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Evaluating older adults' retention in hypertext perusal: Impacts of presentation media as a function of text topology
Abstract
The present study attempts to examine how older adults react to multimedia interface in hypertext perusal. Twenty-four older subjects participated in an experiment where presentation media and text topology were manipulated. A hypermedia system of tourist guide was developed to test the subject's perusal performance in terms of retention accuracy. Results showed that the main effects and interaction were significant. The use of animated graphs, static pictures, and pure text resulted in significantly descending retention when the hierarchical topology was perused. However, the advantage of animated graphs over static pictures disappeared for the referential topology but both media rendered higher retention scores than the text-only presentation. It was suggested that hypermedia interface for the aged should be designed towards the use of graph-based presentations on a hierarchical topology for better retention. Detailed implications were discussed.
... Previous studies ( McDonald & Stevenson, 1998 ;Lin, 2003 ) have attempted to identify the best hypertext topology by comparing the eff ectiveness of diff erent topological interfaces for a specifi c task. These studies tested hypotheses based on the theory of spatial metaphor ( Boechler, 2001 ;Lin, 2004 ), which assumes that the user's behavior while perusing hypertext is similar to their spatial processing in a physical environment. In general, the results regarding which topological structure is easier to use and maximally enhances navigation have been inconsistent. ...
... First, as mentioned in the discussion of the post hoc comparisons of the three-way interaction analysis among topological structure, task type, and sex, navigation performance was signifi cantly faster with the network than with the linear topological structure under only the single-node task condition, whereas no signifi cant diff erence was observed under the multi-node task condition. This diff ers from a previous study, in which linear topology was associated with better performance than network topology under a single-node task condition and that network topology may be associated with better performance than linear topology under a multi-node task condition ( Lin, 2004 ;Chang & Chen, 2011 ). One possible reason for this discrepancy is that the previous studies did not include the eff ect of sex in its experimental design. ...
Currently, almost all online materials use hyperlinks to provide users access to background, supplemental, or alternative information presented in context, greatly increasing the potential integration of information. However, a major problem is that people do not navigate hyperlinks effectively when the links become more topologically complex. Thus, identification of the variables that lead to navigational errors is necessary for the effective design of hyperlinks. Ninetyone participants (45 women, 46 men) were recruited for this experiment. All were college students and ranged in age from 19 to 23yr. (M = 20.87, SD = 1.02). Navigational performance was examined in relation to sex, topological structure, and task type. A network topology with single-node task was superior to one with a linear topology under a single-node task condition, but equal to one with a linear topology under a multi-node task condition. Men navigated the linear topology with multi-node task and a network topology with a single-node task significantly faster than women, whereas no significant differences were observed under the other conditions. Sex interacted with topological structure and task type. This study extended the research in this domain by demonstrating an interactive effect among sex, topological structure, and task type on the navigational performance of users and can contribute to research regarding web page design.
... When pictorial informa;on is added to text, it can improve students' learning (Carney & Levin, 2001). The mere presence of a visual hypertext increases the probability of remembering the content of the text in which it appears (Lin, 2004). But is the same also true for graphics? ...
Graphical representations of data are pervasive in modern communication and are often used to convey socio-economic, scientific and medical information. Despite their popularity, it is still unknown whether they can enhance the long-term retention of their content compared to textual and tabular representations. We conducted an incidental delayed recall task with psychology undergraduates (N=92), in which participants read about the evolution of a socio-economic phenomenon, with only 5 or 6 datapoints presented either as a graphics, a text, or a table. We found that graphics facilitated the remembering of the general trends of the data after a two-hour interval. With the same materials, no advantage was found on immediate recall of numerical values in another sample of participants (N=80). Thus, even for equal initial encoding of numerical information, and even for very concise materials, these findings suggest that graphics, compared to text and tables, facilitate long-term retention. Overall, the study reveals the potential of graphics as effective tools for enhancing memory retention and therefore highlights their valuable role in educational settings.
... Strømsø og Bråten opp sum merer i sin litteraturgjennomgang at leserne møter nye utfordringer på minst tre områder: krav til navigasjonsferdigheter, kvalitetssikring av kilder og evne til å skape sammen heng i teksten (Bråten og Strømsø 2007). Lin (2004) tilskriver i en studie eldre men neskers prob lemer med å nyttiggjøre seg informasjonsmengden på Internett, med at de ikke har tilegnet seg kunnskap om lenker, integrerte lenker, ikke-lineaere strukturer og ferdigheter til å danne mentale bilder av tekstenes globale struktur. ...
Denne rapporten omhandler resultater fra den første digitale undersøkelsen av leseferdighet i OECD-regi, som en del av PISA 2009. PISA er en internasjonal undersøkelse av skolesystemene i ulike land som gjentas hvert tredje år. Undersøkelsen måler 15-åringers kompetanse innenfor fagområdene lesing, naturfag og matematikk. I 2009 deltok 65 land i denne undersøkelsen, 33 av dem OECD-land.
... • Avoid using complicated touchscreen gestures. • Make use of sizable, structured buttons Text Entry [11], [51], [52] • Reduce text entry Navigation [49], [53] • Flat, simple, and obvious navigation structure • On each page, include a clear return button and a static menu Multimedia presentation [54]- [56] • Display information in the form of text and images Content [53], [57] • Simple-to-understand content • Use buttons with labels • Use simple, age-appropriate language Layout [49], [58], [59] • Straightforward and standardized layout The goal of this study was to provide mobile exergame design guidelines for the older adult population through qualitative interviews and thematic analysis. The literature survey also was conducted to gather any design guidelines pertaining to older adults and mobile devices to incorporate into the design guidelines. ...
... Бялото пространство може да направи основния текст по-четлив. В проведено изследване [9] през 2004 г. изследователи стигнали до извода, че използването на добре намереното празно пространство между параграфите и бялото поле заобикалящо текста може да увеличи разбирането на текста с около 20%. Читателите в изследването са заявили, че по-лесно се концентрират върху съдържанието на текста. ...
The purpose of this report is to study the impact of grid layout and white space on the composition and readability of web typography. For this purpose, the main types of grid systems used in web design have been analysed: column, modular and hierarchical. Reviewed is also the impact of white space on the layout of online texts. Attention is paid to the macro-and micro white space in web design. Based on the research, a conclusion has been drawn on the impact of grid layout and white space on the composition of texts on the Internet.
... Research done on online multimedia learning has mainly focused at determining how to use tools to get the most affect on final learning. Researchers have broken down user groups by demographics in order to customize learning tools (Liu, 2003), concept mapping has continued to breakdown user guidance needs (Lin, 2004), and have gauged self-efficacy and satisfaction as measures of success for the tools (Cheung, 2003;Wang, 2003). All of these methods have lead to a better understanding of how to create multimedia learning tools. ...
The challenge today for educators interested in online teaching and learning is how to create, use and assess multimedia technologies for enhanced learning. Unlike hypertext and web-based instruction, the reliance on reading blocks of text is minimized. There still remains little evidence supporting multimedia to enhance learning. From the author’s perspectives, the challenge is to better understand the processes involved in developing effective multimedia tools and to establish appropriate assessment methodologies that may be used to guide standards and ‘good educational multimedia design practice’. This paper aims at sharing the author’s experiences with the development of a multimedia tool and its assessment. A multimedia learning system (MMLS) is presented and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used to explain user acceptance. We investigate and discuss the TAM results involving a different technology used in a different context. As an initial attempt to understand students’ beliefs, perceptions, attitudes and intentions (and their inter-relationships) our results show that TAM performs well in explaining them.
... The internal user like a student, faculty or employee who are physically well and those are visually impaired can get information about their daily activities, proformas, university news and other miscellaneous information 4 . Similarly, an external user can get detailed information about the university, courses available, research domains, award & achievements, upcoming events and other related information from the university website the design of the website should be so pleasing that the visitor may attracted by the way the information is being presented with ease of menu item identifiers and search filters provided within the container webpage 5,6,7 . Hence each individual website of any organizations acts like the physical existence in virtual reality. ...
World has shrunk into logically small e-village where everyone can communicate with every other person with great ease via both audio and visual media. The existence of being a global village has only been possible with interconnected communication links connecting users from geographically distant areas. The most predominant media for achieving this is with the help of well developed website. Educational institutions play vital role in reshaping any nation by imbibing quality attributes in culture, civilization and modernization. The information available on websites of educational institutions has become very important for prospective students and at present most of the universities are completing the process of admissions online with websites as mediators. Therefore, the need of the hour is to have updated and informative websites with ease of access. A key feature of the ongoing growth of Worldwide Web over the past decade has seen proliferation of web portals and mobile applications that focus on supporting education. The main aim of this research work is to study websites of central universities established post 2004 to explore their quality parameters and to get an insight into the challenges faced by prospective users. The research work recommends a common design framework for all central universities in order to help prospective users with understanding and usage of central universities websites.
... Effective use of white space emphasizes key concepts, improves comprehension (up to 20%) and reduces cognitive overload [8]. White space is the part of a web page that is left blank or unmarked. ...
Distance learning, where students take courses while being physically separated from their teachers for majority of the duration of the course is by no means a new phenomenon. It has been delivered through mail, radio and TV and recently through the Internet. Distance learning provides limited interaction between students and lectures and rarely any collaboration among the students themselves. Which approach we will use to solve this problem? We will base our work upon MOOCs, which offers openly online courses, for free, to students anywhere in the world. This paper describes the eight steps approach towards the creation of a MOOC.
... Especially on content they like white space to separate paragraphs. In a related study use of whitespace between paragraphs and in the left and right margins increased comprehension by almost 20% (Lin, 2004). ...
In this chapter methods and tools for effective design and evaluation of web-based learning environments are presented. The main aspect addressed by this proposal is that of increasing findability of information in large web sites of learning information content by applying methods and tools based on the information foraging model. It is argued that through this approach, issues of learning content structure and usability may be also addressed. In particular, we propose four different ways to have information foraging theory informing the design. Directives, to ensure proper learning content structuring and cues with strong scent, tools based on LSA to automate the design and evaluation process, methods to construct archetypal learner’s profiles from user data and added functions to realise collaborative information filtering and personal information patch creation, thus allowing learners to organize their reference materials in a meaningful and constructive way.
... In addition, numerous studies in visual research that investigate the effect of the number of links on the process of browsing, reading and learning by measuring the speed of the search for information or word such as (Cress and Knabel 2003;Lin 2004;DeStefano and LeFevre 2007) concluded that there is an inverse relationship between the number of links and cognitive. ...
Selecting an optimal layout of academic text for display on screen was affected by several factors such as; type of material, subject or readers` age. In this study researcher assumed that each reading strategy requires a specific layout. Thus, the study starts with an understanding of the way that students interact with the text in both formats [electronic and paper]. Findings from this phase were linked with three common typography variables to provide standards for optimal design. In this chapter, the findings of this research are interpreted in the light of the theoretical perspective of the study by linking it with the objectives of the study already set out in chapter one. The first section is devoted to debating the outcomes related to the use of the Internet and eBooks by children at school and at home. This is identified as the first layer of the children's usability of online text, suggesting a further analysis of the children's experience of the e- text with a focus on the reading processes of the schoolbook in both versions [paper and online]. The third section is devoted to discussing the results related to readable Arabic font size and type. Section four is concerned with the findings from testing the effect of line length on reading speed and comprehension of Arabic text; whereas, the fifth section is devoted to debating the outcomes related to the new method for presenting Arabic texts.
... The main limitation for word clouds in the tool is the user's browser. Not only is screen real estate limited, but trying to cram too much into one display has a negative effect on a user's ability to process the information; white space is important [36,142]. For these reasons, we specify that the word clouds should not render more than the 250 most frequent words at any one time for a set of articles (although it is often very much less than this due to the size available on the user's screen). ...
The abundance of data and the ability to process it at a massive scale has transformed many areas of research in the natural sciences. These data-driven methods have recently begun to be adopted in other fields of research which traditionally have not relied on computational approaches, such as the social sciences and humanities. As we continue forward, we will likely see an increase in the spread of data-driven approaches in these fields as more and more data is “born digital”, coupled with mass digitalisation projects that aim to digitise the mountains of paper archives that still exist.
In this thesis, we look at extracting, analysing and delving into data from massive textual corpora, concentrating on macroscopic trends and characteristics that can only be found when transitioning from traditional social science methods involving manual inspection known as ‘coding’ to scalable, data-driven computational methods.
A distributed architecture for large-scale text analysis was collaboratively developed during the project, serving as the infrastructure for collecting, storing and analysing data. Using this infrastructure, this thesis not only explores methods for extracting information in a scalable way but also demonstrates the types of studies that can be achieved by adopting data-driven approaches. These studies and their findings include differences in writing style across topics and news outlets; longitudinal and diurnal patterns of mood change in population-scale samples of UK social media users; and general tools and methods that can be used to interrogate and explore massive textual corpora in an interactive way.
We conclude that data-driven methods for the analysis of large-scale textual corpora have now reached a point where the extraction of macroscopic trends and patterns can enable meaningful information about the real-world to be discovered.
... Hypertext links (blue underlined text linking to other resources) are the most common tool adopted by most educational websites, because they provide better visual prominence and browsing capability. However, our findings are consistent with the findings of Lin (2004), who reported hyperlinks may cause older adults to become lost as they move through hypertexts. This difficulty in staying on track given the option to diverge down another path of information is called hypertext disorientation. ...
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to develop web-based, pictograph-formatted discharge instructions, and evaluate the website with intended users to maximize the relevance and clarity of the website.
Design:
A descriptive study design.
Methods:
Low-literacy text and 45 sets of pictographs were implemented in web-based instructions. The content, design, function, and navigation of the website were reviewed by 15 low-literate older adults following hip-replacement surgery.
Findings:
Participants observed that the simple line drawings with clear background were well suited to web pages and helped to convey the points made. They also suggested changes such as adding an additional alphabetical index menu to enhance easy navigation, and removing hypertext links to avoid distraction.
Conclusions:
Web-based, pictograph-formatted discharge instructions were well received by low-literate older adults, who perceived the website easy to use and understand.
Clinical relevance:
A pictograph-formatted approach may provide effective strategies to promote understanding of lengthy, complex action-based discharge instructions in rehabilitation facilities.
... 15. Use of white space between paragraphs and in the left and right margins increases comprehension by almost 20 % [18]. 16. ...
Nowadays the need for higher education institutions to a have a
reliable, effective and attractive web presence is increasing as online
technology is becoming an important part of the educational process.
The higher education institutions play a vital role in the development
of a society while higher education websites have many roles to fill.
They need to provide information for prospective students, current
students, Faculty and alumni. They often need to include reams of
information in a way that makes everything easy to explore and it’s a
great challenge. The purpose of this research is to highlight some
points, which will show the importance of higher education websites
where we have studied lots of literature to be more focused on the
topic and conducted a survey to evaluate the usability of two websites.
The paper will be helpful for the higher authorities and the web
developers to analyze the significance of the website of higher
education institutes and its usability.
... In essence, multimedia is the use of a number of different content formats to convey information. Text, animation, video, audio, and graphics are examples of common types of content format used (Hwang & Yi, 2003;Lin, 2004;Saadé & Galloway, 2005). A multimedia learning information system would use two or more content formats in a cohesive way, such that it would relate a message from the sender to the receiver (that is from the teacher to the student). ...
The effective crafting of multi-media for e-learning depends on understanding usage. Research work in that regard is scarce. In this paper, we propose a theoretical model to understand usage in that context. We construct a flow-usage model with three dimensions of usage: frequency of use, time spent, and interruptions. A survey methodology approach was administered to capture relevant constructs. A structural equation model approach was used for the assessment of the model’s results. Structural equation analysis provides evidence of significance for motivation on beliefs and attitudes on usage.
... Research done on online multimedia learning has mainly focused at determining how to use tools to get the most affect on final learning. Researchers have broken down user groups by demographics in order to customize learning tools (Liu, 2003), concept mapping has continued to breakdown user guidance needs (Lin, 2004), and have gauged self-efficacy and satisfaction as measures of success for the tools (Cheung, 2003;Wang, 2003). All of these methods have lead to a better understanding of how to create multimedia learning tools. ...
The challenge today for educators interested in online teaching and learning is how to create, use and assess multimedia technologies for enhanced learning. Unlike hypertext and web-based instruction, the reliance on reading blocks of text is minimized. There still remains little evidence supporting multimedia to enhance learning. From the author's perspectives, the challenge is to better understand the processes involved in developing effective multimedia tools and to establish appropriate assessment methodologies that may be used to guide standards and 'good educational multimedia design practice'. This paper aims at sharing the author's experiences with the devel-opment of a multimedia tool and its assessment. A multimedia learning system (MMLS) is presented and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used to explain user acceptance. We investigate and discuss the TAM results involving a different technology used in a different con-text. As an initial attempt to understand students' beliefs, perceptions, attitudes and intentions (and their inter-relationships) our results show that TAM performs well in explaining them.
... Research done on online multimedia learning has mainly focused at determining how to use tools to get the most affect on final learning. Researchers have broken down user groups by demographics in order to customize learning tools (Liu, 2003), concept mapping has continued to breakdown user guidance needs (Lin, 2004), and have gauged self-efficacy and satisfaction as measures of success for the tools (Cheung, 2003;Wang, 2003). All of these methods have lead to a better understanding of how to create multimedia learning tools. ...
The challenge today for educators interested in online teaching and learning is how to create, use and assess multimedia technologies for enhanced learning. Unlike hypertext and web-based instruction, the reliance on reading blocks of text is minimized. There still remains little evidence supporting multimedia to enhance learning. From the author's perspectives, the challenge is to better understand the processes involved in developing effective multimedia tools and to establish appropriate assessment methodologies that may be used to guide standards and 'good educational multimedia design practice'. This paper aims at sharing the author's experiences with the devel- opment of a multimedia tool and its assessment. A multimedia learning system (MMLS) is pre- sented and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used to explain user acceptance. We investigate and discuss the TAM results involving a different technology used in a different con- text. As an initial attempt to understand students' beliefs, perceptions, attitudes and intentions (and their inter-relationships) our results show that TAM performs well in explaining them.
... Les hypermédias présentent la particularité de pouvoir adopter des structures différentes (en réseau, hiérarchiques, linéaires, en étoile, selon des niveaux de profondeur et de largeur différents), certaines d'entre elles (en réseau, très profondes, très larges), accentuant souvent la difficulté de compréhension (Lin, 2004). Tout se passe comme si la compréhension d'un hypermédia impliquait l'élaboration d'une représentation mentale de la structure, c'est-à-dire d'un schéma global des relations entre les différentes sous-parties du document. ...
This article presents a review of the empirical literature about the use of hypermedia for learning. It uses the cognitive load theory as a framework to interpreter the results. This framework enables us to structure the review in four main parts, corresponding to the principal sources of the variations of the cognitive cost: the hypermedia, the learner, the leaning task, and the using task, and to their under-components. According to us, the user of an hypermedia for learning carries out a learning activity and a hypermedia using activity, the first being the goal, the second being the means and representing a specific overcost. We propose to interpret the data observed not in reference to a linear correlation training–use but in reference to the implication training–use.
... Ezért van az, hogy a fiatalok többször tévednek és keringenek bizonyos lapok között, könnyen csábulnak el az eredeti céltól. A fiatalokra jellemző az is, hogy nem görgetik le a weboldalakat, ha az meghaladja a képernyő méretét.Lin(2004) eredményei azt mutatják, hogy az idős felhasználók számára segítséget nyújtanak az animált képes megjelenítések, a hierarchikus topológia, amelyek reflektálnak az idősek pszichomotoros jártasságok, a munkamemória, a téri képességek területén mutatkozó hátrányaira.Kutatások igazolják azt is, hogy a felhasználók neme meghatározza az internetes magatartást. ...
... However, readersÕ comprehension was not directly tested, so this study did not address the question of whether older readers experience particular difficulty with text integration in hypertext. In another study of older adults, ages 62-80 years, Lin (2004) found better posttest memory for readers of hierarchical than networked hypertexts, and suggested that hierarchical topologies should be provided for older adults. Future studies of older and younger readers should measure both WM spans and hypertext performance to determine the conditions under which hypertext demands typically exceed memory limitations. ...
A process model of hypertext reading was used to generate predictions about the effects of hypertext features on cognitive processing during text navigation and comprehension. We evaluated the predictions of the model with respect to the extant literature, focusing on studies in which versions of hypertexts were compared. Consistent with our predictions, the increased demands of decision-making and visual processing in hypertext impaired reading performance. Individual differences in readers, such as working memory capacity and prior knowledge, mediated the impact of hypertext features. For example, readers with low working memory and low prior knowledge were usually disadvantaged in hypertext. Some benefits were observed for learners with low prior knowledge, however, if the hypertext structure was hierarchical and consistent with that of the knowledge domain. We also surveyed the effectiveness of structural features designed to reduce cognitive load, including graphical overviews, restricted access to links, and visible link types. Complex graphical overviews did not reliably enable learning and navigation, whereas navigational support from restricted access and visible link types were helpful. We identified gaps in the empirical literature and suggested future studies to investigate cognitive processes in hypertext reading.
... Different web interface personalization instruments impact user satisfaction Kurniawan, King, Evans, and Blenkhorn (2006) Lack of boundaries and ability to use external reminders impact usability Curzon, Wilson, and Whitney (2005) Advanced functionality causes usability issues Mead, Sit, Rogers, Jamieson, and Rousseau (2000) Information presentation mode: animation lead to best information retention Lin (2004) Feedback condition: haptic improved performance most Jacko et al. (2004) Website layout: performance was best in the hierarchical typology ...
As the populations of most of the world’s developed nations experience an increase in average age, a similar trend is being observed in the population of computer and Internet users. In many cases, older adults are the fastest growing computer and Internet user group in both personal and workplace contexts. However, the needs and concerns of older adults as computer users differ from those of younger users as a result of the natural changes associated with the aging process. Much research has been conducted in a variety of fields in order to understand how these changes experienced by older adults impact their use of computers and the Internet. This article reviews this existing research and provides a holistic view of the field. Since the study of computer use by older adults is a multi-disciplinary topic by nature, we provide a synthesis of the findings across these many disciplines, and attempt to highlight any gaps that exist. We use Social Cognitive Theory as a lens to view and organize the literature, as well as illustrate means through which computer use by this user group can be encouraged. Finally, suggestions for future research are proposed, and implications for research and practice are discussed.
In the era of an aging society, there are a lot of care issues that need to be addressed. In view of aging in place and the trend of preventive care, many health care industries treat the technology of Internet of Things (IoT) as a key application, and hope that caregivers and caretakers will be able to help improve both of their quality of life and health through the IoT. In the future, the new-age elderly may operate their own IoT-based care products on a self-sustaining basis. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the operation of the IoT-based care products conforms to the user experience of the new-age elderly group. This study discusses the use of an interface design model of the IoT care products pertinent to intelligent devices, and addresses the problems and feelings of the new-age elderly when they interact with the user interface.
LINEAMIENTOS EN LAS ESTRATEGIAS DE COMUNICACIÓN VISUAL PARA
LAS APLICACIONES INSTRUCCIONALES WEB DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA
Trabajo de Ascenso presentado ante el Consejo de la Facultad de Arquitectura y
Diseño de la Universidad del Zulia, para optar a la categoría de agregado realizado por
el Msc. Erwin Aguirre.
La interfaz que se diseñe para un curso Web jugará un papel
importante en las posibilidades de aprender. Si ésta es confusa, repercute inmediatamente en la motivación y el aprendizaje
del estudiante. La presente investigación tuvo como propósito
estudiar y evaluar las estrategias de comunicación visual utilizadas en las aplicaciones instruccionales Web, con base en
los postulados teóricos de Costa (2003), Bonsiepe (1999). La
investigación fue de tipo descriptiva, se analizaron las características de las estrategias de comunicación visual utilizadas en
las aplicaciones instruccionales Web, sus funciones, y aplicaciones, tal cual como se mostraron en la realidad, sin ningún
cambio. La población estuvo conformada por 61 aplicaciones
instruccionales Web, de acceso gratuito que se encontraron
a través del buscador de contenido www.google.com.ve en
español. La muestra fueron 40 aplicaciones instruccionales
Web, estudiándolas a través de una guía de observación de
80 ítemes. Se empleó como técnica metodológica el análisis
de contenido. Se concluye que las aplicaciones instruccionales Web analizadas, requieren hacer una mejor utilización de
estrategias de comunicación visual para su uso pedagógico y
lógico, por lo que se establecieron lineamientos de las estrategias de comunicación visual para enriquecer la Web.
This research aims to deliver the fundamental, theoretical and empirical background surrounding electronic reading. It is structured into five sections starting with a reading definition, reading process, and a comparison between reading from paper and from an electronic format. The fourth section discusses the variables that influence reading electronic texts. These variables are classified into three categories: the individual or user variables (age, gender, experience and educational level); the text layout variables (font type and size, line length, spaces between lines of text, colour); and the applied technology (hardware and software). In the fifth section, a summary of previous studies is given and a framework for these variables is suggested based on the previous surveys.
This study conducted a driving simulation experiment using an aural, visual, or multi-modality in-vehicle information system (IVIS) to investigate the performance and emergency response of 24 younger (age: M = 23.10 years, SD = 1.54) and 24 older (age: M = 69.21 years, SD = 3.05) drivers in simple and complex road conditions. All drivers assisted by aural or multi-modality IVIS made significantly fewer errors in response to hazard warnings than those who were assisted by the visual modality system. Specifically, drivers exhibited improved performance for response time and the total number of correct turns in complex driving conditions when using multi- or aural modality IVIS; this effect is particularly salient for older drivers. The IVIS improved the safety of older drivers more than that of their younger counterparts, despite their poor vehicle control and slow response time in hazard situations.
div> Since the 1980s, extensive research has been conducted comparing reading comprehension from printed text and computer screens. The conclusions, however, are not very consistent. As reading from computer screens requires a certain degree of individual technical skill, such variables should be objectively taken into consideration when conducting an experiment regarding the comparison between print and screen reading. This study analyses the difference in the level of understanding of the two presentational formats (text on printed pages and hypertext on computer screens) for people between 45−54 years of age (i.e. “middleaged” adults). In our experimental findings there were no significant differences between the levels of comprehension for print and screen presentations. With regard to individual differences in gender, age group and educational level, the findings are as follows: gender and education effects on print reading comprehension performance were significant, while those on screen reading comprehension performance were not. For middle-aged computer learners, the main effect of age group on both print and screen reading comprehension performance was insignificant. In contrast, linear texts of traditional paper-based material are better for middle-aged readers’ literal text comprehension, while hypertext is beneficial to their inferential text comprehension. It is also suggested that hypermedia could be used as a cognitive tool for improving middle-aged adults’ inferential abilities on reading comprehension, provided that they were trained adequately to use available computers.
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This research compared the influence of hard copy to electronic visual presentation of both written text and numerical data on memory. In Experiment 1, participants were block randomly assigned into one of three conditions (electronic copy, hard copy, control), studied a paragraph of written text, engaged in a distractor task, and responded to an objective measure of recall. In Experiment 2, following a similar procedure, participants were presented with numerical data after being block randomly assigned into one of six conditions, created by crossing two levels of presentation mode (electronic, hard copy) with three levels of presentation form (graph, table, paragraph). Across both studies, results revealed no significant difference in the impact of hard copy versus electronic copy on recall performance. While this finding is consistent with prior research involving non-numerical text, it extends the findings to previously unaddressed numerical information.
Hypertext structure and knowledge generalization
The comments of Verret (1975), confirmed by Johsua and Dupin (1993), attest the necessity of setting artificial learning situations in order to point out a fixed objective. These situations require notably a didactic transposition of knowledge, understood as process from knowledge subject to teaching subject : “des mécanismes généraux permettant le passage d’un objet de savoir à un objet d’enseignement “(Johsua and Dupin, 1993, p. 193). However, according to Chevallard and Johsua (1991) the text proceeds linearly, that is not a « natural path » for appropriation of knowledge. The impact of hypertextual structures on learning situations could bring indicators on this topic. Indeed, the hypertextual structures are interesting because of the cognitive flexibility (Spiro and al., on 1991) : several representations of the same object can move in different ways of thinking.
The success of the strategic management of e-learning depends to a considerable extent on student acceptance and use of such a virtual learning system. In this paper, the e-learning system (ELS) is presented and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used to explain user acceptance. We investigate and discuss the TAM results, involving a different technology, and used in a different context. In this field study, as an initial attempt to understand students' beliefs, attitudes and intentions and their inter-relationships, our results show that TAM performs well in explaining them.
This study examined the effects of two different hypermedia topologies (hierarchy and network) on users' navigation performance compared to a linear version of the same document. Eighteen participants were allowed 10 min to interact with as much of the document as they chose. After a 2 min rest, participants returned to the document to locate seven specific nodes. The mean times for locating specific nodes and the number of opened nodes were measured and counted and the participant's own evaluation of their performances was assessed by using a questionnaire. The results showed that participants performed significantly better with the network topology than with the hierarchical and linear topologies. Analysis of the questionnaire data confirmed these differences. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the design of hypermedia systems.
The present study examines age effects on map processing in light of the concurrent trends of population aging and pervasive use of in-vehicle digital maps. 14 older adults and 14 college students participated in a simulation experiment where two levels of map orientation (north-up vs. track-up) and three levels of map hierarchy (procedural vs. concise vs. complete) were manipulated. The results indicated that older adults were less accurate at route identification and searched greater distances to recover from a navigation error. Older adults were particularly vulnerable to mental rotation, which was evidenced by their deficit to match the younger counterparts even when the map was displayed with track-up orientation. Nevertheless, older adults were able to achieve comparable performance in recovery from navigation errors if a complete map was provided. Detailed implications for the design of an in-vehicle digital map that accommodates age differences are discussed.
In this chapter methods and tools for effective design and evaluation of web-based learning environments are presented. The main aspect addressed by this proposal is that of increasing findability of information in large web sites of learning information content by applying methods and tools based on the information foraging model. It is argued that through this approach, issues of learning content structure and usability may be also addressed. In particular, we propose four different ways to have information foraging theory informing the design. Directives, to ensure proper learning content structuring and cues with strong scent, tools based on LSA to automate the design and evaluation process, methods to construct archetypal learner’s profiles from user data and added functions to realise collaborative information filtering and personal information patch creation, thus allowing learners to organize their reference materials in a meaningful and constructive way
Online shopping has become quite popular since its first arrival on the internet. Although numerous studies have been performed to investigate various issues related to the internet store, some research issues relating to the spatial cognition of the elderly (the fastest growing internet group) when exploring a 3D virtual store still await further empirical investigation. The objective of this study was to examine how elderly users acquire spatial knowledge in an on-screen virtual store. Specifically, the impact of different types of landmarks on the acquisition of spatial knowledge was examined. In addition, in this study, goods-classification was seen as an implicit landmark associated with the acquisition of spatial knowledge. Therefore, it is worth observing the impact during the location of the goods and examining the combined effect with landmarks. The experimental results indicated that landmarks are important for the elderly as they attempt to locate goods within a 3D virtual store, no matter what types are used. However, landmarks are not the only resources for constructing spatial knowledge in a 3D virtual store; the classification of goods is also a good resource and may be more important than landmarks. In addition, the combined effect of goods-classification and landmarks in a 2D image would be best for the elderly in terms of acquired spatial cognition and the location of goods within a 3D virtual store.
“Usability” is considered to be inherent in human–computer interface because it expresses the relationship between end users and computer applications. In this paper, we conducted a study to examine the usability of human–computer interface for middle-aged learners in Taiwan. There are two phases contained in the study: (1) an elementary computer-training task, and (2) a usability analysis of human–computer interface. Making use of a questionnaire survey, correlation analysis, and the grey relational model, some user characteristics and learning behavior were derived. For example, regarding middle-aged learners, the usability of present mouse and monitor devices is preferable to that of the keyboard device and a Windows-based software interface. Educational level is the major factor influencing middle-aged learners’ use of computer interfaces. To unemployed middle-aged learners, more males than females were found to exhibit the phenomenon of computerphobia. The younger age learners show lower anxiety and hold more positive attitudes toward computer learning than the older-aged ones. Besides, the higher education learners hold much more positive expectation toward computer learning while the lower education learners pay more attention to their learning capability and deficiency.
The internet 3D virtual store has received wide attention from researchers and practitioners due to the fact that it is one
of the most killing applications customers can feel in a real shopping environment and possibly increase satisfaction. Though
numerous studies have been performed on various issues of the internet store, some research issues relating to the spatial
cognition of the elderly when immersed in a 3D virtual store still await further empirical investigation. The objective of
this study was to examine how elderly users acquire spatial cognition in an on-screen virtual store. Specifically, the impact
of presence and absence of goods-classification on the acquisition of route and survey knowledge was examined. Since landmarks
are associated with both route and survey knowledge, we expected to observe the impact of different types of landmarks with
both presence and absence of goods-classification. The experimental results indicated that the presence of goods-classification
was more important in constructing route knowledge than in absence, and the time of duration of goods-finding would be shorter.
However, we also found that the measuring scores of survey knowledge in presence of goods-classification were not significantly
larger than in absence. In addition, the measuring scores of route knowledge were the largest and the time of duration of
goods-finding was shorter while the presence of goods-classification combined with landmark in the type of alphanumeric +
2D picture + 3D object. Simultaneously, it could be found in absence of goods-classification. Therefore, while the goods-classification
is absent, the landmarks could be seemed as redundant codes for goods-finding in 3D virtual store.
As older adults make increasing use of computers and the Internet, the study of their unique needs and concerns with these technologies becomes increasingly relevant. This paper reviews the coverage of this topic within academic journals in various disciplines and attempts to provide a holistic view of the field. The main research findings to date are discussed within research themes, and suggestions for future research are offered.
With advances in information and communication technology, interactive multimedia learning systems are widely used to support teaching and learning. However, as human factors vary across users, they may prefer the design of interactive multimedia learning systems differently. To have a deep understanding of the influences of human factors, we apply a data mining approach to the investigation of users’ preferences in using interactive multimedia learning systems. More specifically, a clustering technique named K-modes is used to group users’ preferences. The results indicate that users’ preferences could be divided into four groups where computer experience is a key human factor that influences their preferences. Implications for the development of interactive multimedia learning systems are also discussed.
In this article, we propose that remote, internet-based studies of real users interacting with real websites on their own computers at a time and place convenient for them will provide a solid empirical base from which researchers can extrapolate reliable and valid web-design guidelines. After a discussion of research methods that have been used to support the principles that underlie web-design guidelines, we review some of the methodological issues associated with internet-based research and tools for supporting such work. Given advances in technology, the multitude of users online, and emerging technologies with new interfaces, the time has come for technical communication researchers to enter the arena of internet-based research and conduct remote experiments to support the web-design guidelines that they espouse.
The spatial metaphor can be used as a framework for explaining and designing tools that alleviate disorientation problems in hypertext systems. The approach based on this metaphor would involve developing tools analogous to navigational aids in physical environments and applying analogous concepts from research on human spatial processing and navigation in physical spaces. Research on hypertext browsing with respect to the spatial metaphor is reviewed and contrasted with the larger task context where users are trying to explore, learn, analyse, and summarize the contents of the hypertext space.
In 2 experiments, Ss studied an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump or an automobile braking system, along with concurrent oral narration of the steps in the process (concurrent group), successive presentation of animation and narration (by 4 different methods), animation alone, narration alone, or no instruction (control group). On retention tests, the control group performed more poorly than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. On problem-solving tests, the concurrent group performed better than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. These results are consistent with a dual-coding model in which retention requires the construction of representational connections and problem solving requires the construction of representational and referential connections. An instructional implication is that pictures and words are most effective when they occur contiguously in time or space. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 experiments, mechanically naive college students viewed an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump that included a verbal description given before (words-before-pictures) or during (words-with-pictures) the animation. The words-with-pictures group outperformed the words-before-pictures group on tests of creative problem solving that involved reasoning about how the pump works. In a follow-up experiment, students in the words-with-pictures group performed better on the problem-solving test than students who saw the animation without words (pictures only), heard the words without the animation (words only), or received no training (control). Results support a dual coding hypothesis (A. Paivio, 1990) that posits 2 kinds of connections: (1) representational connections between verbal stimuli and verbal representations and between visual stimuli and visual representations and (2) referential connections between visual and verbal representations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Dual coding theory (DCT) explains human behavior and experience in terms of dynamic associative processes that operate on a rich network of modality-specific verbal and nonverbal (or imagery) representations. We first describe the underlying premises of the theory and then show how the basic DCT mechanisms can be used to model diverse educational phenomena. The research demonstrates that concreteness, imagery, and verbal associative processes play major roles in various educational domains: the representation and comprehension of knowledge, learning and memory of school material, effective instruction, individual differences, achievement motivation and test anxiety, and the learning of motor skills. DCT also has important implications for the science and practice of educational psychology — specifically, for educational research and teacher education. We show not only that DCT provides a unified explanation for diverse topics in education, but also that its mechanistic framework accommodates theories cast in terms of strategies and other high-level psychological processes. Although much additional research needs to be done, the concrete models that DCT offers for the behavior and experience of students, teachers, and educational psychologists further our understanding of educational phenomena and strengthen related pedagogical practices.
Four experiments are reported which examined memory capacity and retrieval speed for pictures and for words. Single-trial learning tasks were employed throughout, with memory performance assessed by forced-choice recognition, recall measures or choice reaction-time tasks. The main experimental findings were: (1) memory capacity, as a function of the amount of material presented, follows a general power law with a characteristic exponent for each task; (2) pictorial material obeys this power law and shows an overall superiority to verbal material. The capacity of recognition memory for pictures is almost limitless, when measured under appropriate conditions; (3) when the recognition task is made harder by using more alternatives, memory capacity stays constant and the superiority of pictures is maintained; (4) picture memory also exceeds verbal memory in terms of verbal recall; comparable recognition/recall ratios are obtained for pictures, words and nonsense syllables; (5) verbal memory shows a higher retrieval speed than picture memory, as inferred from reaction-time measures. Both types of material obey a power law, when reaction-time is measured for various sizes of learning set, and both show very rapid rates of memory search.
From a consideration of the experimental results and other data it is concluded that the superiority of the pictorial mode in recognition and free recall learning tasks is well established and cannot be attributed to methodological artifact.
The present study examined the extent to which age had impacts on the performance of hypertext perusal as a function of text topologies. Ten subjects, five young (mean = 27.4) and five seniors (mean = 61.6), participated in an experiment where three levels of text linearity were manipulated. The data showed that both age and text topologies were significant sources of variability in hypertext browsing and navigation. On each text topology, older subjects browsed less text with a larger number of nodes repeatedly visited, which suggested more severe disorientation. With respect to navigation, a significant age x topology interaction indicated that the effect of age differences was mainly derived from the network topology, evidenced by the more extra links searched by the senior subject. Implications for the design of hypertext systems that accommodate the age effects are discussed.
In 2 experiments, mechanically naive college students viewed an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump that included a verbal description given before (words-before-pictures) or during (words-with-pictures) the animation. The words-with-pictures group outperformed the words-before-pictures group on tests of creative problem solving that involved reasoning about how the pump works. In a follow-up experiment, students in the words-with-pictures group performed better on the problem-solving test than students who saw the animation without words (pictures only), heard the words without the animation (words only), or received no training (control). Results support a dual-coding hypothesis (Paivio, 1990) that posits two kinds of connections: representational connections between verbal stimuli and verbal representations and between visual stimuli and visual representations and referential connections between visual and verbal representations.
The present study examined the effects of age and type of training on efficiency and preferences in a World Wide Web search activity. Older and younger participants received a hands-on Web navigation tutorial or a verbal description of available navigation tools. Participants then searched a 19-page Web site for the answers to nine questions. Older participants were able to complete most of the nine search tasks, but followed more links and scrolled more pages to find the required information than did younger adults. Factors in this inefficiency were patterns of returning to the home page while searching and revisiting previously viewed pages during a single task. Hands-on training was associated with increased use of the more efficient navigation tools. Older adults, especially those who received hands-on training, were more likely to use the `site map' and `index tabs' than were younger adults. Implications for training and Web site design are discussed.
How can students be helped to understand scientific explanations of cause-and-effect systems, such as how a pump works, how the human respiratory system works, or how lightning storms develop? This chapter reviews some encouraging evidence that multimedia learning environments can promote constructivist learning that enables problem-solving transfer. It begins with a description of a multimedia learning scenario, a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and a set of design principles that lead to constructivist learning. Then, results from more than 40 studies are reviewed. In combination, these studies explore the conditions under which multimedia environments promote problem-solving transfer of scientific and mathematical principles. The concluding section addresses the problem of how multimedia instructional messages can be designed to promote problem-solving transfer.
The pervasive use of computers in work settings implies that an increased number of workers, with varying levels of skills and abilities, will be performing computerbased tasks. This study investigated the impact of age, cognitive abilities, and computer experience on the performance of a real world data entry task. One hundred and ten subjects, ranging in age from 20 - 75 years, performed the task for nine hours following task training. The results indicated that abilities such as visuo-spatial skills, motor skills and processing speed had a significant impact on performance as did age and prior computer experience. With respect to age, the older participants completed less work than the younger and middle-aged subjects. Age differences in psychomotor skills and processing speed appeared to be important factors underlying age effects. In fact, the data indicated that after controlling for differences in these abilities age was no longer a significant predictor of work output. Further, after controlling for differences in work output the older people made fewer errors than the younger people. Overall the data suggest that older people will be at a disadvantage in the performance of computer-based data entry work to the extent to which speed of responding is emphasized. However, if speed of responding is not a critical element of performance they will be able to achieve comparable levels of performance to that of younger people.
This paper presents an empirical investigation of age and cognitive ability as predictors of computerized information retrieval. Upon the basis of age-related changes in cognitive ability, hypotheses were generated relating to the effects of database structure (linear, hierarchical, or network) and node selection method (explicit or embedded menu). In keeping with previous research in other areas of human-computer interaction, there was a significant main effect of age, with older subjects performing more slowly. However, interactive effects of ‘question block’ indicated that older subjects were at a particular disadvantage in the early stages of task performance. Age differences in processing speed and/or psychomotor skill appeared to be a particularly important factor. Whilst the effects of cognitive ability were generally weak, spatial memory and logical reasoning scores were negatively correlated with information retrieval response times. Although interactions were not significant, trends in the data for all dependent measures suggested that older subjects may be at a disdvantage when using a network structure.
Why do some people have much more difficulty than others in learning a computer-based skill? To answer this question, we observed first-time users of computers as they learned to use a computer text editor. In two experiments, older people had more trouble than younger people and those who scored low on a stanbdard test of Spatial Memory had greater difficulty than high scorers. These correlations were stable over several hours of practice and did not vary as a function of the type of terminal used or specific editing problems attempted. Correlations involving Age and Spatial Memory could not be explained by other characteristics such as amount of education, reasoning ability, or associative memory ability. Results like these that relate learning difficulty to specific characteristics of people ultimately may suggest ways to change computer interface design or training to accommodate a wider range of users.
Given the aging of the workforce and the general population, it is important to determine how best to train older adults to use computers. Generally, research has shown that training takes significantly more time for older adults compared with younger learners, and that older adults commit more errors in post-training evaluations. This paper reviews research demonstrating age differences in learning to use a computer. We also explore the effects of attitudes, anxiety, and cognitive abilities on computer use, as well as research on training novices to use computers. Finally, we discuss designing the human-computer interface for the advantage of older users.
Although the use of animated visuals is both common and popular amongCbi designers, the theoretical and empirical foundations for their use have not been firmly established. Animated visuals represent a subset of instructional visuals; for this reason, general conclusions from research on static visuals are thought to extend to animated visuals. The extent to which animated visual research represents elaborations or departures from static visual research is questioned, however. The purpose of this paper is to review current empirical evidence of the effectiveness of animated visuals in instruction. Tentative design recommendations resulting from this review are presented. Current applications of computer animations in instruction are discussed and a brief summary of static visuals research is also presented.
Users of hypertext systems require some form of navigation aid or ‘browser’. Typically these have been produced as schematic representations of the hypertext network. The advent of ‘virtual reality’ technology, and particularly less costly forms of this, offers new possibilities for hypertext navigation whereby information can be presented in the form of a virtual environment. Users can then move around the virtual world in much the same conceptual fashion as they move around the real world. Based upon an extensive review of hypertext navigation problems and the aiding systems proposed to deal with these, four different types of navigation aid have been built; these are schematic and spatial representations in two and three dimensions. Of particular interest is the 3D spatial representation, built as a virtual environment in Virtus Walkthrough; the proposition is that such a virtual world navigation aid will offer substantial usability advantages for hypertext databases.
As tools for multimedia and computer-based instruction (CBI) increase in sophistication, it becomes easier for instructional designers to incorporate a range of animations in instructional software. Designers, however, should ask whether animation has the potential to contribute to student learning before investing the resources in development. This paper addresses the viability of using animations in multimedia and CBI. The functions of animations are explored as well as issues related to surface structure and fidelity. The relationship between content structures and the use of animation in CBI is also discussed. Based on these characteristics and purposes, heuristics are provided to guide the use of animation in CBI. Implications of these heuristics are explored and suggestions are provided for future research.
Multimedia learning occurs when students build mental representations from words and pictures that are presented to them (e.g., printed text and illustrations or narration and animation). The promise of multimedia learning is that students can learn more deeply from well-designed multimedia messages consisting of words and pictures than from more traditional modes of communication involving words alone. This article explores a program of research aimed at determining (a) research-based principles for the design of multimedia explanations—which can be called methods, and (b) the extent to which methods are effective across different learning environments—which can be called media. A review of research on the design of multimedia explanations conducted in our lab at Santa Barbara shows (a) a multimedia effect—in which students learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone—in both book-based and computer-based environments, (b) a coherence effect—in which students learn more deeply when extraneous material is excluded rather than included—in both book-based and computer-based environments, (c) a spatial contiguity effect—in which students learn more deeply when printed words are placed near rather than far from corresponding pictures—in both book-based and computer-based environments, and (d) a personalization effect—in which students learn more deeply when words are presented in conversational rather than formal style—both in computer-based environments containing spoken words and those using printed words. Overall, our results provide four examples in which the same instructional design methods are effective across different media.
Although hypertext enables more control over document exploration for a larger amount of information, users traversing hypertext often experience disorientation arising from the complexity of text topologies. The navigational problem may impose severe difficulty on older users as aging has been shown detrimental to human spatial orientation. The present study intends to examine the effect of different text topologies on older users’ performance in hypertext perusal. Two commonly used text topologies, hierarchical and referential, were constructed with HTML. Twelve subjects whose ages ranged from 57 to 67 participated in an experiment where each of the two topological treatments received six subjects at random. The results showed that for older adults, hypertext with a hierarchical topology was superior to its referential counterpart in terms of browsing and navigation efficiency. The implications for design of hypertext systems/interface fit for the aged are discussed.
We present an approach to control information flow in object-oriented systems. The decision of whether an informatin flow is permitted or denied depends on both the authorizations specified on the objects and the process by which information is obtained ...
In this study we examined the effects of 3 hypertext topologies—hierarchical, nonlinear, and mixed (hierarchical structure with cross referential links)—on the navigation performance of participants with high and low prior knowledge of the text topic. After reading the text, participants used the document to find the answers to 10 questions. After a filled distraction period, participants returned to the document to answer 10 more questions. The results showed that participants in the mixed condition performed better than those in the other 2 conditions and that the performance of knowledgeable participants was superior to that of nonknowledgeable participants. These results are discussed in relation to the ways in which text structure interacts with background knowledge of the user in enhancing or impeding performance. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and implementation of hypertext systems for users with different levels of familiarity with the subject matter of the text.
In two experiments younger (18-25 years) and older (60-70 years) participants performed an information retrieval task in which they searched for the answers to questions in a hierarchical menu structure. Participants' movement speed, spatial ability, spatial memory, working memory capacity and reasoning speed were measured. Results showed older participants to be slower than younger participants on overall latencies on the information retrieval task. This slowing increases with each consecutive step in the menu structure. Regression analysis showed that movement speed, reasoning speed and spatial ability predicted the overall latencies accurately. Modelling the consecutive steps showed that latencies on the first selection are predicted by movement speed and reasoning speed. Memory and spatial measures are predictors for latencies on steps further into the menu structure only. This finding is consistent with increased slowing of older participants for later selections and suggests that deep menu structures are less suited for older users.
The present study examined the extent to which age had impacts on the performance of hypertext browsing and navigation as a function of text topology. Twenty senior adults and 20 younger adults (mean ages = 68.95 and 23.60 respectively) participated in an experiment where three levels of text linearity were manipulated. Results showed the older adult accessed fewer numbers of text nodes than the younger counterpart, which suggests that the aged appear at a disadvantage in browsing breadth. The older adult's less oriented browsing was evidenced by the larger number of nodes repeatedly visited, particularly when the network topology was perused. As for navigation, older people experienced greater disorientation given that they searched more links to locate the target node. This age difference was mainly derived from the disorientation occurring at the hybrid and network levels, with the hybrid condition resulting in the severest navigation confusion due to its mixed text structure. Implications for the design of hypertext that accommodates the age differences are discussed.
Memory change in the aged
- D F Hultsch
- C Hertzog
- R A Dixon
- B J Small
Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Dixon, R. A., & Small, B. J. (1998). Memory change in the aged. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The instructive animation
- Mayer
Hypertext for the aged
- Lin
Learning to use a text editor
- Gomez
Animations need narrations
- Mayer