليل العاملي الاستكشافي والتوكيدي للتحقق من مدى مناسبة المقياس لطبيعة العينة، وقد اتضح من المقياس بعدين بلغ 53.1% من التباين الكلي للظاهرة، وقد حقق المقياس ثباتًا مناسباً في ضوء معامل ألفا كرونباخ ومعامل أوميجا، وقد اختيرت عينة من المواطنين من مجتمع الدراسة للتحقق من تأثير المتغيرات الديموغرافية على أبعاد الوعي بالجريمة السيبرانية وقد أثبتت النتائج عدم تأثير المتغيرات الديموغرافية على الوعي بالجريمة السيبرانية القائمة على منصات التواصل الاجتماعي، ويمكن استنتاج أن الوعي بالجريمة السيبرانية هو نوع من الوعي السيبراني.
... In legal terms, there is no distinct category of "social media crimes," and the ratio of the number of crimes committed via social media to the total number of cybercrimes is unknown (Dębniak & Rabczuk, 2019, p. 50). Nor has any single definition of "cybercrime" been established; thus, it remains a conventional category despite years of academic debate (Gordon & Ford, 2006;Payne, 2020;Lewulis, 2021b). It is generally accepted that cybercrime has a dual nature: it encompasses both complex, technical crimes and simpler, "traditional" offenses. ...
This book explores the role of social media in the daily practice of Polish criminal justice and how social media is, in turn, reshaping this practice. Based on empirical research, it confronts common beliefs about how police officers, prosecutors, and judges use social media in their work. Readers will find answers to the following questions: Which social media platforms are popular among law enforcement officers in Poland? How do the police use social media to investigate and prosecute crimes? What are the strategies for using social media to communicate with the community? What strategies are most successful?The findings in this book challenge some popular beliefs and theories about social media in criminal justice. As the first book to explore the use of social media in criminal justice outside of English-speaking countries, this collection of academic research will be of interest to academics focusing on criminology, criminal justice, and policing and will be useful to police leaders and officers, police social media administrators, prosecutors, and judges, who may be inspired by the research to implement new successful and more effective practices
... Among the most common definitions used in the literature is that of Thomas and Loader (2000), who define cybercrime as "computer-mediated activities which are either illegal or considered illicit by certain parties and which can be conducted through global electronic networks", while Gordon and Ford (2006) define cybercrime as "any crime that is facilitated or committed using a computer, network, or hardware device". ...
The digitisation of public services makes them more accessible, but also more vulnerable in terms of security. Cybersecurity in state and local government is a new challenge in the context of overall security provision. The economic dimension of cybersecurity provision is related on the one hand to the costs of providing security and on the other hand to the costs that a cyber-attack entails. While strategic institutions are already prepared for cyber-attacks, the sub-national authorities that are to be affected by the new directive on cyber-security are neglected from this perspective, even though they may be the weak point in cyber-security and thus may endanger other entities that are prepared for this type of threat. Currently, very few municipalities are sufficiently concerned about cyber security, although some will be subject to the Cybersecurity Act under the new Cybersecurity Directive.
... The term "cybercrime" encompasses "any crime that is facilitated or committed using a computer, network or hardware device" in which the computer or the device serves as an agent, facilitator, or as a target of the crime (Gordon & Ford, 2006). A recent example of a PSYOP cyberattack occurred in Israel in 2012 when several symbolic Israeli institutions, such as the country's stock exchange and the national airline, were hacked (USDOC, 2012). ...
... The first definition characterizes it as "computer-mediated activities that are either illegal or considered illicit by certain parties and which can be conducted through global electronic networks" (Loader and Thomas, 2013). The second definition classifies it as "any crime that is facilitated or committed using a computer, network, or hardware device" (Gordon and Ford, 2006). The current definitions of cybercrime predominantly emphasize its association with the "use of digital devices". ...
... to very specialized ones, which cover every small category of Cybercrime. Also, many types of crimes, including child sexual abuse, human and drug trafficking, have moved online or are facilitated online [19]. In addition, relevant bodies of European Commission, report that investigations of almost all forms of crime have a digital footprint in the year 2019 [10]. ...
... Нет ничего удивительного в том, что вопросы такого рода оставляют на правовой поверхности физический след. Если обратиться к отдельным феноменам в сфере преступности, то разговор о киберпреступности (cybercrime [2] с различными применимыми классификациями [3]), безусловно, подводит нас к проблеме ее признания, идентификации и классификации. Понятно, что, подыскивая определение для этого феномена, нельзя не исходить из того, что речь идет о совокупности правонарушений, которые всегда совершаются цифровым путем. ...
Innovations in technology have contributed to the expansion and multiplication of opportunities for human activity and, in a sense, existence. It goes without saying that this also applies to the realm of the socially illicit and illegal, with all the possible changes, discrepancies and deviations that occur in reality. The ability to measure the extent of the criminal or deviant can help to explain not only the unprecedented impact on the field of relations, opening new ways to capture classical dynamics and giving rise to dynamics quite unlike anything else, but also to sharpen questions about the relationship between normative provisions and changes in society. This also applies to those forms that combine actions that, at first glance, belong to areas independent of each other. Therefore, when turning to theories related specifically to the sphere of digital technol- ogies, we try to include them in various contexts where they still do not play a significant role, and offer interpretive tools that can overcome some traditional classifications of devi- ant phenomena, and also call for critical revision of some abstract paradigms on which a specific part of investigative and judicial practice is based.
... Crime-ware means that software is used for commission of crimes. The Type II cybercrime is crime that relies more on human contact rather than technology and includes but not limited to online gambling, cyberstalking, harassment, child pornography, blackmail, espionage and online terrorism (Gordon & Ford, 2006). ...
Abstract
There is a rising cyber-attacks that affect economic security of human habitats and the government of Lesotho. This study’s main aim was to found the effects of cybercrime. In order to unpack main aim, this work interrogated ancillary aims of what are the prevalent cybercrime, causes and challenges of policing cybercrime and strategies to mitigate cybercrime in Lesotho.
A qualitative research, which included conducting interview, questionnaire, and participator observation with combination of desktop research to view literature from different treatise, was done in this work to respond to the aims. Furthermore, comparative analysis of Australia, South Africa, Botswana and Rwanda jurisdictions were explored to appreciate best practices to be benchmarked for the betterment of Lesotho in fight against cybercrime. The defensible space, Routine Activity, Risk society and Securitization theory are the theories that anchored this work. They collectively go to root cause of cybercrime in Lesotho. Defensible space show that lack of control measures in cyberspace of Lesotho result into cybercrime committed with impunity. Routine activity show that lack of guardian including cyber hygiene, skills by stakeholders, cybercrime and cybersecurity awareness in all social strata of Lesotho give motivated offender opportunity to hit their suitable target of committing cybercrime. Risk society theory reflect that the more Lesotho is enjoying technological inclusion is the more it is susceptible to inherent technological risk of cybercrime. Lastly, securitization theory show that lack of prioritization and law criminalising cybercrime is the more Lesotho is turning into safe haven for cybercrime.
The above vulnerabilities lead into the following chilling effects of cybercrime; theft of government money recurrent expenditure accounts, financial loss to individuals on account of online scams, disruption of services and reputational risks. It is therefore, recommended that, there is a need for capacity building, enactment of cybercrime and cybersecurity laws in Lesotho, community outreach and sensitization program to all Basotho, investing on the infrastructure and regional on international cooperation for investigation, information sharing and arrest in order to put cybercrime at halt.
... Crime-ware means that software is used for commission of crimes. The Type II cybercrime is crime that relies more on human contact rather than technology and includes but not limited to online gambling, cyberstalking, harassment, child pornography, blackmail, espionage and online terrorism (Gordon & Ford, 2006). ...
... It is generally a singular, or discrete, event from the perspective of the victim 2. It often is facilitated by the introduction of crimeware programs such as keystroke loggers, viruses, rootkits, or trojan horses into the user's computer system 3. The introduction can be, but not necessarily, facilitated by vulnerabilities (Gordon & Ford, 2006). However, putting aside the cybercrime's definition complexity, the term cybercrime is viewed differently on an organizational level. ...
This paper discusses the evolution of crimes related to artificial intelligence technology, responses, and mitigation initiatives the European Union took. This study aims to provide information about the early development of AI and how it is used as a tool for cybercrime called Deepfake. The qualitative research methodology will collect data for this study to gain information from various sources, such as pertinent books, news articles, and journals. The authors found that artificial intelligence, or AI, has become essential to daily life. While it has provided benefits, it also created new problems, such as artificial child pornography and porn being exploited for various reasons. This becomes a significant international risk to cybersecurity. The sensitivity and intricacy of this topic call for coordinated efforts from many different parties. In response to this problem, the European Union has formed solutions that Indonesia could learn from.
... If these attackers successfully turned off the ADAS systems or even took over the vehicle, the security of the passengers and other drivers could be jeopardized. Gordan et al. [150] mentioned that computers, networks, smart gadgets, and other electronic equipment may be used to facilitate or carry out cyberattacks in which they act as agents, facilitators, or targets. Further, the authors look at the range of computer-based crime and discuss cybercrimes with a strong technological component and cybercrime with a stronger human component. ...
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are advanced technologies that assist drivers with vehicle operation and navigation. Recent improvements and brisk expansion in the ADAS market, as well as an increase in the frequency of incidents such as sensor spoofing, communication interruption etc., in autonomous vehicles (AVs), have raised the need to research ADAS security technology. The security issues raised by incorporating these technologies into automobiles must be addressed to protect the privacy and safety of passengers and other road users. As a result, the purpose of this research is to investigate the security issues that arise from the integration of ADAS technologies. Addressing these challenges holds the potential to establish a foundation for enhanced safety and dependability within transportation networks amidst the ongoing advancements in vehicle technology. This paper starts by describing the vulnerabilities, threats, assaults, and defense mechanisms of the ADAS. It then delves into the attacks and countermeasures in three categories, namely VANET, Hardware, and Adversarial attacks. VANET attacks encompass threats targeting Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks, aiming to disrupt communication among vehicles or between vehicles and infrastructure. Hardware attacks focus on vulnerabilities within the physical components of ADAS, including sensors, processors, or communication modules. Adversarial attacks involve deliberate manipulations or perturbations introduced into machine learning models or algorithms utilized within ADAS. These attacks aim to deceive or undermine the functionality of AI-based systems, causing misclassification, compromising system integrity, and posing risks to user safety by exploiting vulnerabilities in the AI decision-making process. Finally, this study highlights potential areas for future research, such as the utilization of artificial intelligence (AI), the necessity of industry-wide standardization, and recommends specific future work tailored to each attack described in the corresponding sections.
... Cyber-dependent crimes are those crimes that would not exist without the technology, such as website defacement, denial of service attacks, ATM fraud and dissemination of malicious codes. Another useful classification is the one devised by Gordon and Ford (2006) who divided activities into Type I and Type II offences . Type I cybercrimes are crimes which are more technical in nature (for example, hacking). ...
This chapter explores the growing trends in cybercrime and the role that public and private partnerships can and do play in addressing the scourge of criminal activity in cyberspace. The amount of digital information stored and available to the world expands exponentially. Global technological innovations are ubiquitous and growing. The nature and quality of data are changing. Each of these trends, however, threatens to leave policing in its wake as digital information becomes vulnerable to improper usage and theft. That being the case, the private sector has been and will continue to be co-opted in the public policing spheres. In significant ways its assistance has been desirable and useful. There is a developing trust between public and private agencies, for example, in relation to the collection, use and storage of metadata and the monitoring of visual digital data. However, given the potential of some corporate entities, particularly in the processing, use and storage of private digital data records, to push legal and ethical boundaries, governments cannot adopt a ‘hands-off’ approach. In the quest to defeat cybercrime, governments must continue to develop partnerships with a clear over-arching framework to require the compliance of private owners of surveillance tools and data managers in the same way as controls are in place to protect the private nature of government-collected data. These partnerships are not just with private entities committed to the business of policing. Partnerships must be developed with those who are vulnerable to cybercrime, and that is everyone’s business. In this way, governments must enhance the capacity of potential victims to be self-policing. This chapter explores these relationships, the legislative initiatives that are now in place in Australia, and the imperatives that flow therefrom.
... Second, cybercrime and cybersecurity are widely recognized as interdisciplinary fields, encompassing criminology, victimology, sociology, psychology, computer science, information management, and data science, among others (Jaishankar, 2018). Computer scientists have acknowledged that cybercrime and cybersecurity have a pronounced human dimension, along with a technological dimension (Gordon & Ford, 2006). Similarly, criminologists believe that cybercrime should be addressed as an interdisciplinary topic because the nature of cybercrime is "a technological problem, a crime problem, a social issue, a business concern" (Payne & Hadzhidimova, 2020). ...
Objective : to identify the main issues of victimization as a result of cybercrime growth in the world in general and in Nigerian society in particular from the standpoint of sociological approaches, using a Tripartite Cybercrime Framework (TCF), which comprises geopolitical, psychosocial and socioeconomic categories of cybercrime.
Methods : the methodology is based on the sociological research method. The data collection included the distribution of a questionnaire among 896 participants from the academic environment, including students and university staff, and the analysis of the responses. The presented data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, with special attention to the issues of gender inequality, socio-economic factors, the impact of educational level on vulnerability to online fraud and victimization as a result of cybercrime through the prism of the ideal victim concept and the socio-economic gap between North and South.
Results : the article presents an analysis of the Tripartite Cybercrime Framework. The survey showed that 65.20% of the participants had been victims of cybercrime. There were more men among the victims (64.69%). The authors found patterns in the distribution of cybercrimes. All cybercrimes against the respondent were socio-economic ones, which underlines the high frequency of cybercrime and the relevance of countering it in Nigerian society. Special attention was paid to the issues of gender inequality, socio-economic factors, and the impact of education on vulnerability to cybercrime. The article considers from the viewpoint of the ideal victim concept. The study results provide an idea of the prevalence and distribution of specific types of cybercrime in the socio-economic category among the studied population.
Scientific novelty : For the first time, the study uses the Tripartite Cybercrime Framework (TCF) to study victimization as a result of cybercrime in Nigerian society. The research novelty is also due to the fact that the conceptual foundations of countering cybercrime that have developed in the global North are not fully applicable in Nigeria.
Practical significance : the results obtained demonstrate the need to apply carefully calibrated gender-based, inclusive and contextual approaches to the development of a national legal policy to combat cybercrime. The results can be used to justify the law-making decisions which are being developed in the field of preventing and countering manifestations of cybercrime, as well as to form the basis for legal measures to protect cybercrime victims.
This review paper explores the evolution of malware, tracing its evolution from simple software experiments to its current role in cyber-attacks and financial fraud. It highlights key eras in malware evolution, from the 1980s viruses to the 21st century state-sponsored and AI-enhanced threats. The paper highlights the evolution of malware, from technical vulnerabilities to psychological manipulation tactics, broadening attack vectors to social engineering, spear-phishing, and complex ransomware. It also discusses the current challenges and proposes directions for future research and policy-making to mitigate the impact of deceptive malware. The paper emphasizes the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in cybersecurity strategies, combining technological defenses with enhanced user education, to combat the ever-evolving threats posed by malware.
With the rapid advancement of technology, it is essential to understand the psychological, ethical, and technical challenges associated with the dissemination of mis- and disinformation. These include the increased use of artificial intelligence (AI) to spread information more rapidly, the deployment of disinformation campaigns to sway public opinion, and the influence of misinformation on making poor health choices. The aim of this chapter is to critically analyse the impact that the spread of mid- and disinformation has on society. Furthermore, the chapter offers recommendations to mitigate these challenges, including strategies to build resistance against misinformation.
African countries are taking great strides in their efforts to combat cybercrime. As a multibillion-dollar industry, the need for appropriate legislation addressing cybercrime is imperative, particularly as far as legislating malware goes. Among the African countries that have taken legislative steps to address cybercrime are South Africa and Senegal, both taking cues from the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest Convention). This paper interrogates the legislative responses of both countries to the threat of malware as contained in the respective provisions of the South African Cybercrimes Act 19 of 2022 and the Senegalese Cybercrime Law 2008-11. It finds that both countries have employed the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability cybersecurity model (CIA triad) to inform how the offences in the legislations are defined and formulated. Interestingly, it notes that although the same model is used by both countries, the way that the CIA triad has been incorporated into the respective laws differs in significant ways, with potentially varying results. Given that both South Africa and Senegal are parties to the Budapest Convention, to different extents, it is appropriate to use the Convention as the benchmark against which to judge the respective provisions. To do so, this paper draws upon the specific offences provided for in both countries regarding unauthorized access to and interference with computer systems. Despite South Africa’s decision not to ratify the Budapest Convention and Senegal’s leap to ratify, it appears that South Africa has adhered more closely to the Convention than Senegal. Seemingly odd, it may be viewed as a testament to the fact that the Convention is meant to guide countries in their legislative endeavors rather than being prescriptive.
Cybercrime is not a solely technical subject but one that involves human offenders who are susceptible to social scientific study. Yet, despite calls for cybercrime research to be mainstreamed, the topic remains a niche area within legal studies and the social sciences. Drawing on the most significant findings over recent years, this review aims to make the subject more accessible to a wide range of scholars by softening some of the perceived boundaries between conceptions of cybercrime and conventional crime. It examines these key themes in the literature: definitions and categories of cybercrime, cybercrime marketplaces, the governance of cybercrime, the importance of “place” within the world of cybercrime, cybercriminal networks, a discussion of what is new or old about cybercrime, and how we should define the concept going forward. The empirical literature on these themes suggests a simple definition is most appropriate: Cybercrime is crime that uses digital technology in a significant way.
In our present day society driven by technological advancement and digital literacy, the
synergy between law and technology has become increasingly significant. As technology
continues to revamp and model the way we live and work, our legal frameworks are left
with no option than to adapt to the current trends in order to ensure a harmonious
coexistence between innovation and societal well-being. The method used in carrying
out this research is the secondary source of data collection which includes the internet,
law textbooks, law reports and law journals. This article delves into the multifaceted
relationship between law and technology, examining how these two domains intertwine
and influence one another. This intersection stems from the adoption of digital research
tools to the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for legal research and analysis for efficiency
and easy accessibility of legal documentaries. The law also plays a crucial role in the
regulation of technology through intellectual property laws which protect innovations
and encourage technological advancement by granting investors exclusive rights to their
creations. Patents, Copyrights and Trademark laws provide the legal framework necessary
to foster innovation while ensuring fair competition. Furthermore, technology intertwines
with law in the use of scientific and analytical tools for criminal investigation which is
known as forensic science. This article also looks at the challenges and opportunities
associated with the intersection between Law and technology which includes the
regulation of digital marketing and foreign exchange platforms, securing people's
personal data on the internet and cybercrimes. There is a need to ensure collaboration
between legal experts, policymakers, and technologists in order to formulate regulations
that strike a balance between innovation and societal protection to mitigate the misuse
of technology.
The rise of cybercrime presents significant obstacles to effective digital policing, particularly within the Dark Web where anonymity fuels illicit activities. Law enforcement agencies (LEAs) struggle to identify and prosecute criminals in this clandestine realm. As a result, they might resort to ethically dubious methods to identify and apprehend cybercriminals, leading to ethical dilemmas. Moreover, underreporting of cybercrime, especially among older adults with limited technical knowledge, exacerbates these challenges. This chapter critically analyses the challenges posed by the Dark Web to digital policing and cybercrime mitigation. It offers recommendations for LEAs by emphasising the implementation of a Decentralised Identity Management System (DIMS) to enhance user privacy and security in the Dark Web. Additionally, insights from exploratory research on older adults’ preferences suggest strategies for effective cybercrime awareness and prevention. By addressing these issues, this research contributes to bolstering cyber safety and law enforcement efforts in the digital realm.
Electronic transactions offer various conveniences and benefits while also giving rise to legal problems, one of which is the crime of fraud. To minimize the occurrence of this, a more in-depth study is needed regarding legal regulations, forms and modes, as well as efforts to prevent and overcome them. The existence of the Covid-19 virus has had a negative impact on the reduction of workers in Indonesia and the rise of online fraud, especially using more and more electronic media. This was also influenced by the economic situation of Indonesian society when Covid-19 was on the rise. Cybercrime is a form of crime that arises from the use of internet technology. The rapid development in the use of internet services invites crime. With the increasing number of requests for internet access, crimes against the use of information technology are increasing along with the development of the technology itself. More and more parties will be harmed by the actions of cybercriminals if there is no law that regulates it.
Teknolojik gelişimin hızına bağlı olarak bireylerin yaşam şekilleri ve
değerleri de aynı oranda değişime uğramaktadır. Özellikle çocukların ve
gençlerin teknolojik çağın getirilerine uyum sağlama şekilleri de kendi kişisel
özelliklerine ve içinde bulundukları ortama göre farklılık göstermektedir. Bu
çerçevede çocukların ve gençlerin teknolojiyi nasıl ve hangi amaçla
kullandıkları sorusunu sormanın, onları bu sanal dünyada olası tehlikelerden
uzak tutabilme adına doğru bir yaklaşım olacağı söylenebilinir. Henüz
gerçeklik ve sanallık ayrımını tam olarak yapamayan bu bireyler gerçek
kimlik ve sanal kimlik çerçevesinde de bocalayabilmektedirler. Bazen
kendilerini sanal ortamda işlenen suçlar dahilinde bir mağdur olarak
bulabilecekleri gibi bazen de suçu işleyen taraf olabilecekleri gerçeği onlar
için yıkıcı ve telafisi olmayan sonuçlara neden olabilmektedir. Bu doğrultuda
çalışmada, sanal ortamın ve sanal kimliğin başka bir değişle ―avatar‖
kavramının bu yaş grupları için ne anlama geldiğinin açıklanması ve sosyal
ağlardaki işlenen suçlara çocuklar ve gençler noktasında açıklık getirilmesi
amaçlanmıştır.
The rapid development of information and communication technologies is closely related to the exponential growth in data volumes. At the same time, the development of enterprise strategies coupled with the digital economy has led to changes in business models and infrastructure solutions. The emergence of innovative industries that extensively use the internet has presented significant challenges to the security of systems and sensitive data, particularly in the field of cybercrime. In order to address the growing issue of cybercrime, African nations, among which Algeria is the largest country, need to build a series of digital barriers in the form of legislation, multilateral agreements, and the development of technical capacity in this area, such as the creation of cybersecurity centers. The implementation of an effective cybersecurity strategy is strongly required on a national, regional, and continental scale. According to the last report of the Global Cybersecurity Index 2020, Mauritius is ranked as the most secure country in Africa in terms of cybersecurity, followed by South Africa in the second rank. A successful economy inherently involves a digital economy and a bold strategy to counter all the “nuisance” of cybercrimes. Algeria, despite its relatively low ranking in the last report of the Global Cybersecurity Index, has made significant progress when compared to its neighbors. With its excellent internet connectivity and a young and dynamic population, Algeria’s positive economic indicators are certain to improve even further with the desired membership it seeks in the BRICS organization. Given these considerations, it follows that South Africa as well as Algeria possess the potential to serve as locomotives for the development of the whole of Africa.
This chapter explains how Caribbean law enforcement authorities must understand the complexity of cybercrime and cyber-victimization and its potential consequences. It describes how digital transformation has exploded in the Caribbean, where internet usage is growing at one of the fastest rates in the world and cyber-technology has enabled new regional and societal changes. Given the seriousness of this crime and its global impact, the Caribbean needs shared awareness if it is to effectively combat it. A list of Caribbean countries and their cybercrime laws is provided. This chapter addresses the fact that recorded crime does not distinguish between online and offline crime and that cybercrimes involve technological, intelligence, and investigative expertise. These rapidly emerging cyber-threats require a determined and dedicated response. Recommendations for combating cybercrime and cyber-victimization are also discussed in this chapter.
The cyber threat has become an increasingly important issue in recent years. Although the problem is global, it affects some countries more than others. This is the case in Brazil, which has become a focal point for cyber attacks. The main goal of this article is to analyze the Brazilian state’s responses to high-profile cybercrimes. The article provides a contextual overview of how significant incidents have shaped Brazil’s legislative response to cybercrime, particularly in the General Data Protection Law and the Carolina Dieckmann Law. It contributes to a research agenda focused on analyzing how and why some activities are criminalized while others are not, and also helps to understand the priorities and perceptions of different states.
This study aimed to comprehend the relationship between cyber awareness and awareness of electronic crime among students at the University of Khemis Miliana, specifically those enrolled in the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, where the total number of students was 355, A descriptive correlational approach was employed for this study, utilizing a questionnaire as a research tool. The questionnaire was distributed to a study sample consisting of 355 individuals, representing approximately 38.47% of the target population. The study yielded several key results:
1. From the students' perspective, it was inferred that cyber awareness is crucial in safeguarding them against electronic crime when using the internet.
2. There exists a moderate level of cyber awareness among students of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences at the University of Khemis Miliana.
3. A similar moderate level of cyber crim was found among students of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences at the University of Khemis Miliana.
4. There were no statistically significant differences in respondents' responses regarding cyber awareness related to variables such as gender, age, and education level. However, differences were observed based on the department, favoring the Department of Humanities.
5. Similarly, there were no statistically significant differences in respondents' responses regarding awareness of electronic crime based on age and education level. However, differences were observed based on the department, favoring the Department of Humanities, as well as gender, favoring females.
6. A correlational relationship was identified between the level of cyber awareness among students of the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences at the University of Khemis Miliana and their awareness of electronic crime, as perceived by the students.
The study provides a set of recommendations, including the organization of courses to enhance cyber security skills, national conferences and seminars on the risks of electronic crime, and the activation of the role of cyber security management within the university to mitigate cyber threats faced by members of the academic community.
The capabilities of Artificial Intelligence (AI) evolve rapidly and affect almost all sectors of society. AI has been increasingly integrated into criminal and harmful activities, expanding existing vulnerabilities, and introducing new threats. This article reviews the relevant literature, reports, and representative incidents which allows to construct a typology of the malicious use and abuse of systems with AI capabilities. The main objective is to clarify the types of activities and corresponding risks. Our starting point is to identify the vulnerabilities of AI models and outline how malicious actors can abuse them. Subsequently, we explore AIenabled and AI-enhanced attacks. While we present a comprehensive overview, we do not aim for a conclusive and exhaustive classification. Rather, we provide an overview of the risks of enhanced AI application, that contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the issue. Specifically, we suggest four types of malicious abuse of AI (integrity attacks, unintended AI outcomes, algorithmic trading, membership inference attacks) and four types of malicious use of AI (social engineering, misinformation/fake news ,hacking autonomous weapon systems). Mapping these threats enables advanced reflection of governance strategies, policies, and activities that can be developed or improved to minimize risks and avoid harmful consequences. Enhanced collaboration among governments, industries, and civil society actors is vital to increase preparedness and resilience against malicious use and abuse of AI. Keywords-Malicious, Crime and abuse on Artificial Intelligence. I. INTRODUCTION The impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems has become a focal point in academic studies, political debates, and civil society reports. The development of AI is lauded for its transformative technological capabilities, such as advanced automated image recognition with applications in medicine, like the detection of cancer. However, this technological advancement is not without criticism and apprehension, particularly concerning uncertainties surrounding the consequences of automation on the labor market, including concerns about mass unemployment.AI can be used for good things like helping governments improve their abilities. But at the same time, it can also be used to attack them. So, even though AI can be helpful, it can also cause problems, especially in cybersecurity and fighting cybercrime. The private sector, predominantly driving AI development, extends its applications to customer-oriented domains, while defense sectors utilize similar capabilities for their operations. The line between actions of state and non-state actors is increasingly blurred, as illustrated by recent ransomware attacks targeting public infrastructure in various countries.Moreover, the dual-use aspect of technology is not novel in the realm of cybercrime or cybersecurity. However, the unique vulnerabilities introduced by AI for malicious use and abuse pose novel challenges. The thorough valuation of the threat scenery is vital to initiate and adjust governance mechanisms, tool proactive measures, and bolster cyber resilience.It evaluates the main categories of AI use and abuse
In recent years, the blocking of internet sites with harmful content or those deemed to be (illegal content) has increased. The policy of blocking dangerous sites has pros and cons regarding freedom of expression. Blocking is considered to be carried out to control citizens' expression, which can impact all areas, especially freedom of opinion, which can be seen as a threat to certain parties. This research aims to compare criminalization policies for blocking dangerous content in electronic communications networks in the Netherlands, the United States, and Singapore and provide thoughts on law enforcement models for blocking dangerous content in more democratic electronic communication networks. This is normative legal research using a law and case approach and comparing several countries. The conceptual approach is directed at the concept of a democratic state and the protection of human rights to formulate relevant policy models. The results of blocking studies in the Netherlands, The USA, and Singapore already have regulations and policy directions for blocking dangerous content, or at least rules regarding law enforcement for cybercrime. The difference is in the level of sensitivity to the specifications of existing problems. The policy model for blocking dangerous content with special regulations outside the Criminal Code must be carried out in a non-repressive manner so that it does not violate the ultimum remedium principle and becomes over-criminalized. The formulation of policy model of all crime prevention plans using the criminal law system, which pays attention to the problem of formulating criminal acts (criminalization), criminal responsibility, and criminal regulations and punishment.
Penulis, mengamati akhir-akhir ini keadaan global di seluruh dunia sedang berada pada ambang kehancuran dimunculkan fenomena perundungan daring dan kejahatan digital yang secara tidak kita sadari sudah menyerang hal-hal yang bersifat pribadi di dalam teknologi yang sehari-hari kita gunakan untuk setiap keperluan kita. Hal yang perlu kita sadari bahwa fenomena ini sudah berlangsung selama berabad-abad disaat perang dunia-1 (pada 28 Juli 1914) dan perang dunia ke-2 (pada 1 September 1939) hingga saat ini kekerasan masih saja terjadi dan semakin canggih. Tindakan tersebut merupakan kejahatan perang yang tidak berkesudahan yang ditimbulkan oleh sikap Ego manusia untuk mempertahankan hidupnya di bumi ini. Buku panduan ini memberikan referensi terbaru dalam melakukan intervensi dan pencegahan pada fenomena perundungan daring dan kejahatan digital terkhususnya di sekolah reguler, inklusi dan sekolah luar biasa (SLB). Apa saja intervensi dan pencegahannya, akan di jelaskan secara lengkap di dalam buku ini.
The characteristics of cybercriminals, cybercrime victims, and law enforcement agencies have a reinforcing effect on each other, leading to a vicious circle of cybercrime. In this article, the author assessed the cost-benefit structure of cybercriminals. From the potential victims' perspectives, an economic analysis can help explain the optimum investment necessary as well as the measures required to prevent hackers from cracking into their computer networks. The analysis from the cybercriminal's viewpoint also provides insight into factors that might encourage and energize his or her behavior.
Until the early 1990s, knowledge concerning the psychology and behavior of stalkers was limited. Most people who were aware of this phenomenon probably viewed the issue in terms of an individual who repeatedly attempted to make contact with a “celebrity” for a variety of purposes. There have been several attempts to characterize the various stalking behaviors and relationships that are described in this chapter. The most fundamental aspect of these individuals is that they portray a behavior. In psychiatric and psychological disease processes, many of the symptoms are expressed in cognitive and/or behavioral patterns. Stalkers who suffer from thought disorders typically have Axis I diagnoses of schizophrenia or one of the various types of delusional disorders. This chapter highlights a watershed event that occurred in 1989 with the murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer by a stalker named Robert Bardo. In contrast to the domestic violence type case, many relationships involve nothing more than brief dating, with one of the two partners deciding not to continue the contact. A rejection, which is not handled well when a relationship ends, results in vengeance.
Scitation is the online home of leading journals and conference proceedings from AIP Publishing and AIP Member Societies
Although much has been learnt about the psychological and physical harm caused to victims of stalking and cyberstalking, relatively little is known about the impact of stalking on social behaviour and relationships. This paper argues that victims of stalking sometimes go on to employ stalking behaviours against others. Although often arising from an instinctive need for self-protection, such reactive stalking can be defensive or offensive in nature. Those who engage in such behaviour may do so from a need to assert control over their lives, or from fear of further victimisation. In pursuing this argument, a case study is used to illustrate the behaviours described. The case study focuses on the experiences of three stalking victims and describes attempts to victimise the author during his research. The article also discusses some of the implications of reactive stalking for the criminal justice system and the way in which victims receive support.
The present study examines a range of moral issues associated with recent cyberstalking cases. Particular attention is centered on the Amy Boyer/ Liam Youens case of cyberstalking, which raises a host of considerations that we believe have a significant impact for ethical behavior on the Internet. Among the questions we consider are those having to do with personal privacy and the use of certain kinds of Internet search facilities to stalk individuals in cyberspace. Also considered are questions having to do with legal liability and (possible) moral responsibility that Internet Service Providers (ISPs) have for stalking crimes that occur in their "space" on the Internet. Finally, we examine issues of moral responsibility for individual online users to determine which obligations, if any, they might have to inform persons who are targeted by cyberstalkers, when it is in their power to do so.
The term cyberterrorism is becoming increasingly common in the popular culture, yet a solid definition of the word seems to be hard to come by. While the phrase is loosely defined, there is a large amount of subjectivity in what exactly constitutes cyberterrorism. In the aftermath of the September 11th attacks, this is somewhat disconcerting. In an attempt to define cyberterrorism more logically, a study is made of definitions and attributes of terrorism and terrorist events. From these attributes a list of attributes for traditional terrorism is developed. This attribute list is then examined in detail with the addition of the computer and the Internet considered for each attribute. Using this methodology, the online world and terrorism is synthesized to produce a broader but more useful assessment of the potential impact of computer-savvy terrorists. Most importantly, the concept of ‘traditional’ cyberterrorism, which features the computer as the target or the tool is determined to be only a limited part of the true risk faced. Finally, the authors discuss the impact this new view of cyberterrorism has on the way in which one should build one’s defenses. In particular, the breadth of the issue poses significant questions for those who argue for vertical solutions to what is certainly a horizontal problem. Thus, the validity of special cyberterrorism task forces that are disconnected or loosely connected with other agencies responsible for fighting the general problem of terrorism is questioned, and a broader, more inclusive method suggested.
Thomas S. Kuhn's classic book is now available with a new index. "A landmark in intellectual history which has attracted attention far beyond its own immediate field. . . . It is written with a combination of depth and clarity that make it an almost unbroken series of aphorisms. . . . Kuhn does not permit truth to be a criterion of scientific theories, he would presumably not claim his own theory to be true. But if causing a revolution is the hallmark of a superior paradigm, [this book] has been a resounding success." âNicholas Wade, Science "Perhaps the best explanation of [the] process of discovery." âWilliam Erwin Thompson, New York Times Book Review "Occasionally there emerges a book which has an influence far beyond its originally intended audience. . . . Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . . . has clearly emerged as just such a work." âRon Johnston, Times Higher Education Supplement "Among the most influential academic books in this century." âChoice One of "The Hundred Most Influential Books Since the Second World War," Times Literary Supplement
Erotomania is the delusional belief that one is passionately loved by another. These persons often go to great lengths to approach their object of desire, often necessitating the attention of the law. We have reviewed a forensic sample to select subjects who meet criteria for the diagnosis of erotomania.
Case histories from all of the case files of the Threat Management Unit of the Los Angeles Police Department were reviewed to compare erotomanic subjects with those who were suffering from other disorders. Various demographic and other relevant data were examined to determine if the erotomanic subjects presented similar or different profiles.
Reactivestalking:anewperspectiveonvictimisation
- P Bocij
Bocij,P.:Reactivestalking:anewperspectiveonvictimisation. Br J Forensic Pract 7(1), 1–5 (2005)
The state of the law on cyberjurisdiction and cy-bercrime on the internet.In: California Pacific School of Law
- Zeviar
Zeviar-Geese: The state of the law on cyberjurisdiction and cy-bercrime on the internet.In: California Pacific School of Law, Gonzaga Journal of International Law, vol. 1 (1997–1998)
Beyond phishing: pharming and crimeware attacks/www.privsecblog.com/archives/phishingpharming-53-beyond-phishing-pharming-and-crimeware-attacks-.html (2005) 4. DOJ: Cyberstalking: " a new challenge for law enforcement and industry " a report from the Attorney General to the Vice President
- Davis E Wright
- H Tremaine
Davis E., Wright H., Tremaine C.: Beyond phishing: pharming and crimeware attacks. Downloaded Jan 23rd 2006 from: http://www.privsecblog.com/archives/phishingpharming-53-beyond-phishing-pharming-and-crimeware-attacks-.html (2005) 4. DOJ: Cyberstalking: " a new challenge for law enforcement and industry " a report from the Attorney General to the Vice President (August 1999) Downloaded January 23rd 2006 from http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/cyberstalking.htm. (1999)
Cyberterrorism? In: Cybterterrorism. The International Library of Essays in Terrorism
- S Gordon
- R Ford
Protecting yourself from internet crime. Part II
- Informit
High tech crime brief
- T Krone
Cybercrime in France: an overview. Computer Crime Research Center
- M Chawki
Beyond phishing: pharming and crimeware attacks
- E Davis
- H Wright
- C Tremaine
Cyberstalking: a new challenge for law enforcement and industry" a report from the Attorney General to the Vice President
- Doj
Exploring spyware and adware risk assessment. Presentation to the Computers and Security Institute Conference
- S Gordon
Domestic violence and abuse: types, signs, symptoms, Causes, and Effects. A project of the Rotary Club of Santa Monica, California and the Center for Healthy Again
- Helpguide
PC magazine encyclopedia
- Magazine
Online resource guide to law and crime
- Studycrime
Psychiatric diagnosis and the offender-victim typology of stalking The Psychology of Stalking: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives. Academic
- Zona M A Palarea
- R E Lane
Common usage crimeware definition
- Wikipedia
8 Billion in E-commerce revenues lost to fraud in 2005
ZD: 2.8 Billion in E-commerce revenues lost to fraud
in 2005. ZD Online., Downloaded Jan 23rd 2006 from:
http://blogs.zdnet.com/ITFacts/?p=9471 (2005)
3402 Department of Justice Appropriations Authorization Act, fiscal years
- H R Doj
The structure of scientific revolution 2nd ed
- T Kuhn
- T. Kuhn